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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Columbian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Columbian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-Columbian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Columbian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Colonial period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>20th and 21st centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography_and_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography_and_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Demography and distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demography_and_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Phonemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allophony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allophony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Allophony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allophony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Phonotactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology_and_syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology_and_syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology and syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology_and_syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology and syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology_and_syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_phenomena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_phenomena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Contact phenomena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_phenomena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Writing and literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_and_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writing and literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stylistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stylistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Stylistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stylistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dictionaries_of_Classical_Nahuatl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries_of_Classical_Nahuatl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries_of_Classical_Nahuatl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammars_of_Classical_Nahuatl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammars_of_Classical_Nahuatl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Grammars of Classical Nahuatl</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammars_of_Classical_Nahuatl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Modern dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nahuatl</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 103 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-103" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">103 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%93%E1%8B%8B%E1%89%B5%E1%88%8D" title="ናዋትል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ናዋትል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84" title="ناواتل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ناواتل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_n%C3%A1huatl" title="Idioma náhuatl – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma náhuatl" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1huatl" title="Náhuatl – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Náhuatl" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawa_aru" title="Nawa aru – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Nawa aru" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl_dili" title="Nahuatl dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nahuatl dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ناواتل دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ناواتل دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl-g%C3%AD" title="Nahuatl-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Nahuatl-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Астэкскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Астэкскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BB" title="Науатъл – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Науатъл" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahouatleg" title="Nahouatleg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Nahouatleg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A0huatl" title="Nàhuatl – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nàhuatl" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahwatleg" title="Nahwatleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Nahwatleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatlgiella" title="Nahuatlgiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Nahuatlgiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9higo_bizaad" title="Méhigo bizaad – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Méhigo bizaad" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl_(r%C4%9Bc)" title="Nahuatl (rěc) – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Nahuatl (rěc)" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%9D%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BB" title="Γλώσσα Νάουατλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα Νάουατλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1huatl" title="Náhuatl – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Náhuatl" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C5%ADatla_lingvo" title="Naŭatla lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Naŭatla lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luenga_n%C3%A1huatl" title="Luenga náhuatl – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Luenga náhuatl" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84" title="زبان ناواتل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان ناواتل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Nachu%C3%A1itlis" title="An Nachuáitlis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Nachuáitlis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl_(c%C3%A0nan)" title="Nahuatl (cànan) – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Nahuatl (cànan)" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_n%C3%A1huatl" title="Lingua náhuatl – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua náhuatl" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl-ng%C3%AE" title="Nahuatl-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Nahuatl-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EC%99%80%ED%8B%80%EC%96%B4" title="나와틀어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나와틀어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2" title="नावातल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नावातल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl_(r%C4%9B%C4%8D)" title="Nahuatl (rěč) – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Nahuatl (rěč)" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatlanski_jezici" title="Nahuatlanski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nahuatlanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Nahuatl" title="Bahasa Nahuatl – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nah%C3%BAatl" title="Nahúatl – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nahúatl" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_nahuatl" title="Lingua nahuatl – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9C" title="נאוואטל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נאוואטל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ნაუატლი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნაუატლი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Науатль – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Науатль" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinahuatl" title="Kinahuatl – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kinahuatl" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Науатль – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Науатль" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Астек тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Астек тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_nahuatl" title="Lingua nahuatl – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%99" title="ພາສານາວາເທິນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສານາວາເທິນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Navatlaca" title="Lingua Navatlaca – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Navatlaca" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navatlu_valoda" title="Navatlu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Navatlu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatli%C5%B3_kalba" title="Nahuatlių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nahuatlių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauatl" title="Nauatl – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Nauatl" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navatl_nyelv" title="Navatl nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Navatl nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ацтечки јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ацтечки јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_nahoatla" title="Fiteny nahoatla – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny nahoatla" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD" title="നവ്വാട്ടിൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നവ്വാട്ടിൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84" title="ناواتل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ناواتل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84" title="ناهواتل – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ناهواتل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Nahuatl" title="Bahasa Nahuatl – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatlahtolli" title="Nahuatlahtolli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Nahuatlahtolli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%AF%E3%83%88%E3%83%AB%E8%AA%9E" title="ナワトル語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナワトル語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atstek_tili" title="Atstek tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atstek tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9A" title="ਨਾਵਾਚ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਾਵਾਚ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84" title="ناہواتل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ناہواتل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%8D" title="ភាសាណាវ៉ាថ្ល៍ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាណាវ៉ាថ្ល៍" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_nahuatl" title="Język nahuatl – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_n%C3%A1uatle" title="Língua náuatle – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua náuatle" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_nahuatl" title="Limba nahuatl – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawa_simi" title="Nawa simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Nawa simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Астекские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Астекские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9E_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱱᱟᱦᱩᱣᱛᱚᱞ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱱᱟᱦᱩᱣᱛᱚᱞ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Nahuatlščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nahuatlščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Наватл (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Наватл (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatlanski_jezici" title="Nahuatlanski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nahuatlanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Nahuatl" title="Wikang Nahuatl – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="நாகவற் மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நாகவற் மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Нахуатль теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Нахуатль теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="ภาษานาวัตล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษานาวัตล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D2%B3%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D3%A3" title="Забони наҳуатлӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони наҳуатлӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahwati%CC%B1li_(a%CC%B1lyem)" title="Nahwati̱li (a̱lyem) – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Nahwati̱li (a̱lyem)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Науатль – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Науатль" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8B%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="ناۋاتل تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ناۋاتل تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngua_nahuatl" title="Łéngua nahuatl – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Łéngua nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Nahuatl" title="Tiếng Nahuatl – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawatl" title="Nawatl – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Nawatl" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%93%A6%E7%89%B9%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="纳瓦特尔语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="纳瓦特尔语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%82%A3%E8%8F%AF%E8%8C%A8%E6%96%87" title="那華茨文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="那華茨文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%E7%93%A6%E7%89%B9%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="納瓦特爾語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="納瓦特爾語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Nahuatl" title="Basa Nahuatl – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Basa Nahuatl" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q13300#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Uto-Aztecan language of Mexico</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #80bfff;">Nahuatl</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #80bfff;">Aztec, Mexicano</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #80bfff;"><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Nawatlahtolli</i></span>, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mexikatlahtolli</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mexkatl</i></span>, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mexikanoh</i></span>, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">masewaltlahtol</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png/200px-Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png/300px-Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png/400px-Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png 2x" data-file-width="4276" data-file-height="4266" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Nahua man from the <i><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Speech_scroll" title="Speech scroll">speech scrolls</a> indicate speech or song.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈnaːwat͡ɬ]</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">North America, Central America</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1.7 million in Mexico, smaller number of speakers among Nahua immigrant communities in the United States (2020 census)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan">Uto-Aztecan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Uto-Aztecan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Uto-Aztecan languages">Southern Uto-Aztecan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Nahuatl</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Nahuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Nahuan">Proto-Nahuan</a> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Peripheral_Nahuatl" title="Western Peripheral Nahuatl">Western Peripheral Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Peripheral_Nahuatl" title="Eastern Peripheral Nahuatl">Eastern Peripheral Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huasteca_Nahuatl" title="Huasteca Nahuatl">Huasteca Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Nahuatl_languages" title="Central Nahuatl languages">Central Nahuatl languages</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec script</a> <span class="nowrap">(until the 16th century)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #80bfff;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Mexico<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #80bfff;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=313">nah</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/nhe" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:nhe">nhe</a></code> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huasteca_Nahuatl" title="Huasteca Nahuatl">Huasteca Nahuatl</a></li><li><span class="nowrap">See <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/azte1234">azte1234</a></code>  Aztec</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg/320px-Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg/480px-Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg/640px-Nahuatl_precontact_and_modern.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="334" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Current (red) and historical (green) geographic extent of Nahuatl.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Nahuatl</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">English: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">NAH</span>-wah-təl</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Nahuatl pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[ˈnaːwat͡ɬ]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/1\/1e\/Nawatl.ogg\/Nawatl.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Nawatl.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Nawatl.ogg/Nawatl.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Nawatl.ogg" title="File:Nawatl.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Aztec</b>, or <b>Mexicano</b><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Uto-Aztecan language family">Uto-Aztecan language family</a>. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about <span class="nowrap">1.7 million</span> <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a>, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller populations <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language_in_the_United_States" title="Nahuatl language in the United States">in the United States</a>. </p><p>Nahuatl has been spoken in central Mexico since at least the seventh century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Suárez_1983:149_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suárez_1983:149-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the language of the <a href="/wiki/Mexica" title="Mexica">Mexica</a>, who dominated what is now central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican history</a>. During the centuries preceding the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a>, the Aztecs had expanded to incorporate a large part of central Mexico. Their influence caused the variety of Nahuatl spoken by the residents of <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> to become a <a href="/wiki/Prestige_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige language">prestige language</a> in Mesoamerica. </p><p>Following the Spanish conquest, Spanish colonists and missionaries introduced the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, and Nahuatl became a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>, grammars, works of poetry, administrative documents and <a href="/wiki/Aztec_codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec codices">codices</a> were written in it during the 16th and 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger198013_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger198013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan variety has been labeled <a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl" title="Classical Nahuatl">Classical Nahuatl</a>. It is among the most studied and best-documented <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages of the Americas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2002195_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2002195-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a> are spoken in scattered communities, mostly in rural areas throughout central Mexico and along the coastline. A smaller number of speakers exists in immigrant communities in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are considerable differences among varieties, and some are not <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a>. <a href="/wiki/Huasteca_Nahuatl" title="Huasteca Nahuatl">Huasteca Nahuatl</a>, with over one million speakers, is the most-spoken variety. All varieties have been subject to varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">influence</a> from Spanish. No modern Nahuan languages are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a> are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger1988_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger1988-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Mexico's <i><a href="/wiki/General_Law_of_Linguistic_Rights_of_the_Indigenous_Peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples">General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples</a></i>, promulgated in 2003,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nahuatl and the other 63 indigenous <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mexico" title="Languages of Mexico">languages of Mexico</a> are recognized as <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">lenguas nacionales</i></span> ('national languages') in the regions where they are spoken. They are given the same status as Spanish within their respective regions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nahuan languages exhibit a complex <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, or system of word formation, characterized by <a href="/wiki/Polysynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthesis">polysynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agglutination" title="Agglutination">agglutination</a>. This means that morphemes – words or fragments of words that each contain their own separate meaning – are often strung together to make longer complex words. </p><p>Through a very long period of development alongside other indigenous <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerican languages</a>, they have absorbed many influences, coming to form part of the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_language_area" title="Mesoamerican language area">Mesoamerican language area</a>. Many words from Nahuatl were absorbed into Spanish and, from there, were diffused into hundreds of other languages in the region. Most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico, which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English has also absorbed words of <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_from_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#Words_from_Nahuatl" class="mw-redirect" title="List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas">Nahuatl origin</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocado</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chayote" title="Chayote">chayote</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper"><i>chili</i></a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chipotle" title="Chipotle">chipotle</a></i>, <i>chocolate</i>, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah"><a href="/wiki/Atlatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlatl">atlatl</a></i></span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyote</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Axolotl" title="Axolotl">axolotl</a></i> and <i>tomato</i>. These words have since been adopted into dozens of languages around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The names of several countries, Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, derive from Nahuatl.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_(2001).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg/220px-Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg/330px-Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg/440px-Nahuatl_per_Kaufman_%282001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="282" /></a><figcaption>Tree diagram of the relation between the Nahuan languages and the rest of the Uto-Aztecan language family, based on the internal classification of Nahuan given by Terrence Kaufman<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman2001_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman2001-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>As a language label, the term <i>Nahuatl</i> encompasses a group of closely related languages or divergent dialects within the Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20245–6_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20245–6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mexican <span title="Spanish-language text"><span lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a></span></span> (Indigenous Languages Institute) recognizes 30 individual varieties within the "language group" labeled Nahuatl.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINALI200810–37_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINALI200810–37-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> recognizes 28 varieties with separate ISO codes.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes Nahuatl is also applied to the <a href="/wiki/Nawat_language" title="Nawat language">Nawat language</a> of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Regardless of whether <i>Nahuatl</i> is considered to refer to a dialect continuum or a group of separate languages, the varieties form a single branch within the Uto-Aztecan family, descended from a single <a href="/wiki/Proto-Nahuan_language" title="Proto-Nahuan language">Proto-Nahuan language</a>. Within Mexico, the question of whether to consider individual varieties to be languages or dialects of a single language is highly political.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen2013_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen2013-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the past, the branch of Uto-Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs has been called <i>Aztecan</i>. From the 1990s onward, the alternative designation <i>Nahuan</i> has been frequently used instead, especially in Spanish-language publications. The Nahuan (Aztecan) branch of Uto-Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions: General Aztec and Pochutec.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pochutec" class="mw-redirect" title="Pochutec">Pochutec</a> is a scantily attested language, which became extinct in the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoas1917_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoas1917-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnab1980_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnab1980-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and which Campbell and Langacker classify as being outside general Aztec. Other researchers have argued that Pochutec should be considered a divergent variant of the western periphery.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Nahuatl</i> denotes at least Classical Nahuatl, together with related modern languages spoken in Mexico. The inclusion of Pipil in this group is debated among linguists. Lyle Campbell classified Pipil as separate from the Nahuatl branch within general Aztecan,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1997_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell1997-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas dialectologists such as <a href="/wiki/Una_Canger" title="Una Canger">Una Canger</a>, Karen Dakin, <a href="/wiki/Yolanda_Lastra" title="Yolanda Lastra">Yolanda Lastra</a>, and Terrence Kaufman have preferred to include Pipil within the General Aztecan branch, citing close historical ties with the eastern peripheral dialects of General Aztec.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by <a href="#CITEREFCanger1980">Canger (1980)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFCanger1988">Canger (1988)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFLastra_de_Suárez1986">Lastra de Suárez (1986)</a>. Canger introduced the scheme of a Central grouping and two Peripheral groups, and Lastra confirmed this notion, differing in some details. <a href="#CITEREFCangerDakin1985">Canger & Dakin (1985)</a> demonstrated a basic split between Eastern and Western branches of Nahuan, considered to reflect the oldest division of the proto-Nahuan speech community. Canger originally considered the central dialect area to be an innovative subarea within the Western branch, but in 2011, she suggested that it arose as an urban <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné language</a> with features from both Western and Eastern dialect areas. <a href="#CITEREFCanger1988">Canger (1988)</a> tentatively included dialects of <a href="/wiki/La_Huasteca" class="mw-redirect" title="La Huasteca">La Huasteca</a> in the Central group, while <a href="#CITEREFLastra_de_Suárez1986">Lastra de Suárez (1986)</a> places them in the Eastern Periphery, which was followed by <a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman (2001)</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Nahuatl is the most commonly used name for the language in English, native speakers often refer to the language as <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mexicano</i></span>, or some cognate of the term <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mācēhualli</i></span>, meaning 'commoner'. The word <i>Nahuatl</i> is derived from the word <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">nāhuatlahtōlli</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[naːwat͡ɬaʔˈtoːliˀ]</a></span> ('clear language').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney2011xvii_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney2011xvii-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it dates to the early colonial period at least, it isn't used by all speakers and is new to many communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken. </p><p>The language was formerly called Aztec because it was spoken by the Central Mexican peoples known as <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Nahuatl pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[asˈteːkaḁ]</a></span>). Now, the term <i>Aztec</i> is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but linguists' traditional name of <i>Aztecan</i> for the branch of Uto-Aztecan that comprises Nahuatl, Pipil, and Pochutec is still in use (although some linguists prefer <i>Nahuan</i>). Since 1978, the term <i>General Aztec</i> has been adopted by linguists to refer to the languages of the Aztecan branch excluding the <a href="/wiki/Pochutec_language" title="Pochutec language">Pochutec language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2000385_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2000385-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nahuatl came to be identified with the politically dominant <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mēxihcah</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[meːˈʃiʔkaḁ]</a></span> ethnic group, and consequently the Nahuatl language has been called <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mēxihcacopa</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[meːʃiʔkaˈkopaˀ]</a></span> (literally 'in the manner of Mexicas')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1992116_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1992116-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mēxihcatlahtolli</i></span> 'Mexica language'. The language is now called <i>mexicano</i> by many of its native speakers, a term dating to the early colonial period and usually pronounced the Spanish way, with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</span> rather than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill198690–93_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill198690–93-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Nahuatl speakers refer to their language with a cognate derived from <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah"><a href="/w/index.php?title=M%C4%81c%C4%93hualli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mācēhualli (page does not exist)">mācēhualli</a></i></span>, the Nahuatl word for 'commoner'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen20247–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of that is the Nahuatl spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tetelcingo" title="Tetelcingo">Tetelcingo</a>, Morelos, whose speakers call their language <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">mösiehuali</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuggy_1979:page#_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuggy_1979:page#-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">Pipil people</a> of El Salvador refer to their language as <i><a href="/wiki/Nawat_language" title="Nawat language">Nāwat</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1985_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell_1985-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nahuas of <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a> call their language <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Mexicanero</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2001_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2001-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speakers of Nahuatl of the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec" title="Isthmus of Tehuantepec">Isthmus of Tehuantepec</a> call their language <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">mela'tajtol</i></span> ('the straight language').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth2002_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth2002-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Nahuatl" title="History of Nahuatl">History of Nahuatl</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Columbian_period">Pre-Columbian period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pre-Columbian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the issue of geographic origin, the consensus of linguists during the 20th century was that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in the southwestern United States.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence from archaeology and ethnohistory supports the thesis of a southward diffusion across the North American continent, specifically that speakers of early Nahuan languages migrated from <a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a> into central Mexico in several waves. But recently, the traditional assessment has been challenged by <a href="/wiki/Jane_H._Hill" title="Jane H. Hill">Jane H. Hill</a>, who proposes instead that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in central Mexico and spread northwards at a very early date.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2001_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2001-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis and the analyses of data that it rests upon have received serious criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerrillHardMabryFritz2010_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerrillHardMabryFritz2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmanJusteson2009_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmanJusteson2009-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proposed migration of speakers of the Proto-Nahuan language into the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_region" title="Mesoamerican region">Mesoamerican region</a> has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican chronology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustesonNormanCampbellKaufman1985passim_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustesonNormanCampbellKaufman1985passim-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman20013–6,_12_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman20013–6,_12-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmanJusteson2007_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmanJusteson2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before reaching the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Plateau" title="Mexican Plateau">Mexican Plateau</a>, pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Uto-Aztecan <a href="/wiki/Cora_language" title="Cora language">Cora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huichol_language" title="Huichol language">Huichol</a> of northwestern Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufman20016,_12_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufman20016,_12-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major political and cultural center of Mesoamerica in the Early Classic period was <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a>. The identity of the language(s) spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, with the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan being prominent in that enquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was presumed by scholars during the 19th and early 20th centuries that Teotihuacan had been founded by Nahuatl-speakers of, but later linguistic and archaeological research tended to disconfirm this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as <a href="/wiki/Totonacan" class="mw-redirect" title="Totonacan">Totonacan</a> identified as more likely.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Epigraphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigraphical">epigraphical</a> evidence has suggested the possibility that other Mesoamerican languages were borrowing vocabulary from Proto-Nahuan much earlier than previously thought.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Mesoamerica the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean" class="mw-redirect" title="Oto-Manguean">Oto-Manguean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque languages</a> had coexisted for millennia. This had given rise to the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_language_area" title="Mesoamerican language area">Mesoamerican language area</a>. After the Nahuas migrated into the Mesoamerican cultural zone, their language likely adopted various areal traits,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which included <a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">relational nouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> added to the vocabulary, and a distinctly Mesoamerican grammatical construction for indicating possession. </p><p>A language which was the ancestor of Pochutec split from Proto-Nahuan (or Proto-Aztecan) possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the bulk of Nahuan speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Suárez_1983:149_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suárez_1983:149-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus, reaching as far as Nicaragua. The critically endangered Pipil language of El Salvador is the only living descendant of the variety of Nahuatl once spoken south of present-day Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 7th century, Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico. The people of the <a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a> culture of <a href="/wiki/Tula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Tula (Mesoamerican site)">Tula</a>, which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a> and far beyond, with settlements including <a href="/wiki/Azcapotzalco" title="Azcapotzalco">Azcapotzalco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colhuacan_(altepetl)" title="Colhuacan (altepetl)">Colhuacan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a> rising to prominence. Nahua migrations into the region from the north continued into the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Postclassic period</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mexica" title="Mexica">Mexica</a> were among the latest groups to arrive in the Valley of Mexico; they settled on an island in the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Texcoco" title="Lake Texcoco">Lake Texcoco</a>, subjugated the surrounding tribes, and ultimately an empire named <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>. Mexica political and linguistic influence ultimately extended into Central America, and Nahuatl became a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> among merchants and elites in Mesoamerica, such as with the Maya <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_people" title="Kʼicheʼ people">Kʼicheʼ people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarmack1981142–143_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarmack1981142–143-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest urban center in Central America and one of the largest in the world at the time,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it attracted speakers of Nahuatl from diverse areas giving birth to an urban form of Nahuatl with traits from many dialects. This urbanized variety of Tenochtitlan is what came to be known as Classical Nahuatl as documented in colonial times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2011_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2011-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_period">Colonial period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Colonial period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519, Nahuatl was displaced as the dominant regional language, but remained important in Nahua communities under Spanish rule. Nahuatl was documented extensively during the colonial period in <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala" title="Tlaxcala">Tlaxcala</a>, Cuernavaca, Culhuacan, Coyoacan, Toluca and other locations in the Valley of Mexico and beyond. In the 1970s, scholars of Mesoamerican <a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">ethnohistory</a> have analyzed local-level texts in Nahuatl and other indigenous languages to gain insight into cultural change in the colonial era via linguistic changes, known at present as the <a href="/wiki/New_Philology_(Latin_America)" title="New Philology (Latin America)">New Philology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these texts have been translated and published either in part or in their entirety. The types of documentation include censuses, especially one early set from the Cuernavaca region,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinz1983_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinz1983-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECline1993_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECline1993-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> town council records from Tlaxcala,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhartBerdanAnderson1986_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartBerdanAnderson1986-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the testimony of Nahua individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClineLeón-Portilla1984_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineLeón-Portilla1984-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Spanish had made alliances with Nahuatl-speaking peoples—initially from <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcala</a>, and later the conquered Mexica of Tenochtitlan—Nahuatl continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest. Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> missions in what is now northern Mexico and the southwestern United States often included a <i><a href="/wiki/Barrio" title="Barrio">barrio</a></i> of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2000_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2000-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of <a href="/wiki/Saltillo" title="Saltillo">Saltillo</a> was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village, <a href="/wiki/San_Esteban_de_Nueva_Tlaxcala" title="San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala">San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala</a>, to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern <a href="/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala" title="Antigua Guatemala">Antigua Guatemala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew2012_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew2012-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-The_Florentine_Codex-_Life_in_Mesoamerica_IV.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="3593" /></a><figcaption>Page of Book IV from the <i><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i>, featuring Nahuatl written using the Latin alphabet</figcaption></figure> <p>As a part of their efforts, missionaries belonging to several <a href="/wiki/Religious_order" title="Religious order">religious orders</a>—principally <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> friars—introduced the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> to the Nahuas. Within twenty years of the Spanish arrival, texts in Nahuatl were being written using the Latin script.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simultaneously, schools were founded, such as the <a href="/wiki/Colegio_de_Santa_Cruz_de_Tlatelolco" title="Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco">Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco</a> in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Native Americans and priests. Missionaries authored of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammars</a> for indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Olmos" title="Andrés de Olmos">Andrés de Olmos</a>, was published in 1547–3 years before the first grammar in French, and 39 years before the first one in English. By 1645, four more had been published, authored respectively by <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Molina" title="Alonso de Molina">Alonso de Molina</a> (1571), <a href="/wiki/Antonio_del_Rinc%C3%B3n" title="Antonio del Rincón">Antonio del Rincón</a> (1595),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERincón1885_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERincón1885-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diego de Galdo Guzmán (1642), and <a href="/wiki/Horacio_Carochi" title="Horacio Carochi">Horacio Carochi</a> (1645).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarochi1645_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarochi1645-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carochi's is today considered the most important colonial-era grammar of Nahuatl.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger198014_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger198014-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carochi has been particularly important for scholars working in the New Philology, such that there is a 2001 English translation of Carochi's 1645 grammar by <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarochi2001_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarochi2001-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through contact with Spanish the Nahuatl language adopted many loan words, and as bilingualism intensified, changes in the grammatical structure of Nahuatl followed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1570, King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Suárez_1983:165_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suárez_1983:165-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Amerindians living as far south as Honduras and El Salvador. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language; a large corpus dating to the period remains extant. They include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic descriptions, and administrative documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl-speaking towns the language was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of <a href="#Literature">Nahuatl literature</a> was composed during this period, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i>, a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a>; <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%B3nica_Mexicayotl" title="Crónica Mexicayotl">Crónica Mexicayotl</a></i></span></i>, a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Alvarado_Tezoz%C3%B3moc" title="Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc">Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc</a>; <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Cantares_Mexicanos" title="Cantares Mexicanos">Cantares Mexicanos</a></i></span></i>, a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Molina" title="Alonso de Molina">Alonso de Molina</a>; and the <i><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah"><a href="/wiki/Huei_tlamahui%C3%A7oltica" title="Huei tlamahuiçoltica">Huei tlamahuiçoltica</a></i></span></i>, a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of <a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Our Lady of Guadalupe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983140–41_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983140–41-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez19835_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez19835-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible in practice, so they concentrated on Nahuatl. For a time, the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696, <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</a> issued a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. In 1770, another decree, calling for the elimination of the indigenous languages, did away with Classical Nahuatl as a literary language.<sup id="cite_ref-Suárez_1983:165_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suárez_1983:165-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a> in 1821, the Spanish courts admitted Nahuatl testimony and documentation as evidence in lawsuits, with court translators rendering it in Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClineAdamsMacLeod2000_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineAdamsMacLeod2000-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_and_21st_centuries">20th and 21st centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious in Mexico, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. While the total number of Nahuatl speakers increased over the 20th century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this figure had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States, some linguists are warning of impending <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">language death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERolstad2002''passim.''_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERolstad2002''passim.''-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists. According to the Mexican <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_and_Geography" title="National Institute of Statistics and Geography">National Institute of Statistics and Geography</a> (INEGI), as of 2005 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 Nahuatl-speakers who work receive no wages or less than the minimum wage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINEGI200563–73_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINEGI200563–73-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most of the 20th century, Mexican educational policy focused on the <a href="/wiki/Hispanicization" title="Hispanicization">Hispanicization</a> of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983167_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983167-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, one scholar estimated in 1983 that there was no group of Nahuatl speakers who had attained general literacy (that is, the ability to read the classical language) in Nahuatl,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983168_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983168-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Nahuatl speakers' literacy rate in Spanish also remained much lower than the national average.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINEGI200549_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINEGI200549-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nahuatl is spoken by over 1 million people, with approximately 10% of speakers being <a href="/wiki/Monolingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual">monolingual</a>. As a whole, Nahuatl is not considered to be an endangered language; however, during the late 20th century several Nahuatl dialects became extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1990s saw radical changes in Mexican policy concerning indigenous and linguistic rights. Developments of accords in the international rights arena<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> combined with domestic pressures (such as social and political agitation by the <a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">Zapatista Army of National Liberation</a> and indigenous social movements) led to legislative reforms and the creation of decentralized government agencies like the <a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_the_Development_of_Indigenous_Peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples">National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples</a> (CDI) and the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a> (INALI) with responsibilities for the promotion and protection of indigenous communities and languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPellicerCifuentesHerrera2006132–137_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPellicerCifuentesHerrera2006132–137-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In particular, the federal <i><a href="/wiki/Ley_General_de_Derechos_Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADsticos_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas">Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas</a></i> ['General Law on the Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples', promulgated 13 March 2003] recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as <a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">national languages</a> and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life. In Article 11, it grants access to compulsory <a href="/wiki/Intercultural_bilingual_education" title="Intercultural bilingual education">intercultural bilingual education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, progress towards institutionalizing Nahuatl and securing linguistic rights for its speakers has been slow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography_and_distribution">Demography and distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Demography and distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahua_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahua peoples">Nahua peoples</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;"> <caption>Nahuatl speakers over 5 years of age in the ten states with most speakers (<a href="/wiki/Censo_General_de_Poblaci%C3%B3n_y_Vivienda_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000">2000 census data</a>). Absolute and relative numbers. Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state. <a href="#CITEREFINEGI2005">INEGI 2005</a>, p. 4 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Region </th> <th scope="col">Totals </th> <th scope="col">Percentages </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Federal_District_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal District (Mexico)">Federal District</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">37,450 </td> <td style="text-align:right">0.44% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">136,681 </td> <td style="text-align:right">4.44% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Hidalgo_(state)" title="Hidalgo (state)">Hidalgo</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">221,684 </td> <td style="text-align:right">9.92% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Mexico" title="State of Mexico">State of Mexico</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">55,802 </td> <td style="text-align:right">0.43% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Morelos" title="Morelos">Morelos</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">18,656 </td> <td style="text-align:right">1.20% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Oaxaca" title="Oaxaca">Oaxaca</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">10,979 </td> <td style="text-align:right">0.32% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">Puebla</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">416,968 </td> <td style="text-align:right">8.21% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/San_Luis_Potos%C3%AD" title="San Luis Potosí">San Luis Potosí</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">138,523 </td> <td style="text-align:right">6.02% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala" title="Tlaxcala">Tlaxcala</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">23,737 </td> <td style="text-align:right">2.47% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> </th> <td style="text-align:right">338,324 </td> <td style="text-align:right">4.90% </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Rest of Mexico </th> <td style="text-align:right">50,132 </td> <td style="text-align:right">0.10% </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom" style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"> <th scope="row">Total </th> <td style="text-align:right">1,448,937 </td> <td style="text-align:right">1.49% </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg/220px-Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg/330px-Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg/440px-Nahuatl_map_labeled.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary distribution of Nahuatl speakers in Mexico</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, a spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a> are spoken in scattered areas stretching from the northern state of <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a> in the southeast. Pipil,<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1985_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell_1985-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers. According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil. Numbers may range anywhere from "perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIRIN2004_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIRIN2004-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the 2000 census by INEGI, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45 million people, some 198,000 (14.9%) of whom are monolingual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINEGI200535_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINEGI200535-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many more female than male monolinguals, and women represent nearly two-thirds of the total number. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest rates of monolingual Nahuatl speakers relative to the total Nahuatl speaking population, at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. For most other states the percentage of monolinguals among the speakers is less than 5%. This means that in most states more than 95% of the Nahuatl speaking population are bilingual in Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINEGI2005_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEINEGI2005-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one study, how often Nahuatl is used is linked to community well-being, partly because it is tied to positive emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of <a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">Puebla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hidalgo_(state)" title="Hidalgo (state)">Hidalgo</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Luis_Potos%C3%AD" title="San Luis Potosí">San Luis Potosí</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>. Significant populations are also found in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Mexico" title="State of Mexico">State of Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morelos" title="Morelos">Morelos</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Federal_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Federal District">Federal District</a>, with smaller communities in <a href="/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n" title="Michoacán">Michoacán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a>. Nahuatl became extinct in the states of <a href="/wiki/Jalisco" title="Jalisco">Jalisco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colima" title="Colima">Colima</a> during the 20th century. As a result of internal migration within the country, Nahuatl speaking communities exist in all states in Mexico. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of small <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language_in_the_United_States" title="Nahuatl language in the United States">Nahuatl speaking communities in the United States</a>, particularly in California, New York, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlores_Farfán2002229_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlores_Farfán2002229-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nahuan languages are defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages#Proto-Uto-Aztecan" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan protolanguage</a> (PUA). The table below shows the <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phonemic</a> inventory of Classical Nahuatl as an example of a typical Nahuan language. In some dialects, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ɬ/</span> phoneme, which was common in Classical Nahuatl, has changed into either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, as in <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_Nahuatl" title="Isthmus Nahuatl">Isthmus Nahuatl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexicanero_language" title="Mexicanero language">Mexicanero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pipil_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipil language">Pipil</a>, or into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, as in <a href="/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n_Nahuatl" title="Michoacán Nahuatl">Michoacán Nahuatl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESischo1979''passim''_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESischo1979''passim''-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate, as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Tetelcingo_Nahuatl" title="Tetelcingo Nahuatl">Tetelcingo Nahuatl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuggy_1979:page#_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuggy_1979:page#-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have developed a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a>, such as Nahuatl of Oapan, <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmith1989_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmith1989-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many modern dialects have also borrowed phonemes from Spanish, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɸ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Flores_Farfán_1999_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flores_Farfán_1999-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonemes">Phonemes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Classical Nahuatl consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> </th> <th scope="row">plain </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labialized</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">Continuant</a> </th> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>)* </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Classical Nahuatl vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th>long</th> <th>short</th> <th>long</th> <th>short</th> <th>long</th> <th>short </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul><li>* The glottal phoneme, called the <i><a href="/wiki/Saltillo_(linguistics)" title="Saltillo (linguistics)">saltillo</a></i>, occurs only after vowels. In many modern dialects it is realized as a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>, but in others, as in Classical Nahuatl, it is a glottal stop <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPury-Toumi1980_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPury-Toumi1980-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In many Nahuatl dialects vowel length contrast is vague, and in others it has become lost entirely. The dialect spoken in Tetelcingo (nhg) developed the vowel length into a difference in quality:<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="4" scope="colgroup">Long vowels </th> <th colspan="4" scope="colgroup">Short vowels </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Classical Nahuatl </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Tetelcingo dialect </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i̯e/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allophony">Allophony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Allophony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most varieties have relatively simple patterns of <a href="/wiki/Allophony" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophony">allophony</a>. In many dialects, the voiced consonants are devoiced in word-final position and in consonant clusters: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> devoices to a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palato-alveolar_sibilant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant">palato-alveolar sibilant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199216_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199216-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> devoices to a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">glottal fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> or to a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labialized_velar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless labialized velar approximant">labialized velar approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʍ]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> devoices to a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_and_alveolar_lateral_fricatives" title="Voiceless dental and alveolar lateral fricatives">fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬ]</span>. In some dialects, the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>. Some dialects have productive <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonants">voiceless consonants</a> into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The <a href="/wiki/Nasals" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasals">nasals</a> are normally <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">assimilated</a> to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">voiceless alveolar lateral affricate</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɬ]</span> is assimilated after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> and pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199226_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199226-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Phonotactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consonant clusters occur only word-medially and over syllable boundaries. Some <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> have two alternating forms: one with a vowel <i>i</i> to prevent consonant clusters and one without it. For example, the absolutive <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> has the variant forms <i>-tli</i> (used after consonants) and <i>-tl</i> (used after vowels).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199219–22_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199219–22-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern varieties, however, have formed complex clusters from vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most Nahuatl dialects have stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. In Mexicanero from Durango, many unstressed syllables have disappeared from words, and the placement of syllable stress has become phonemic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger200129_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger200129-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology_and_syntax">Morphology and syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Morphology and syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical Nahuatl grammar</a></div> <p>The Nahuatl languages are <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthetic">polysynthetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a>, making extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. Various prefixes and suffixes can be added to a <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> to form very long words—individual Nahuatl words can constitute an entire sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1999_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1999-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> shows how the verb is marked for <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">patient</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>, and indirect object: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ni-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mits-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teː-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">someone-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tla-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">something-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">makiː</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-lti</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-s</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ni- mits- teː- tla- makiː -lti -s</p><p style="display: none;">I- you- someone- something- give -CAUS -FUT</p><p style="clear: left;">"I shall make somebody give something to you"<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nahuatl noun has a relatively complex structure. The only obligatory inflections are for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> (singular and plural) and possession (whether the noun is possessed, as is indicated by a prefix meaning 'my', 'your', etc.). Nahuatl has neither <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animate</a> and inanimate nouns. In Classical Nahuatl the animacy distinction manifested with respect to pluralization, as only animate nouns could take a plural form, and all inanimate nouns were uncountable (as the words <i>bread</i> and <i>money</i> are uncountable in English). Now, many speakers do not maintain this distinction and all nouns may take the plural inflection.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1980_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1980-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One dialect, that of the Eastern Huasteca, has a distinction between two different plural suffixes for animate and inanimate nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimball1990_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimball1990-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most varieties of Nahuatl, nouns in the unpossessed singular form generally take an absolutive suffix. The most common forms of the absolutive are <i>-tl</i> after vowels, <i>-tli</i> after consonants other than <i>l</i>, and <i>-li</i> after <i>l</i>. Nouns that take the plural usually form the plural by adding one of the plural absolutive suffixes -<i>tin</i> or -<i>meh</i>, but some plural forms are irregular or formed by <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>. Some nouns have competing plural forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199227–28_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199227–28-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p>Singular noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kojo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">coyote</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-tl</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">kojo -tl</p><p style="display: none;">coyote -ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"coyote" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Plural animate noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kojo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">coyote</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-meʔ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">kojo -meʔ</p><p style="display: none;">coyote -PL</p><p style="clear: left;">"coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Plural animate noun with reduplication: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">/koː~kojo-ʔ/</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>~coyote-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">/koː~kojo-ʔ/</p><p style="display: none;">PL~coyote-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">"coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. The absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects, possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. Possessed plural nouns take the ending <i>-<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/waːn/</span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199288–89_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199288–89-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Absolutive noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-li</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">kal -li</p><p style="display: none;">house -ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"house" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Possessed noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">no-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><p style="display: none;">no- kal</p><p style="display: none;">my- house</p><p style="clear: left;">"my house" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Possessed plural: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">no-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">-waːn</p><p style="margin: 0px;">-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">no- kal -waːn</p><p style="display: none;">my- house -PL</p><p style="clear: left;">"my houses" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Nahuatl does not have <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a> but uses what is sometimes called a <a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">relational noun</a> to describe spatial (and other) relations. These <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> cannot appear alone but must occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postpositions</a><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or locative suffixes.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some ways these locative constructions resemble and can be thought of as locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated <a href="/wiki/Prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositions">prepositions</a> from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1977''passim''_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1977''passim''-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Uses of relational noun/postposition/locative <i>-pan</i> with a possessive prefix: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">no-pan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-in/on</p></div><p style="display: none;">no-pan</p><p style="display: none;">my-in/on</p><p style="clear: left;">"in/on me" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iː-pan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">its-in/on</p></div><p style="display: none;">iː-pan</p><p style="display: none;">its-in/on</p><p style="clear: left;">"in/on it" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iː-pan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">its-in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal-li</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="absolutive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">iː-pan kal-li</p><p style="display: none;">its-in house-ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"in the house" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Use with a preceding noun stem: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal-pan</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house-in</p></div><p style="display: none;">kal-pan</p><p style="display: none;">house-in</p><p style="clear: left;">"in the house" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stems or combining a nominal stem with an adjectival or verbal stem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1999''passim''_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1999''passim''-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons, both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus-Mecayapan_Nahuatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuatl">Isthmus-Mecayapan</a> variety, there has come to be a distinction between <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">inclusive</a> ("us, including you") and exclusive ("us, but not you") forms of the first person plural:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth2002_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth2002-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>First person plural pronoun in Classical Nahuatl: </p> <ul><li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tewaːntin</span></i> 'we'</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>First person plural pronouns in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuat: </p> <ul><li><i>nejamēn</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nehameːn]</span>) 'We, but not you' (= me & them)</li> <li><i>tejamēn</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tehameːn]</span>) 'We along with you' (= me & you & them)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth200235_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth200235-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Non-honorific forms: </p> <ul><li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtewaːtl</span></i> "you sg."</li> <li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ameˈwaːnt͡sin</span></i> "you pl."</li> <li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈyewatl</span></i> "he/she/it"</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Honorific forms </p> <ul><li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">teˈwaːt͡sin</span></i> "you sg. honorific"</li> <li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">amewaːnˈt͡sit͡sin</span></i> "you pl. honorific"</li> <li><i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">yeˈwaːt͡sin</span></i> "he/she honorific"</li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nahuatl has a <a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">vigesimal</a> (base-20) numbering system. The base values are <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cempōhualli</i></span> (1 × 20), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">centzontli</i></span> (1 × 400), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cenxiquipilli</i></span> (1 × 8,000), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cempōhualxiquipilli</i></span> (1 × 20 × 8,000 = 160,000), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">centzonxiquipilli</i></span> (1 × 400 × 8,000 = 3,200,000) and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cempōhualtzonxiquipilli</i></span> (1 × 20 × 400 × 8,000 = 64,000,000). The <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ce(n/m)</i></span> prefix at the beginning means 'one' (as in 'one hundred' and 'one thousand') and is replaced with the corresponding number to get the names of other multiples of the power. For example, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ome</i></span> (2) × <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">pōhualli</i></span> (20) = <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ompōhualli</i></span> (40), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ome</i></span> (2) × <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzontli</i></span> (400) = <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ontzontli</i></span> (800). The <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">-li</i></span> in <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">pōhual<b>li</b></i></span> (and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">xiquipil<b>li</b></i></span>) and the <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">-tli</i></span> in <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzon<b>tli</b></i></span> are grammatical noun suffixes that are appended only at the end of the word; thus <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">pōhualli</i></span>, <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzontli</i></span> and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">xiquipilli</i></span> compound together as <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">pōhualtzonxiquipilli</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003307–313_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003307–313-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomas1902866,_882–885_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1902866,_882–885-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects for many grammatical categories. The verb is composed of a root, <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>. The prefixes indicate the person of the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, and person and number of the <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> and indirect object, whereas the suffixes indicate <a href="/wiki/Tense_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense (grammar)">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspect_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspect (grammar)">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mood_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood (grammar)">mood</a> and subject number.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez198361_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez198361-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish three tenses: present, past, and future, and two aspects: <a href="/wiki/Perfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective">perfective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfective">imperfective</a>. Some varieties add <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive</a> or habitual aspects. Many dialects distinguish at least the indicative and imperative moods, and some also have <a href="/wiki/Optative" class="mw-redirect" title="Optative">optative</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prohibitive_moods&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prohibitive moods (page does not exist)">prohibitive moods</a>. </p><p>Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the <a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">valency</a> of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">passive voice</a> (also sometimes defined as an impersonal voice<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger1996_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger1996-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the <a href="/wiki/Applicative_voice" title="Applicative voice">applicative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causative_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Causative voice">causative voices</a> are found in many modern dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez198381_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez198381-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots.<sup id="cite_ref-Suarez_1983:62_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suarez_1983:62-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ni-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kin-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">them-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tla-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">something-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kwa-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ltiː-</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">s-</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="future tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FUT</abbr>-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">neki</p><p style="margin: 0px;">want</p></div><p style="display: none;">ni- kin- tla- kwa- ltiː- s- neki</p><p style="display: none;">I- them- something- eat- CAUS- FUT- want</p><p style="clear: left;">"I want to feed them" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as "to go in order to" or "to come in order to", "go, do and return", "do while going", "do while coming", "do upon arrival", or "go around doing".<sup id="cite_ref-Suarez_1983:62_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suarez_1983:62-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1992207–210_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1992207–210-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special "honorific suffixes".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez197761_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez197761-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Familiar verbal form: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti-mo-tlaːlo-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-yourself-run-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ti-mo-tlaːlo-a</p><p style="display: none;">you-yourself-run-PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"you run" (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <p>Honorific verbal form: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti-mo-tlaːlo-tsino-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-yourself-run-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="honorific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HON</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ti-mo-tlaːlo-tsino-a</p><p style="display: none;">you-yourself-run-HON-PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"You run" (said with respect) (Classical Nahuatl)</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduplication">Reduplication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many varieties of Nahuatl have <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">productive</a> reduplication. By <a href="/wiki/Reduplicating" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduplicating">reduplicating</a> the first syllable of a <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tlaːkatl/</span> 'man' → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tlaːtlaːkah/</span> 'men', but also in some varieties to form <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">honorifics</a>, or for <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199227_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199227-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative meaning (i.e. expressing repetition), for example in Nahuatl of Tezcoco: </p> <ul><li>/<i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wetsi</span></i>/ 'he/she falls'</li> <li>/<i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">we:-wetsi</span></i>/ 'he/she falls several times'</li> <li>/<i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">weʔ-wetsi-ʔ</span></i>/ 'they fall (many people)'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeralta_Ramírez1991_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeralta_Ramírez1991-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some linguists have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a <a href="/wiki/Non-configurational_language" title="Non-configurational language">non-configurational language</a>, meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1996''passim.''_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1996''passim.''-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pharao_Hansen_2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nahuatl allows all possible orderings of the three basic sentence constituents. It is prolifically a <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-drop">pro-drop</a> language: it allows sentences with omission of all noun phrases or independent pronouns, not just of noun phrases or pronouns whose function is the sentence subject. In most varieties independent <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> are used only for emphasis. It allows certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pharao_Hansen_2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michel Launey argues that Classical Nahuatl had a verb-initial basic word order with extensive freedom for variation, which was then used to encode <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> functions such as <a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">focus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">topicality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199236–37_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199236–37-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same has been argued for some contemporary varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pharao_Hansen_2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">newal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">no-nobia</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my-fiancée</p></div><p style="display: none;">newal no-nobia</p><p style="display: none;">I my-fiancée</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>My</b> fiancée" (and not anyone else's) (Michoacán Nahuatl)<sup id="cite_ref-Sischo_1979:314_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sischo_1979:314-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>It has been argued, most prominently by the linguist Michel Launey, that Classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by "omnipredicativity", meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This interpretation aims to account for some of the language's peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example, the verbal form <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzahtzi</i></span> means 'he/she/it shouts', and with the second person prefix <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">titzahtzi</i></span> it means 'you shout'. Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">conētl</i></span> means not just 'child', but also 'it is a child', and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ticonētl</i></span> means 'you are a child'. This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation, which posits that all nouns are also predicates. According to this interpretation, a phrase such as <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzahtzi in conētl</i></span> should not be interpreted as meaning just 'the child screams' but, rather, 'it screams, (the one that) is a child'.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contact_phenomena">Contact phenomena</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Contact phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nearly 500 years of <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl%E2%80%93Spanish_contact" title="Nahuatl–Spanish contact">intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish</a>, combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_&_Jensen_2007_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_&_Jensen_2007-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties (Spanish loanwords in boldface): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>pero</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">but</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">āmo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">not</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tēch<b>entender</b>oa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">they-us-understand-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>lo</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>que</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">which</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tlen</p><p style="margin: 0px;">what</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tictoah</p><p style="margin: 0px;">we-it-say</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>en</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>mexicano</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Nahuatl</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>pero</b> āmo tēch<b>entender</b>oa <b>lo</b> <b>que</b> tlen tictoah <b>en</b> <b>mexicano</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">but not they-us-understand-PL that which what we-it-say in Nahuatl</p><p style="clear: left;">"But they don't understand what we say in Nahuatl" (Malinche Nahuatl)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986317_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986317-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>, probably under influence from Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl include the use of Spanish prepositions instead of native postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions.<sup id="cite_ref-Flores_Farfán_1999_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flores_Farfán_1999-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Canger_&_Jensen_2007_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_&_Jensen_2007-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1977_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1977-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following example, from Michoacán Nahuatl, the postposition -<i>ka</i> meaning 'with' appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti-ya</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti-k-wika</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you-it-carry</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ka</p><p style="margin: 0px;">with</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tel</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you</p></div><p style="display: none;">ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel</p><p style="display: none;">you-go you-it-carry with you</p><p style="clear: left;">"are you going to carry it with you?" (Michoacán Nahuatl)<sup id="cite_ref-Sischo_1979:314_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sischo_1979:314-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In this example from <a href="/wiki/Mexicanero" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexicanero">Mexicanero</a> Nahuatl, of <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a>, the original postposition/relational noun -<i>pin</i> 'in/on' is used as a preposition. Also, <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">porque</i></span>, a conjunction borrowed from Spanish, occurs in the sentence. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">amo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">not</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wel</p><p style="margin: 0px;">can</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kalaki-yá</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-enter-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pin</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kal</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">porke</p><p style="margin: 0px;">because</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʣakwa-tiká</p><p style="margin: 0px;">it-closed-was</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">im</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pwerta</p><p style="margin: 0px;">door</p></div><p style="display: none;">amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ʣakwa-tiká im pwerta</p><p style="display: none;">not can he-enter-PAST in house because it-closed-was the door</p><p style="clear: left;">"He couldn't enter the house because the door was closed" (Mexicanero Nahuat)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2001116_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2001116-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology that has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthetic">polysynthetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986249–340_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986249–340-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Words_of_Nahuatl_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Words of Nahuatl origin">Words of Nahuatl origin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahuatlismo" title="Nahuatlismo">Nahuatlismo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomatillo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tomatillo.jpg/200px-Tomatillo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tomatillo.jpg/300px-Tomatillo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Tomatillo.jpg/400px-Tomatillo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The Aztecs called (red) tomatoes <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">xitōmatl</i></span>, whereas the green <a href="/wiki/Tomatillo" title="Tomatillo">tomatillo</a> was called <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tōmatl</i></span>; the latter is the source for the English word <i>tomato</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many Nahuatl words have been <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowed</a> into the Spanish language, most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the Americas. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as <i>chocolate</i>, <i>tomato</i> and <i>avocado</i> have made their way into many other languages via Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaugen2009_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaugen2009-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For instance, in English, two of the most prominent are undoubtedly <i>chocolate</i><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>tomato</i> (from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tōmatl</i></span>). Other common words are <i><a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyote</a></i> (from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">coyōtl</i></span>), <i><a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocado</a></i> (from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">āhuacatl</i></span>) and <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper"><i>chile</i> or <i>chili</i></a> (from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">chilli</i></span>). The word <i><a href="/wiki/Chicle" title="Chicle">chicle</a></i> is also derived from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tzictli</i></span> 'sticky stuff, chicle'. Some other English words from Nahuatl are: <i><a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a></i> (from <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">aztēcatl</i></span>); <i><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cacao</a></i> (from Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cacahuatl</i></span> 'shell, rind');<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Ocelot" title="Ocelot">ocelot</a></i> (from <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ocēlotl</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl – so many in fact that entire dictionaries of <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">mexicanismos</i></span> (words particular to Mexican Spanish) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well known <a href="/wiki/Toponyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponyms">toponyms</a> also come from Nahuatl, including <i>Mexico</i> (from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Mēxihco</i></span>), <i>Guatemala</i> (from <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Cuauhtēmallān</i></span>), and <i>Nicaragua</i> (from <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Nicānāhuac</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cn 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_and_literature">Writing and literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Writing and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing">Writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_orthography" title="Nahuatl orthography">Nahuatl orthography</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aztec_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec writing">Aztec writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aztec_codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec codices">Aztec codices</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztecwriting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aztecwriting.jpg/100px-Aztecwriting.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aztecwriting.jpg/150px-Aztecwriting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aztecwriting.jpg/200px-Aztecwriting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="1272" /></a><figcaption>The place names <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Mapachtepec</i></span> ('Raccoon Hill'), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Mazatlan</i></span> ('Deer Place') and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Huitztlan</i></span> ('Thorn Place') written in the Aztec writing system, from the <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Mendoza" title="Codex Mendoza">Codex Mendoza</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally, Pre-Columbian Aztec writing has not been considered a true writing system, since it did not represent the full vocabulary of a spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the Old World or the <a href="/wiki/Maya_Script" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya Script">Maya Script</a> did. Therefore, generally Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told. The elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for memorizing texts, which include genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists. Three kinds of signs were used in the system: pictures used as <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonics</a> (which do not represent particular words), <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a> which represent whole words (instead of <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>), and logograms used only for their sound values (i.e. according to the <a href="/wiki/Rebus" title="Rebus">rebus</a> principle).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992327–329_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992327–329-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, epigrapher <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Lacadena" title="Alfonso Lacadena">Alfonso Lacadena</a> has argued that by the eve of the Spanish invasion, one school of Nahua scribes, those of Tetzcoco, had developed a fully <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic script">syllabic script</a> which could represent spoken language phonetically in the same way that the <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacadena2008_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacadena2008-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other epigraphers have questioned the claim, arguing that although the syllabicity was clearly extant in some early colonial manuscripts (hardly any pre-Columbian manuscripts have survived), this could be interpreted as a local innovation inspired by Spanish literacy rather than a continuation of a pre-Columbian practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2009_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2009-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish introduced the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992330–335_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992330–335-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Horacio_Carochi" title="Horacio Carochi">Horacio Carochi</a>, building on the insights of another Jesuit in <a href="/wiki/Antonio_del_Rincon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio del Rincon">Antonio del Rincon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith-Stark2005_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith-Stark2005-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carochi's orthography used two different diacritics: a <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a> to represent long vowels and a <a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave</a> for the <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">saltillo</i></span>, and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2014148_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2014148-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1985xii_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1985xii-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png/220px-Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png/330px-Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png/440px-Mexikatlahtoltlahkwilolli.png 2x" data-file-width="4725" data-file-height="7087" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated Nahuatl alphabet</figcaption></figure> <p>When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the <a href="/wiki/Americanist_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanist transcription">Americanist transcription</a> system. With the establishment of Mexico's <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a> in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include: </p> <ul><li>whether to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> with <i>c</i> and <i>qu</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʷ/</span> with <i>cu</i> and <i>uc</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> with <i>c</i> and <i>z</i>, or <i>s</i>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> with <i>hu</i> and <i>uh</i>, or <i>u</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>how to write the <a href="/wiki/Saltillo_(linguistics)" title="Saltillo (linguistics)"><i>saltillo</i></a> phoneme (in some dialects pronounced as a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span> and in others as an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span>), which has been spelled with <i>j</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>ꞌ</i> (apostrophe), or a grave accent on the preceding vowel, but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>whether and how to represent vowel length, e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In 2018, Nahua peoples from 16 states in the country began collaborating with <a href="/wiki/INALI" class="mw-redirect" title="INALI">INALI</a> creating a new modern orthography called <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">Yankwiktlahkwilolli</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> designed to be the standardized orthography of Nahuatl in the coming years.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern writing has much greater use in the modern variants than in the classic variant, since the texts, documents and literary works of the time usually use the Jesuit one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright_Carr2016_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright_Carr2016-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Nahuatl Orthographies<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen202466_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen202466-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Analytic/Hasler/Aztec Congress </th> <th>Carochi/Andrews </th> <th>SEP/SIL </th> <th>Carochi/Launey </th> <th>Colonial </th> <th>Intuitive </th></tr> <tr> <td>w </td> <td>hu-/-uh </td> <td>u </td> <td>hu-/-uh </td> <td>hu, uh, o, u </td> <td>gua/guo/güe/ güi, -uh, u </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td>qui/que, ca/co </td> <td>k, qui/que/ca/co </td> <td>qui/que, ca/co </td> <td>qui/que, ca/co </td> <td>k, qu </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td>ci/ce/za/zo </td> <td>s </td> <td>ci/ce/za/zo </td> <td>ci/ce/za/zo, ç </td> <td>s, z, c </td></tr> <tr> <td>h/' </td> <td>h </td> <td>j, ' </td> <td>é, ê </td> <td>- </td> <td>j, h </td></tr> <tr> <td>x </td> <td>x </td> <td>x </td> <td>x </td> <td>x, s </td> <td>x, sh </td></tr> <tr> <td>- </td> <td>ē </td> <td>ee/- </td> <td>ē </td> <td>- </td> <td>- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></div> <p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">indigenous languages of the Americas</a>, the extensive corpus of surviving literature in Nahuatl dating as far back as the 16th century may be considered unique.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2002300_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2002300-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. Preconquest Nahua had a distinction between <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tlahtolli</i></span> 'speech' and second <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">cuicatl</i></span> 'song', akin to the distinction between prose and poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nahuatl <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tlahtolli</i></span> prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah"><a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">altepetl</a></i></span> (local polity) and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from <a href="/wiki/Chalco_(alt%C3%A9petl)" title="Chalco (altépetl)">Chalco</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Chimalpahin" title="Chimalpahin">Chimalpahin</a>, from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tlaxcala" title="History of Tlaxcala">Tlaxcala</a> by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Mu%C3%B1oz_Camargo" title="Diego Muñoz Camargo">Diego Muñoz Camargo</a>, from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Alvarado_Tezozomoc" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc">Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc</a> and those of Texcoco by <a href="/wiki/Fernando_de_Alva_Cort%C3%A9s_Ixtlilxochitl" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl">Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl</a>. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cuauhtitlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuauhtitlan">Cuauhtitlan</a> annals and the <a href="/wiki/Anales_de_Tlatelolco" title="Anales de Tlatelolco">Anales de Tlatelolco</a>. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the "Legend of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Suns" title="Five Suns">Five Suns</a>", the Aztec <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> recounted in <i>Codex Chimalpopoca</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1998_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1998-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i>, authored in the mid-16th century by the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a> and a number of Nahua speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This work is like a dragnet to bring to light all the words of this language with their exact and metaphorical meanings, and all their ways of speaking, and most of their practices good and evil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahagún1950–1982part_I:47_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahagún1950–1982part_I:47-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Nahuatl poetry is principally preserved in two sources: the <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Cantares_Mexicanos" title="Cantares Mexicanos">Cantares Mexicanos</a></i></span></i> and the <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Romances_de_los_se%C3%B1ores_de_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Romances de los señores de Nueva España">Romances de los señores de Nueva España</a></i></span></i>, both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, <a href="/wiki/Nezahualcoyotl_(tlatoani)" title="Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)">Nezahualcoyotl</a>. Karttunen and Lockhart identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">icnocuicatl</i></span> ('sad song'), the <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">xopancuicatl</i></span> ('song of spring'), <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">melahuaccuicatl</i></span> ('plain song') and <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">yaocuicatl</i></span> ('song of war'), each with distinct stylistic traits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512–20_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512–20-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stylistics">Stylistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Stylistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Aztecs distinguished between at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners (<span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">macehuallahtolli</i></span>) and the language of the nobility (<span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">tecpillahtolli</i></span>). The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of <a href="/wiki/Parallelism_(rhetoric)" title="Parallelism (rhetoric)">parallelism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBright1990''passim.''_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBright1990''passim.''-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereby the orator structured their speech in <a href="/wiki/Couplet" title="Couplet">couplets</a> consisting of two parallel phrases. For example: </p> <ul><li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ye maca timiquican</i></span></li> <li>'May we not die'</li> <li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">ye maca tipolihuican</i></span></li> <li>'May we not perish'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBright1990440_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBright1990440-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as <i><a href="/wiki/Difrasismo" title="Difrasismo">difrasismo</a></i>, in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, many of which are explicated by Sahagún in the <i>Florentine Codex</i> and by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Olmos" title="Andrés de Olmos">Andrés de Olmos</a> in his <i>Arte</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmos1993_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlmos1993-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">difrasismos</i></span> include:<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">in xochitl, in cuicatl</i></span></li> <li>'The flower, the song' – meaning 'poetry'</li> <li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli</i></span></li> <li>'the tail, the wing' – meaning 'the common people'</li> <li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">in toptli, in petlacalli</i></span></li> <li>'the chest, the box' – meaning 'something secret'</li> <li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">in yollohtli, in eztli</i></span></li> <li>'the heart, the blood' – meaning 'cacao'</li> <li><span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">in iztlactli, in tencualactli</i></span></li> <li>'the drool, the spittle' – meaning 'lies'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vocabulario_manual_de_las_lenguas_castellana_y_mexicana" title="Vocabulario manual de las lenguas castellana y mexicana">Vocabulario manual de las lenguas castellana y mexicana</a></i> – a Spanish–Nahuatl dictionary</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vocabulario_triling%C3%BCe" title="Vocabulario trilingüe">Vocabulario trilingüe</a></i> – dictionary of Spanish, Latin, and Nahuatl</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-3"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl" title="Classical Nahuatl">Classical Nahuatl</a> word <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">nāhuatl</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Noun_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun stem">noun stem</a> <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">nāhua</i></span> + <a href="/wiki/Absolutive" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolutive">absolutive</a> <span title="Nahuatl languages collective text"><i lang="nah">-tl</i></span>) is thought to mean 'a good, clear sound'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003578,_364,_398_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003578,_364,_398-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This language name has several spellings, among them <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">náhuatl</i></span> (the standard in Spanish),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Naoatl</i>, <i>Nauatl</i>, <i>Nahuatl</i>, and <i>Nawatl</i>. In a <a href="/wiki/Back-formation" title="Back-formation">back-formation</a> from the name of the language, the ethnic group of Nahuatl speakers are called <i>Nahua</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">By the provisions of Article IV: <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Las lenguas indígenas...y el español son lenguas nacionales...y tienen la misma validez en su territorio, localización y contexto en que se hablen.</i></span> ("The indigenous languages ... and Spanish are national languages ... and have the same validity in their territory, location and context in which they are spoken.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger2000">Canger 2000</a>, p. 385: "General Aztec is a generally accepted term referring to the most shallow common stage, reconstructed for all present-day Nahuatl varieties; it does not include the Pochutec dialect."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such as the 1996 adoption at a world linguistics conference in Barcelona of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Linguistic_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights">Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights</a>, a declaration which "became a general reference point for the evolution and discussion of linguistic rights in Mexico" <a href="#CITEREFPellicerCifuentesHerrera2006">Pellicer, Cifuentes & Herrera 2006</a>, p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSischo1979">Sischo 1979</a>, p. 312 and <a href="#CITEREFCanger2000">Canger 2000</a> for a brief description of these phenomena in Michoacán and Durango Nahuatl, respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All examples given in this section and these subsections are from <a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, pp. 61–63 unless otherwise noted. Glosses have been standardized.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The words <i>pero</i>, <i>entender</i>, <i>lo que</i>, and <i>en</i> are all from Spanish. The use of the suffix -oa on a Spanish infinitive like <i>entender</i>, enabling the use of other Nahuatl verbal affixes, is standard. The sequence <i>lo que tlen</i> combines Spanish <i>lo que</i> 'what' with Nahuatl <i>tlen</i> (also meaning 'what') to mean (what else) 'what'. <i>en</i> is a preposition and heads a prepositional phrase; traditionally Nahuatl had postpositions or relational nouns rather than prepositions. The stem <i>mexihka</i>, related to the name <i>mexihko</i>, 'Mexico', is of Nahuatl origin, but the suffix <i>-ano</i> is from Spanish, and it is probable that the whole word <i>mexicano</i> is a re-borrowing from Spanish back into Nahuatl.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While there is no real doubt that the word <i>chocolate</i> comes from Nahuatl, the commonly given Nahuatl etymology <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃokolaːtl/</span> 'bitter water' no longer seems to be tenable. <a href="#CITEREFDakinWichmann2000">Dakin & Wichmann 2000</a> suggest the correct etymology to be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃikolaːtl/</span> – a word found in several modern Nahuatl dialects.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Mexica used the word for the <a href="/wiki/Kaqchikel_people" title="Kaqchikel people">Kaqchikel</a> capital <a href="/wiki/Iximche" title="Iximche">Iximche</a> in central Guatemala, but the word was extended to the entire zone in colonial times; see <a href="#CITEREFCarmack1981">Carmack 1981</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sic.cultura.gob.mx/ficha.php?table=frpintangible&table_id=701">"Mexikatlahtolli/Nawatlahtolli (náhuatl)"</a>. <i>Secretaría de Cultura/Sistema de Información Cultural</i> (in Spanish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Secretar%C3%ADa+de+Cultura%2FSistema+de+Informaci%C3%B3n+Cultural&rft.atitle=Mexikatlahtolli%2FNawatlahtolli+%28n%C3%A1huatl%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsic.cultura.gob.mx%2Fficha.php%3Ftable%3Dfrpintangible%26table_id%3D701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/hipertexto/todas_lenguas.htm">Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020</a> INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611011220/http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf">"General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish). 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<a href="#CITEREFPasztory1993">Pasztory 1993</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbell1997">Campbell 1997</a>, p. 161; <a href="#CITEREFJustesonNormanCampbellKaufman1985">Justeson et al. 1985</a>; <a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a>, pp. 3–6, 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDakinWichmann2000">Dakin & Wichmann 2000</a>; <a href="#CITEREFMacri2005">Macri 2005</a>; <a href="#CITEREFMacriLooper2003">Macri & Looper 2003</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCowgill2003">Cowgill 2003</a>, p. 335; <a href="#CITEREFPasztory1993">Pasztory 1993</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDakin1994">Dakin 1994</a>; <a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFowler1985">Fowler 1985</a>, p. 38; <a href="#CITEREFKaufman2001">Kaufman 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarmack1981142–143-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarmack1981142–143_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarmack1981">Carmack 1981</a>, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2008" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Buddy (2008). <i>Conquistador: Hernán Cortés, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs</i>. Bantam. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38471-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38471-0"><bdi>978-0-553-38471-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquistador%3A+Hern%C3%A1n+Cort%C3%A9s%2C+King+Montezuma%2C+and+the+Last+Stand+of+the+Aztecs&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Bantam&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-553-38471-0&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Buddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2011-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2011_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger2011">Canger 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhart1992">Lockhart 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinz1983-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinz1983_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinz1983">Hinz 1983</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECline1993-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECline1993_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCline1993">Cline 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhartBerdanAnderson1986-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhartBerdanAnderson1986_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhartBerdanAnderson1986">Lockhart, Berdan & Anderson 1986</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineLeón-Portilla1984-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClineLeón-Portilla1984_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClineLeón-Portilla1984">Cline & León-Portilla 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2000-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2000_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2000">Jackson 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFINAFED_(Instituto_Nacional_para_el_Federalismo_y_el_Desarrollo_Municipal)2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">INAFED (Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal) (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070520133556/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/coahuila/mpios/05030a.htm">"Saltillo, Coahuila"</a>. <i>Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México</i> (in Spanish) (online version at E-Local ed.). <a href="/wiki/INAFED" class="mw-redirect" title="INAFED">INAFED</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secretar%C3%ADa_de_Gobernaci%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretaría de Gobernación">Secretaría de Gobernación</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/coahuila/mpios/05030a.htm">the original</a> on 20 May 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saltillo%2C+Coahuila&rft.btitle=Enciclopedia+de+los+Municipios+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.edition=online+version+at+E-Local&rft.pub=INAFED%2C+Secretar%C3%ADa+de+Gobernaci%C3%B3n&rft.date=2005&rft.au=INAFED+%28Instituto+Nacional+para+el+Federalismo+y+el+Desarrollo+Municipal%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-local.gob.mx%2Fwork%2Ftemplates%2Fenciclo%2Fcoahuila%2Fmpios%2F05030a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span>. The Tlaxcaltec community remained legally separate until the 19th century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthew2012-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthew2012_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthew2012">Matthew 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhart1991">Lockhart 1991</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFLockhart1992">Lockhart 1992</a>, pp. 330–331</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERincón1885-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERincón1885_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRincón1885">Rincón 1885</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarochi1645-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarochi1645_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarochi1645">Carochi 1645</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger198014-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger198014_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger1980">Canger 1980</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarochi2001-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarochi2001_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarochi2001">Carochi 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlkoSullivan2013_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlkoSullivan2013">Olko & Sullivan 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suárez_1983:165-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suárez_1983:165_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suárez_1983:165_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983140–41-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983140–41_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, pp. 140–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez19835-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez19835_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClineAdamsMacLeod2000-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClineAdamsMacLeod2000_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClineAdamsMacLeod2000">Cline, Adams & MacLeod 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERolstad2002''passim.''-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERolstad2002''passim.''_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRolstad2002">Rolstad 2002</a>, p. <i>passim.</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEINEGI200563–73-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEINEGI200563–73_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFINEGI2005">INEGI 2005</a>, pp. 63–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983167-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983167_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1983168-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1983168_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080317120048/http://www.inali.gob.mx/ind-leyes.html">"Presentación de la Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos"</a>. <i>Difusión de INALI</i> (in Spanish). 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class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199219–22_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1992">Launey 1992</a>, pp. 19–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger200129-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger200129_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger2001">Canger 2001</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1999-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1999_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1999">Launey 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1980-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1980_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillHill1980">Hill & Hill 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimball1990-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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href="#CITEREFLauney1992">Launey 1992</a> Chapter 13 re classical Nahuatl</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez1977''passim''-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez1977''passim''_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1977">Suárez 1977</a>, pp. <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1999''passim''-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1999''passim''_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1999">Launey 1999</a>, p. <i>passim</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth200235-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolgemuth200235_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWolgemuth2002">Wolgemuth 2002</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003307–313-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrews2003307–313_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndrews2003">Andrews 2003</a>, pp. 307–313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1902866,_882–885-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomas1902866,_882–885_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomas1902">Thomas 1902</a>, pp. 866, 882–885.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez198361-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez198361_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger1996-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger1996_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger1996">Canger 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez198381-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez198381_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suarez_1983:62-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suarez_1983:62_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suarez_1983:62_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1983">Suárez 1983</a>, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney1992207–210-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney1992207–210_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1992">Launey 1992</a>, pp. 207–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuárez197761-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuárez197761_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuárez1977">Suárez 1977</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199227-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199227_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1992">Launey 1992</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeralta_Ramírez1991-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeralta_Ramírez1991_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeralta_Ramírez1991">Peralta Ramírez 1991</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1996''passim.''-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1996''passim.''_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaker1996">Baker 1996</a>, p. <i>passim.</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pharao_Hansen_2010-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pharao_Hansen_2010_125-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPharao_Hansen2010">Pharao Hansen 2010</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauney199236–37-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauney199236–37_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1992">Launey 1992</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sischo_1979:314-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sischo_1979:314_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sischo_1979:314_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSischo1979">Sischo 1979</a>, p. 314</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1994">Launey 1994</a>; <a href="#CITEREFAndrews2003">Andrews 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLauney1994">Launey 1994</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLauney1999">Launey 1999</a>, pp. 116–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canger_&_Jensen_2007-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_&_Jensen_2007_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_&_Jensen_2007_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCangerJensen2007">Canger & Jensen 2007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986317-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986317_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillHill1986">Hill & Hill 1986</a>, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillHill1986_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nahuatl+Dictionary%3A+Letter+N+Words+List&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vocabulario.com.mx%2Fnahuatl%2Fdiccionario_nahuatl_n.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etimologias.dechile.net/?Nicaragua">"Etymology of Nicaragua"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymology+of+Nicaragua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fetimologias.dechile.net%2F%3FNicaragua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mined.gob.ni/biblioteca/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Libro-Toponimia-Octubre-2022.pdf">"Nicaraguan place names"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicaraguan+place+names&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mined.gob.ni%2Fbiblioteca%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F02%2FLibro-Toponimia-Octubre-2022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992327–329-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992327–329_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhart1992">Lockhart 1992</a>, pp. 327–329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacadena2008-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacadena2008_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacadena2008">Lacadena 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2009-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittaker2009_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittaker2009">Whittaker 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockhart1992330–335-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockhart1992330–335_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhart1992">Lockhart 1992</a>, pp. 330–335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canger_2002:200–204-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canger_2002:200–204_149-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger2002">Canger 2002</a>, pp. 200–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith-Stark2005-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith-Stark2005_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith-Stark2005">Smith-Stark 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993">Whorf, Karttunen & Campbell 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2014148-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2014148_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDonough2014">McDonough 2014</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1985xii-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1985xii_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBierhorst1985">Bierhorst 1985</a>, p. xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gob.mx/inali/es/articulos/tlahkwiloltlanawatilli-normas-de-escritura?idiom=es">"Tlahkwiloltlanawatilli (Normas de escritura)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tlahkwiloltlanawatilli+%28Normas+de+escritura%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gob.mx%2Finali%2Fes%2Farticulos%2Ftlahkwiloltlanawatilli-normas-de-escritura%3Fidiom%3Des&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gob.mx/cultura/prensa/linguistas-y-especialistas-coinciden-en-la-importancia-de-normalizar-la-escritura-de-la-lengua-nahuatl?tab=">"Lingüistas y especialistas coinciden en la importancia de normalizar la escritura de la lengua náhuatl"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ling%C3%BCistas+y+especialistas+coinciden+en+la+importancia+de+normalizar+la+escritura+de+la+lengua+n%C3%A1huatl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gob.mx%2Fcultura%2Fprensa%2Flinguistas-y-especialistas-coinciden-en-la-importancia-de-normalizar-la-escritura-de-la-lengua-nahuatl%3Ftab%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://realin.upnvirtual.edu.mx/index.php/fonologia-y-alfabetos/nawatl-nahuatl-morelos">"Nawatl, mexkatl, mexicano (náhuatl)"</a>. 21 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nawatl%2C+mexkatl%2C+mexicano+%28n%C3%A1huatl%29&rft.date=2018-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frealin.upnvirtual.edu.mx%2Findex.php%2Ffonologia-y-alfabetos%2Fnawatl-nahuatl-morelos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright_Carr2016-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright_Carr2016_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright_Carr2016">Wright Carr 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen202466-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPharao_Hansen202466_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPharao_Hansen2024">Pharao Hansen 2024</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanger2002300-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanger2002300_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCanger2002">Canger 2002</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeón-Portilla1985">León-Portilla 1985</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarttunenLockhart1980_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKarttunenLockhart1980">Karttunen & Lockhart 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1998-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBierhorst1998_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBierhorst1998">Bierhorst 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wdl.org/es/item/10096/view/1/1/">"Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España por el fray Bernardino de Sahagún: el Códice Florentino – Visor – Biblioteca Digital Mundial"</a>. <i>www.wdl.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wdl.org&rft.atitle=Historia+general+de+las+cosas+de+Nueva+Espa%C3%B1a+por+el+fray+Bernardino+de+Sahag%C3%BAn%3A+el+C%C3%B3dice+Florentino+%E2%80%93+Visor+%E2%80%93+Biblioteca+Digital+Mundial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fes%2Fitem%2F10096%2Fview%2F1%2F1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESahagún1950–1982part_I:47-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahagún1950–1982part_I:47_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSahagún1950–1982">Sahagún 1950–1982</a>, pp. part I:47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512–20-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeón-Portilla198512–20_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeón-Portilla1985">León-Portilla 1985</a>, pp. 12–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBright1990''passim.''-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBright1990''passim.''_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBright1990">Bright 1990</a>, p. <i>passim.</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBright1990440-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBright1990440_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBright1990">Bright 1990</a>, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlmos1993-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlmos1993_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlmos1993">Olmos 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples given are from Sahagún 1950–82, vol. VI, ff. 202V-211V</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAguilar2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Aguilar, Andrés Ehecatl (2013). <i>Phonological description of Huasteca Nahuatl from Chicontepec, Veracruz</i> (Thesis). California State University, Northridge. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10211.2%2F3997">10211.2/3997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Phonological+description+of+Huasteca+Nahuatl+from+Chicontepec%2C+Veracruz&rft.inst=California+State+University%2C+Northridge&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10211.2%2F3997&rft.aulast=Aguilar&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9s+Ehecatl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmith1989" class="citation conference cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Amith, Jonathan D. (1989). <i>Acento en el nahuatl de Oapan</i>. Presentation to the Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas-UNAM (in Spanish). México D. F.: <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Acento+en+el+nahuatl+de+Oapan&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.+F.&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Amith&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2003" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, J. Richard (2003). <i>Introduction to Classical Nahuatl</i> (Rev. ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3452-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3452-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-3452-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Nahuatl&rft.place=Norman&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3452-9&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=J.+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Baker_(linguist)" title="Mark Baker (linguist)">Baker, Mark C.</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polysynthesispar0000bake"><i>The Polysynthesis Parameter</i></a></span>. Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509308-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509308-7"><bdi>978-0-19-509308-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polysynthesis+Parameter&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Oxford+Studies+in+Comparative+Syntax&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509308-7&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolysynthesispar0000bake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedell2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bedell, George (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languageinindia.com/nov2011/bedellnawatorugo.pdf">"The Nahuatl Language"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language in India</i>. <b>11</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Reitzels Boghandel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7421-254-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7421-254-6"><bdi>978-87-7421-254-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Five+Studies+Inspired+by+N%C3%A1huatl+Verbs+in+-oa&rft.series=Travaux+du+Cercle+Linguistique+de+Copenhague&rft.pub=The+Linguistic+Circle+of+Copenhagen%3B+distributed+by+C.A.+Reitzels+Boghandel&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-87-7421-254-6&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanger1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Una_Canger" title="Una Canger">Canger, Una</a> (1988). 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"Is there a passive in nahuatl". In Engberg-Pedersen, Elisabeth; et al. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/contentexpressio00engb"><i>Content, expression and structure: studies in Danish functional grammar</i></a></span>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/contentexpressio00engb/page/n17">1</a>–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-381-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-381-1"><bdi>978-1-55619-381-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+there+a+passive+in+nahuatl&rft.btitle=Content%2C+expression+and+structure%3A+studies+in+Danish+functional+grammar&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=1-15&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55619-381-1&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcontentexpressio00engb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanger2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Una_Canger" title="Una Canger">Canger, Una</a> (2000). 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"An interactive dictionary and text corpus". In Frawley, William; <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Munro" title="Pamela Munro">Munro, Pamela</a>; Hill, Kenneth C. (eds.). <i>Making dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">195–</span>218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22995-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22995-2"><bdi>978-0-520-22995-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+interactive+dictionary+and+text+corpus&rft.btitle=Making+dictionaries%3A+Preserving+Indigenous+Languages+of+the+Americas&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E195-%3C%2Fspan%3E218&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22995-2&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanger2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Una_Canger" title="Una Canger">Canger, Una</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/attachments/10258752/download_file?request_id=15724dc6b">"El nauatl urbano de Tlatelolco/Tenochtitlan, resultado de convergencia entre dialectos, con un esbozo brevísimo de la historia de los dialectos"</a>. <i>Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl</i>: <span class="nowrap">243–</span>258.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudios+de+Cultura+N%C3%A1huatl&rft.atitle=El+nauatl+urbano+de+Tlatelolco%2FTenochtitlan%2C+resultado+de+convergencia+entre+dialectos%2C+con+un+esbozo+brev%C3%ADsimo+de+la+historia+de+los+dialectos&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E243-%3C%2Fspan%3E258&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2Fattachments%2F10258752%2Fdownload_file%3Frequest_id%3D15724dc6b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCangerDakin1985" class="citation journal cs1">Canger, Una; Dakin, Karen (1985). "An inconspicuous basic split in Nahuatl". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>51</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">358–</span>361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465892">10.1086/465892</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143084964">143084964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=An+inconspicuous+basic+split+in+Nahuatl&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E358-%3C%2Fspan%3E361&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F465892&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143084964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rft.au=Dakin%2C+Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCangerJensen2007" class="citation book cs1">Canger, Una; Jensen, Anne (2007). "Grammatical borrowing in Nahuatl". In Matras, Yaron; Sakel, J. (eds.). <i>Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective Empirical Approaches to Language Typology</i>. Vol. 38. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">403–</span>418.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Grammatical+borrowing+in+Nahuatl&rft.btitle=Grammatical+Borrowing+in+Cross-Linguistic+Perspective+Empirical+Approaches+to+Language+Typology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E403-%3C%2Fspan%3E418&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Canger&rft.aufirst=Una&rft.au=Jensen%2C+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmack1981" class="citation book cs1">Carmack, Robert M. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quichemayasofuta0000carm"><i>The Quiché Mayas of Utatlán: The Evolution of a Highland Guatemala Kingdom</i></a>. Civilization of the American Indian. Vol. 155. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1546-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1546-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-1546-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quich%C3%A9+Mayas+of+Utatl%C3%A1n%3A+The+Evolution+of+a+Highland+Guatemala+Kingdom&rft.place=Norman&rft.series=Civilization+of+the+American+Indian&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-1546-7&rft.aulast=Carmack&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquichemayasofuta0000carm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarochi1645" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2"><a href="/wiki/Horacio_Carochi" title="Horacio Carochi">Carochi, Horacio</a> (1645). <a href="/wiki/Arte_de_la_lengua_mexicana_con_la_declaraci%C3%B3n_de_los_adverbios_della" title="Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaración de los adverbios della"><i>Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaracion de los adverbios della. Al Illustrisso. y Reuerendisso</i></a> (in Spanish and Nahuatl). Juan Ruyz. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7483654">7483654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arte+de+la+lengua+mexicana+con+la+declaracion+de+los+adverbios+della.+Al+Illustrisso.+y+Reuerendisso.&rft.pub=Juan+Ruyz&rft.date=1645&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7483654&rft.aulast=Carochi&rft.aufirst=Horacio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarochi2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horacio_Carochi" title="Horacio Carochi">Carochi, Horacio</a> (2001). <i>Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of Its Adverbs (1645), by Horacio Carochi</i>. Translated by Lockhart, James. Stanford and Los Angeles: Stanford University Press, UCLA Latin American Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4281-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4281-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-4281-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Mexican+Language%3A+With+an+Explanation+of+Its+Adverbs+%281645%29%2C+by+Horacio+Carochi&rft.place=Stanford+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press%2C+UCLA+Latin+American+Center&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4281-8&rft.aulast=Carochi&rft.aufirst=Horacio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCline1993" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Sarah, ed. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookoftributesea0000unse"><i>The Book of Tributes</i></a></span>. UCLA Latin American Center Nahuatl Studies Series. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-082-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-082-7"><bdi>978-0-87903-082-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Tributes&rft.pub=UCLA+Latin+American+Center+Nahuatl+Studies+Series&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87903-082-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbookoftributesea0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClineAdamsMacLeod2000" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Sarah; Adams, Richard E. W.; MacLeod, Murdo J., eds. (2000). "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico". <i>The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: Volume II, Mesoamerica, Part 2</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">187–</span>222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Native+Peoples+of+Colonial+Central+Mexico&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas%3A+Volume+II%2C+Mesoamerica%2C+Part+2.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E222&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClineLeón-Portilla1984" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Sarah; León-Portilla, Miguel, eds. (1984). <i>The Testaments of Culhuacan</i>. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-502-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-502-0"><bdi>978-0-87903-502-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Testaments+of+Culhuacan&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=UCLA+Latin+American+Center&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-87903-502-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowgill1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Cowgill" title="George Cowgill">Cowgill, George L.</a> (1992). "Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts". In <a href="/wiki/Janet_Catherine_Berlo" title="Janet Catherine Berlo">Berlo, Janet Catherine</a> (ed.). <i>Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988</i>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">231–</span>246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-205-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-205-3"><bdi>978-0-88402-205-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Teotihuacan+Glyphs+and+Imagery+in+the+Light+of+Some+Early+Colonial+Texts&rft.btitle=Art%2C+Ideology%2C+and+the+City+of+Teotihuacan%3A+A+Symposium+at+Dumbarton+Oaks%2C+8th+and+9th+October+1988&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-205-3&rft.aulast=Cowgill&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowgill2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Cowgill" title="George Cowgill">Cowgill, George L.</a> (2003). "Teotihuacan and Early Classic Interaction: A Perspective from Outside the Maya Region". In Braswell, Geoffrey E. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr00bras_314"><i>The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction</i></a></span>. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr00bras_314/page/n333">315</a>–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70587-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70587-6"><bdi>978-0-292-70587-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Teotihuacan+and+Early+Classic+Interaction%3A+A+Perspective+from+Outside+the+Maya+Region&rft.btitle=The+Maya+and+Teotihuacan%3A+Reinterpreting+Early+Classic+Interaction&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=315-336&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70587-6&rft.aulast=Cowgill&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmayateotihuacanr00bras_314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakin1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dakin, Karen (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6893686"><i>La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl</i></a> (in Spanish). México D .F.: <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-5802-92-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-5802-92-5"><bdi>978-968-5802-92-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+evoluci%C3%B3n+fonol%C3%B3gica+del+Proton%C3%A1huatl&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D+.F.&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico%2C+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Filol%C3%B3gicas&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-968-5802-92-5&rft.aulast=Dakin&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6893686&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakin1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dakin, Karen (1994). 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F.: <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-36-4055-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-36-4055-0"><bdi>978-968-36-4055-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=El+n%C3%A1huatl+en+el+yutoazteca+sure%C3%B1o%3A+algunas+isoglosas+gramaticales+y+fonol%C3%B3gicas&rft.btitle=Investigaciones+ling%C3%BC%C3%ADsticas+en+Mesoam%C3%A9rica&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.+F.&rft.series=Estudios+sobre+Lenguas+Americanas&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico%2C+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Filol%C3%B3gicas%2C+Seminario+de+Lenguas+Ind%C3%ADgenas&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-968-36-4055-0&rft.aulast=Dakin&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakinWichmann2000" class="citation journal cs1">Dakin, Karen; Wichmann, Søren (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080408235509/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~wichmann/CacaoChocolate.pdf">"Cacao and Chocolate: A Uto-Aztecan Perspective"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i>. <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536100111058">10.1017/S0956536100111058</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/88396015">88396015</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162616811">162616811</a>. 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Serie antropológica (in Spanish). Vol. 62. México, D .F.: <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-837-744-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-837-744-4"><bdi>978-968-837-744-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Las+%C3%A1reas+dialectales+del+n%C3%A1huatl+moderno&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico%2C+D+.F.&rft.series=Serie+antropol%C3%B3gica&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico%2C+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Antropol%C3%B3gicas&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-968-837-744-4&rft.aulast=Lastra+de+Su%C3%A1rez&rft.aufirst=Yolanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Launey, Michel (1979). <i>Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 1: Grammaire</i>. Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85802-107-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85802-107-9"><bdi>978-2-85802-107-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+%C3%A0+la+langue+et+%C3%A0+la+litt%C3%A9rature+azt%C3%A8ques%2C+vol.+1%3A+Grammaire&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=S%C3%A9rie+ethnolinguistique+am%C3%A9rindienne&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-2-85802-107-9&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2">Launey, Michel (1980). <i>Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 2: Littérature</i>. Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne (in French and Nahuatl). Paris: L'Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85802-155-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85802-155-0"><bdi>978-2-85802-155-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+%C3%A0+la+langue+et+%C3%A0+la+litt%C3%A9rature+azt%C3%A8ques%2C+vol.+2%3A+Litt%C3%A9rature&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=S%C3%A9rie+ethnolinguistique+am%C3%A9rindienne&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-2-85802-155-0&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Launey, Michel (1992). <i>Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura náhuatl</i> (in Spanish). México D. F.: <a href="/wiki/National_Autonomous_University_of_Mexico" title="National Autonomous University of Mexico">National Autonomous University of Mexico</a>, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-36-1944-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-36-1944-0"><bdi>978-968-36-1944-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducci%C3%B3n+a+la+lengua+y+a+la+literatura+n%C3%A1huatl&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.+F.&rft.pub=National+Autonomous+University+of+Mexico%2C+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Antropol%C3%B3gicas&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-968-36-1944-0&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Launey, Michel (1994). <i>Une grammaire omniprédicative: Essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique</i> (in French). Paris: <a href="/wiki/CNRS_Editions" class="mw-redirect" title="CNRS Editions">CNRS Editions</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-271-05072-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-271-05072-4"><bdi>978-2-271-05072-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+grammaire+omnipr%C3%A9dicative%3A+Essai+sur+la+morphosyntaxe+du+nahuatl+classique&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=CNRS+Editions&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-2-271-05072-4&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney1999" class="citation journal cs1">Launey, M. (1999). "Compound nouns vs. incorporation in classical Nahuatl". <i>STUF – Language Typology and Universals</i>. <b>52</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">347–</span>364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fstuf.1999.52.34.347">10.1524/stuf.1999.52.34.347</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170339984">170339984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=STUF+%E2%80%93+Language+Typology+and+Universals&rft.atitle=Compound+nouns+vs.+incorporation+in+classical+Nahuatl&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E347-%3C%2Fspan%3E364&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fstuf.1999.52.34.347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170339984%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauney2011" class="citation book cs1">Launey, Michel (2011). <i>An Introduction to Classical Nahuatl</i>. Translated by Mackay, Christopher. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73229-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73229-1"><bdi>978-0-521-73229-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Classical+Nahuatl&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-73229-1&rft.aulast=Launey&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeón-Portilla1978" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla" title="Miguel León-Portilla">León-Portilla, Miguel</a> (1978). <i>Los manifiestos en náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata</i> (in Spanish). Cuernavaca: <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4977935">4977935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Los+manifiestos+en+n%C3%A1huatl+de+Emiliano+Zapata.&rft.place=Cuernavaca&rft.pub=Universidad+Nacional+Aut%C3%B3noma+de+M%C3%A9xico%2C+Instituto+de+Investigaciones+Antropol%C3%B3gicas&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4977935&rft.aulast=Le%C3%B3n-Portilla&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeón-Portilla1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla" title="Miguel León-Portilla">León-Portilla, Miguel</a> (1985). "Nahuatl literature". In Edmonson, Munro S.; Andrews, Patricia A. (eds.). <i>Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 3: Literatures</i>. Victoria Reifler Bricker. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77577-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77577-0"><bdi>978-0-292-77577-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nahuatl+literature&rft.btitle=Supplement+to+the+Handbook+of+Middle+American+Indians%2C+Vol.+3%3A+Literatures&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77577-0&rft.aulast=Le%C3%B3n-Portilla&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockhart1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">Lockhart, James</a> (1991). <i>Nahuas and Spaniards: Postconquest Mexican History and Philology</i>. UCLA Latin American studies. Vol. 76. Stanford University Press and UCLA Latin American Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1953-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1953-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-1953-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nahuas+and+Spaniards%3A+Postconquest+Mexican+History+and+Philology&rft.series=UCLA+Latin+American+studies&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press+and+UCLA+Latin+American+Center&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1953-7&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockhart1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">Lockhart, James</a> (1992). <i>The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries</i>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1927-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1927-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-1927-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nahuas+After+the+Conquest%3A+A+Social+and+Cultural+History+of+the+Indians+of+Central+Mexico%2C+Sixteenth+Through+Eighteenth+Centuries&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1927-8&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockhartBerdanAnderson1986" class="citation book cs1">Lockhart, James; Berdan, Frances F.; Anderson, Arthur J. O. (1986). <i>The Tlaxcalan Actas: A Compendium of the Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala, 1545–1627</i>. University of Utah Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-253-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-253-5"><bdi>978-0-87480-253-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tlaxcalan+Actas%3A+A+Compendium+of+the+Records+of+the+Cabildo+of+Tlaxcala%2C+1545%E2%80%931627&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87480-253-5&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Berdan%2C+Frances+F.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Arthur+J.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacri2005" class="citation journal cs1">Macri, Martha J. (2005). "Nahua loan words from the early classic period: Words for cacao preparation on a Río Azul ceramic vessel". <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">321–</span>326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536105050200">10.1017/S0956536105050200</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/87656385">87656385</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162422341">162422341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Mesoamerica&rft.atitle=Nahua+loan+words+from+the+early+classic+period%3A+Words+for+cacao+preparation+on+a+R%C3%ADo+Azul+ceramic+vessel&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F87656385&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162422341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0956536105050200&rft.aulast=Macri&rft.aufirst=Martha+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacriLooper2003" class="citation journal cs1">Macri, Martha J.; Looper, Matthew G. 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(2012). <i>Memories of conquest: Becoming Mexicano in colonial Guatemala</i>. University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memories+of+conquest%3A+Becoming+Mexicano+in+colonial+Guatemala&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Matthew&rft.aufirst=Laura+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough2014" class="citation book cs1">McDonough, K. S. (2014). <i>The Learned Ones: Nahua Intellectuals in Postconquest Mexico</i>. 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2841871">"Reply to Hill and Brown: Maize and Uto-Aztecan cultural history"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>107</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">E35 –</span> <span class="nowrap">E36</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107E..35M">2010PNAS..107E..35M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1000923107">10.1073/pnas.1000923107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2841871">2841871</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Reply+to+Hill+and+Brown%3A+Maize+and+Uto-Aztecan+cultural+history&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE35+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EE36%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2841871%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1000923107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107E..35M&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rft.au=Hard%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Mabry%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Fritz%2C+G.+J.&rft.au=Adams%2C+K.+R.&rft.au=Roney%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Macwilliams%2C+A.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2841871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmos1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Olmos" title="Andrés de Olmos">Olmos, Fray Andrés de</a> (1993) [1547 MS.]. <a href="/wiki/Arte_para_aprender_la_lengua_mexicana" title="Arte para aprender la lengua mexicana"><i>Arte de la lengua mexicana: concluido en el Convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de la Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España, el 1<sup>o</sup>. de enero de 1547, 2 vols</i></a> (Facsimile edition of original MS.) (in Spanish). Ascensión León-Portilla and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla" title="Miguel León-Portilla">Miguel León-Portilla</a> (introd., transliteration, and notes). Madrid: Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7232-684-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-7232-684-2"><bdi>978-84-7232-684-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/165270583">165270583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arte+de+la+lengua+mexicana%3A+concluido+en+el+Convento+de+San+Andr%C3%A9s+de+Ueytlalpan%2C+en+la+provincia+de+la+Totonacapan+que+es+en+la+Nueva+Espa%C3%B1a%2C+el+1%3Csup%3Eo%3C%2Fsup%3E.+de+enero+de+1547%2C+2+vols.&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Ediciones+de+Cultura+Hisp%C3%A1nica%2C+Instituto+de+Cooperaci%C3%B3n+Iberoamericana&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F165270583&rft.isbn=978-84-7232-684-2&rft.aulast=Olmos&rft.aufirst=Fray+Andr%C3%A9s+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlkoSullivan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Olko, J.; Sullivan, J. (2013). "Empire, Colony, and Globalization. A Brief History of the Nahuatl Language". <i>Colloquia Humanistica</i> (2): <span class="nowrap">181–</span>216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Colloquia+Humanistica&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Colony%2C+and+Globalization.+A+Brief+History+of+the+Nahuatl+Language&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E181-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Olko&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasztory1993" class="citation book cs1">Pasztory, Esther (1993). "An Image Is Worth a Thousand Words: Teotihuacan and the Meanings of Style in Classic Mesoamerica". In Don Stephen Rice (ed.). <i>Latin American horizons: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 11th and 12th October 1986</i>. Washington D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks" title="Dumbarton Oaks">Dumbarton Oaks</a> Research Library and Collection, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. <span class="nowrap">113–</span>146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-207-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-207-7"><bdi>978-0-88402-207-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Image+Is+Worth+a+Thousand+Words%3A+Teotihuacan+and+the+Meanings+of+Style+in+Classic+Mesoamerica&rft.btitle=Latin+American+horizons%3A+a+symposium+at+Dumbarton+Oaks%2C+11th+and+12th+October+1986&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E113-%3C%2Fspan%3E146&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection%2C+Trustees+for+Harvard+University&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-207-7&rft.aulast=Pasztory&rft.aufirst=Esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellicerCifuentesHerrera2006" class="citation book cs1">Pellicer, Dora; Cifuentes, Bábara; Herrera, Carmen (2006). 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Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicanindigenou00hida/page/n138">127</a>–168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018597-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018597-3"><bdi>978-3-11-018597-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legislating+diversity+in+twenty-first+century+Mexico&rft.btitle=Mexican+Indigenous+Languages+at+the+Dawn+of+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Contributions+to+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.pages=127-168&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018597-3&rft.aulast=Pellicer&rft.aufirst=Dora&rft.au=Cifuentes%2C+B%C3%A1bara&rft.au=Herrera%2C+Carmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmexicanindigenou00hida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeralta_Ramírez1991" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Peralta Ramírez, Valentin (1991). 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The Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5174860">the original</a> on 9 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Nahuatl+in+the+Plural%3A+Dialectology+and+Activism+in+Mexico&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Pharao+Hansen&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F5174860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPharao_Hansen2024" class="citation book cs1">Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2024). <i>Nahuatl Nations: language revitalization and semiotic sovereignty in indigenous Mexico</i>. 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Don Diego Romano obispo de Tlaxcallan, y del consejo de su magestad, &c. En Mexico en casa de Pedro, Balli. 1595</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish) (Reprinted 1885 under the care of Antonio Peñafiel ed.). México D. F.: Oficina tip. de la Secretaría de fomento. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/162761360">162761360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arte+mexicana+compuesta+por+el+padre+Antonio+Del+Rinc%C3%B3n+de+la+compa%C3%B1ia+de+Jesus%3A+Dirigido+al+illustrissimo+y+reverendissimo+s.+Don+Diego+Romano+obispo+de+Tlaxcallan%2C+y+del+consejo+de+su+magestad%2C+%26c.+En+Mexico+en+casa+de+Pedro%2C+Balli.+1595&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.+F.&rft.edition=Reprinted+1885+under+the+care+of+Antonio+Pe%C3%B1afiel&rft.pub=Oficina+tip.+de+la+Secretar%C3%ADa+de+fomento&rft.date=1885&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F162761360&rft.aulast=Rinc%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Antonio+del&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstorage.lib.uchicago.edu%2Fpres%2F2005%2Fpres2005-033.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolstad2002" class="citation journal cs1">Rolstad, Kellie (2002). "Language death in Central Mexico: The decline of Spanish-Nahuatl bilingualism and the new bilingual maintenance programs". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bilingual_Review/La_revista_biling%C3%BCe" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bilingual Review/La revista bilingüe">The Bilingual Review/La revista bilingüe</a></i>. <b>26</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-5366">0094-5366</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25745734">25745734</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1084374">1084374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bilingual+Review%2FLa+revista+biling%C3%BCe&rft.atitle=Language+death+in+Central+Mexico%3A+The+decline+of+Spanish-Nahuatl+bilingualism+and+the+new+bilingual+maintenance+programs&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1084374&rft.issn=0094-5366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25745734%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rolstad&rft.aufirst=Kellie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahagún1950–1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Sahagún, Bernardino de</a> (1950–1982) [ca. 1540–85]. <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex"><i>Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols</i></a>. Vol. <span class="nowrap">I–</span>XII. <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Dibble" title="Charles E. Dibble">Charles E. Dibble</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._O._Anderson" title="Arthur J. O. Anderson">Arthur J. O. Anderson</a> (eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of <i>Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España</i> ed.). Santa Fe: <a href="/wiki/School_of_American_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="School of American Research">School of American Research</a> and the University of Utah Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-082-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-082-1"><bdi>978-0-87480-082-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/276351">276351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Florentine+Codex%3A+General+History+of+the+Things+of+New+Spain%2C+13+vols.&rft.place=Santa+Fe&rft.edition=translation+of+%27%27Historia+General+de+las+Cosas+de+la+Nueva+Espa%C3%B1a%27%27&rft.pub=School+of+American+Research+and+the+University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=1950%2F1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F276351&rft.isbn=978-0-87480-082-1&rft.aulast=Sahag%C3%BAn&rft.aufirst=Bernardino+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahagún1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Sahagún, Bernardino de</a> (1997) [ca.1558–61]. <a href="/wiki/Primeros_Memoriales" title="Primeros Memoriales"><i>Primeros Memoriales</i></a>. The Civilization of the American Indians Series vol. 200, part 2. Thelma D. Sullivan (English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with <a href="/wiki/H.B._Nicholson" class="mw-redirect" title="H.B. Nicholson">H.B. Nicholson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._O._Anderson" title="Arthur J. O. Anderson">Arthur J. O. Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Dibble" title="Charles E. Dibble">Charles E. Dibble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eloise_Qui%C3%B1ones_Keber" title="Eloise Quiñones Keber">Eloise Quiñones Keber</a>, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2909-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2909-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-2909-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primeros+Memoriales&rft.place=Norman&rft.series=The+Civilization+of+the+American+Indians+Series+vol.+200%2C+part+2&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2909-9&rft.aulast=Sahag%C3%BAn&rft.aufirst=Bernardino+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSischo1979" class="citation book cs1">Sischo, William R. (1979). "Michoacán Nahual". In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Langacker" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald W. Langacker">Langacker, Ronald W.</a> (ed.). <i>Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches</i>. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 56. Dallas: <a href="/wiki/Summer_Institute_of_Linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Summer Institute of Linguistics">Summer Institute of Linguistics</a> and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. <span class="nowrap">307–</span>380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88312-072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88312-072-9"><bdi>978-0-88312-072-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Michoac%C3%A1n+Nahual&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Uto-Aztecan+Grammar+2%3A+Modern+Aztec+Grammatical+Sketches&rft.place=Dallas&rft.series=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+Publications+in+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E307-%3C%2Fspan%3E380&rft.pub=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+and+the+University+of+Texas+at+Arlington&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-88312-072-9&rft.aulast=Sischo&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith-Stark2005" class="citation book cs1">Smith-Stark, T. C. (2005). "Phonological description in New Spain". In Zwartjes, O.; Altman, C. (eds.). <i>Missionary Linguistics II/Lingüística misionera II: Orthography and Phonology. Selected papers from the Second International Conference on Missionary Linguistics</i>. Vol. 109. John Benjamins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonological+description+in+New+Spain&rft.btitle=Missionary+Linguistics+II%2FLing%C3%BC%C3%ADstica+misionera+II%3A+Orthography+and+Phonology.+Selected+papers+from+the+Second+International+Conference+on+Missionary+Linguistics&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Smith-Stark&rft.aufirst=T.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuárez1977" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Suárez, Jorge A. (1977). "La influencia del español en la estructura gramatical del náhuatl". <i>Anuario de Letras. Revista de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras</i> (in Spanish). <b>15</b>: <span class="nowrap">115–</span>164. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0185-1373">0185-1373</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48341068">48341068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anuario+de+Letras.+Revista+de+la+Facultad+de+Filosof%C3%ADa+y+Letras&rft.atitle=La+influencia+del+espa%C3%B1ol+en+la+estructura+gramatical+del+n%C3%A1huatl&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E164&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48341068&rft.issn=0185-1373&rft.aulast=Su%C3%A1rez&rft.aufirst=Jorge+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuárez1983" class="citation book cs1">Suárez, Jorge A. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanindi0009suar"><i>The Mesoamerian Indian Languages</i></a>. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22834-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22834-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22834-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerian+Indian+Languages&rft.series=Cambridge+Language+Surveys&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22834-3&rft.aulast=Su%C3%A1rez&rft.aufirst=Jorge+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanindi0009suar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1988" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Thelma D. (1988). Miller, Wick R.; Karen Dakin (eds.). <i>Compendium of Náhuatl Grammar</i>. Translated by Sullivan, Thelma D.; Stiles, Neville (English translation of <i>Compendio de la gramática náhuatl</i> ed.). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-282-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-282-5"><bdi>978-0-87480-282-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+N%C3%A1huatl+Grammar&rft.place=Salt+Lake+City&rft.edition=English+translation+of+%27%27Compendio+de+la+gram%C3%A1tica+n%C3%A1huatl%27%27&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-87480-282-5&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Thelma+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1902" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Cyrus (1902). "Numeral systems of Mexico and Central America". <i>Nineteenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1897–1898</i>. Bureau of American Ethnology. pp. <span class="nowrap">853–</span>955. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10088%2F91700">10088/91700</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Numeral+systems+of+Mexico+and+Central+America&rft.btitle=Nineteenth+annual+report+of+the+Bureau+of+American+Ethnology%2C+1897%E2%80%931898&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E853-%3C%2Fspan%3E955&rft.pub=Bureau+of+American+Ethnology&rft.date=1902&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10088%2F91700&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Cyrus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuggy1979" class="citation book cs1">Tuggy, David H. (1979). "Tetelcingo Náhuatl". In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Langacker" title="Ronald Langacker">Ronald Langacker</a> (ed.). <i>Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches</i>. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 56. Dallas: <a href="/wiki/Summer_Institute_of_Linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Summer Institute of Linguistics">Summer Institute of Linguistics</a> and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88312-072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88312-072-9"><bdi>978-0-88312-072-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tetelcingo+N%C3%A1huatl&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Uto-Aztecan+Grammar+2%3A+Modern+Aztec+Grammatical+Sketches&rft.place=Dallas&rft.series=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+Publications+in+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E140&rft.pub=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+and+the+University+of+Texas+at+Arlington&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-88312-072-9&rft.aulast=Tuggy&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoegelinFlorence_M._VoegelinKenneth_L._Hale1962" class="citation book cs1">Voegelin, Charles F.; Florence M. 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210108230025/http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/whittakernahuatlwriting.pdf">"The Principles of Nahuatl Writing"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Göttinger Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft</i>. <b>16</b>: <span class="nowrap">47–</span>81. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/whittakernahuatlwriting.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=G%C3%B6ttinger+Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Sprachwissenschaft&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+Nahuatl+Writing&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhp.uoregon.edu%2Fdictionaries%2Fnahuatl%2Fwhittakernahuatlwriting.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhorfKarttunenCampbell1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Whorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Whorf">Whorf, Benjamin Lee</a>; Karttunen, Frances; Campbell, Lyle (1993). "Pitch Tone and the 'Saltillo' in Modern and Ancient Nahuatl". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_American_Linguistics" title="International Journal of American Linguistics">International Journal of American Linguistics</a></i>. <b>59</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">165–</span>223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466194">10.1086/466194</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1753556">1753556</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144639961">144639961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Pitch+Tone+and+the+%27Saltillo%27+in+Modern+and+Ancient+Nahuatl&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E223&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1753556&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144639961%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466194&rft.aulast=Whorf&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Lee&rft.au=Karttunen%2C+Frances&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWimmer2006" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2">Wimmer, Alexis (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/nahuatl.page.html">"Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(online version, incorporating reproductions from <i>Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine</i> [1885], by <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9mi_Sim%C3%A9on" title="Rémi Siméon">Rémi Siméon</a>)</span> (in French and Nahuatl)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+langue+nahuatl+classique&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wimmer&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.estvideo.net%2Fmalinal%2Fnahuatl.page.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolgemuth2002" class="citation book cs1">Wolgemuth, Carl (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080419090734/http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/istmo/G027a-GramNahIst-nhx.htm"><i>Gramática Náhuatl (melaʼtájto̱l): de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz</i></a>. Sharon Stark and Albert Bickford (online eds.) (2nd ed.). México D. F.: <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstico_de_Verano_(Mexico)" title="Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Mexico)">Instituto Lingüístico de Verano</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-31-0315-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-31-0315-4"><bdi>978-968-31-0315-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/istmo/G027a-GramNahIst-nhx.htm">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gram%C3%A1tica+N%C3%A1huatl+%28mela%CA%BCt%C3%A1jto%CC%B1l%29%3A+de+los+municipios+de+Mecayapan+y+Tatahuicapan+de+Ju%C3%A1rez%2C+Veracruz&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.+F.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Instituto+Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstico+de+Verano&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-968-31-0315-4&rft.aulast=Wolgemuth&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fmexico%2Fnahuatl%2Fistmo%2FG027a-GramNahIst-nhx.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright_Carr2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wright Carr, David Charles (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://site.inali.gob.mx/publicaciones/libro_lectura_nahuatl/pdf/lectura_del_nahuatl.pdf"><i>Lectura del Náhuatl</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish) (revised ed.). INALI. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-607-8407-21-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-607-8407-21-7"><bdi>978-607-8407-21-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectura+del+N%C3%A1huatl&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=INALI&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-607-8407-21-7&rft.aulast=Wright+Carr&rft.aufirst=David+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsite.inali.gob.mx%2Fpublicaciones%2Flibro_lectura_nahuatl%2Fpdf%2Flectura_del_nahuatl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANahuatl" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries_of_Classical_Nahuatl">Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>de Molina, Fray Alonso: <i>Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana</i>. [1555] Reprint: Porrúa México 1992</li> <li>Karttunen, Frances, <i>An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl</i>. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman 1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9mi_Sim%C3%A9on" title="Rémi Siméon">Siméon, Rémi</a>: <i>Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana</i>. [Paris 1885] Reprint: México 2001</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammars_of_Classical_Nahuatl">Grammars of Classical Nahuatl</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Grammars of Classical Nahuatl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Carochi, Horacio. <i>Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of its Adverbs (1645)</i> Translated by James Lockhart. Stanford University Press. 2001.</li> <li>Lockhart, James: <i>Nahuatl as written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts</i>, Stanford 2001</li> <li>Sullivan, Thelma: <i>Compendium of Nahuatl Grammar</i>, Univ. of Utah Press, 1988.</li> <li>Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, <i>Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar</i>. Austin 1989</li> <li>Launey, Michel. <i>Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl</i>. México D.F.: UNAM. 1992 (Spanish); <i>An Introduction to Classical Nahuatl</i> [English translation/adaptation by Christopher Mackay], 2011, Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Andrews, J. Richard. <i>Introduction to Classical Nahuatl</i> University of Oklahoma Press: 2003 (revised edition)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_dialects">Modern dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Modern dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ronald W. Langacker (ed.): <i>Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches</i>, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 1–140. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88312-072-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88312-072-0">0-88312-072-0</a>. OCLC 6086368. 1979. (Contains studies of Nahuatl from Michoacan, Tetelcingo, Huasteca and North Puebla)</li> <li>Canger, Una. <i>Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental</i>, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, No. 24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/968-12-1041-7" title="Special:BookSources/968-12-1041-7">968-12-1041-7</a>. OCLC 49212643. 2001 (Spanish)</li> <li>Campbell, Lyle. <i>The Pipil Language of El Salvador</i>, Mouton Grammar Library (No. 1). Berlin: Mouton Publishers. 1985. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89925-040-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-89925-040-8">0-89925-040-8</a>. OCLC 13433705.</li> <li>Wolgemuth, Carl. <i>Gramática Náhuatl (melaʼtájto̱l) de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz</i>, 2nd edition. 2002. <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Nahua Newsletter</i>: edited by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Indiana University (Chief Editor Alan Sandstrom)</li> <li><i>Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl</i>: special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas (IIH) of the Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ed.: Miguel León Portilla</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/nahuatl/index.shtml">A Catalogue of Pre-1840 Nahuatl Works Held by The Lilly Library</a> from <i>The Indiana University Bookman</i> No. 11. November 1973: 69–88.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505135614/http://www.ailla.utexas.org/search/collection.html?c_id=158">Collection of Nahuatl of the Sierra Nororiental de Puebla, Mexico of Jonathan Amith</a>, containing recordings in Nahuatl by native speakers and transcriptions, from the <a href="/wiki/Archive_of_the_Indigenous_Languages_of_Latin_America" title="Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America">Archive of Indigenous Languages of Latin America</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Barnstone" title="Willis Barnstone">Barnstone, Willis</a> (2003). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Literatures_of_Latin_America_(anthology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literatures of Latin America (anthology) (page does not exist)">Literatures of Latin America: From Antiquity to Present.</a> Princeton: Prentice Hall.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="nah:"> Nahuatl edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/nci" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/nci">Classical Nahuatl test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/nch" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/nch">Central Huastec Nahuatl test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/nhn" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/nhn">Central Nahuatl test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/ppl" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/ppl">Pipil test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/nlv" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/nlv">Orizaba Nahuatl test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nahuatl" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:nahuatl">nahuatl</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/">Online Nahuatl Dictionary – Wired Humanities Projects, University of Oregon</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Template:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Template talk:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Mexico" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Mexico"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Mexico149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mexico" title="Languages of Mexico">Languages of Mexico</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official/<br />Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">100,000+<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Spanish" title="Mexican Spanish">Spanish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Yucatec Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzeltal_language" title="Tzeltal language">Tzeltal Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzotzil_language" title="Tzotzil language">Tzotzil Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtecan_languages" title="Mixtecan languages">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_languages" title="Zapotec languages">Zapotec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_language" title="Otomi language">Otomí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazatecan_languages" title="Mazatecan languages">Mazatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%CA%BCol_language" title="Chʼol language">Chʼol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_language" title="Huastec language">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinantecan_languages" title="Chinantecan languages">Chinantec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe_languages" title="Mixe languages">Mixe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazahua_language" title="Mazahua language">Mazahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlapanec_language" title="Tlapanec language">Tlapanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10,000-100,000<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarahumara_language" title="Tarahumara language">Tarahumara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tojolab%CA%BCal_language" title="Tojolabʼal language">Tojol-abʼal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chontal_Maya_language" title="Chontal Maya language">Chontal de Tabasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amuzgo_language" title="Amuzgo language">Amuzgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichol_language" title="Huichol language">Huichol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatino_language" title="Chatino language">Chatino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Popoluca" title="Sierra Popoluca">Sierra Popoluca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayo_language" title="Mayo language">Mayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepehu%C3%A1n_language" title="Tepehuán language">Tepehuán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trique_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Trique language">Triqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_language" title="Cora language">Cora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popolocan_languages" title="Popolocan languages">Popolocan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicatec_language" title="Cuicatec language">Cuicatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mam_language" title="Mam language">Mam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_language" title="Yaqui language">Yaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pame_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pame language">Pame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCanjob%CA%BCal_language" title="Qʼanjobʼal language">Qʼanjobʼal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepehua_languages" title="Tepehua languages">Tepehua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Under 10,000<br />speakers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Chontal of Oaxaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuj_language" title="Chuj language">Chuj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akatek_language" title="Akatek language">Akatek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiricahua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zacatepec_Mixtec" title="Zacatepec Mixtec">Tacuate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimeca_Jonaz_language" title="Chichimeca Jonaz language">Chichimeca Jonaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huarijio_language" title="Huarijio language">Huarijío</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocho_language" title="Chocho language">Chocholtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pima_Bajo_language" title="Pima Bajo language">Pima Bajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCeqchi%CA%BC_language" title="Qʼeqchiʼ language">Qʼeqchí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacandon_language" title="Lacandon language">Lacandón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakaltek_language" title="Jakaltek language">Jakaltek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matlatzinca_language" title="Matlatzinca language">Matlatzinca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mezcalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixcatec_language" title="Ixcatec language">Ixcatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_language" title="Kʼicheʼ language">Kʼicheʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipan_language" title="Lipan language">Lipan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaqchikel_language" title="Kaqchikel language">Kaqchikel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texistepec_language" title="Texistepec language">Texistepec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paipai_language" title="Paipai language">Paipai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Kikapú</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_whistled_speech" title="Kickapoo whistled speech">whistled speech</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektitek_language" title="Tektitek language">Teko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocopah_language" title="Cocopah language">Cucapá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mocho%CA%BC_language" title="Mochoʼ language">Qatoʼk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay_language" title="Kumeyaay language">Kumiai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%CA%BCodham_language" title="Oʼodham language">Pápago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixil_language" title="Ixil language">Ixil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oluta_Popoluca" title="Oluta Popoluca">Olutec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochim%C3%AD_language" title="Cochimí language">Cochimí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiliwa_language" title="Kiliwa language">Kiliwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayapa_Zoque" title="Ayapa Zoque">Ayapanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakatek_language" title="Awakatek language">Awakatek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Plautdietsch language">Plautdietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipilo_Venetian_dialect" title="Chipilo Venetian dialect">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Sign_Language" title="Mexican Sign Language">Mexican Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarradas_Sign_Language" title="Albarradas Sign Language">Albarradas Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Sign_Language" title="Mayan Sign Language">Mayan Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatino_Sign_Language" title="Chatino Sign Language">Chatino Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>Note: The list of official languages is ordered by decreasing size of population.</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Uto-Aztecan_languages175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Template:Uto-Aztecan languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Template talk:Uto-Aztecan languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Uto-Aztecan languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Uto-Aztecan_languages175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Uto-Aztecan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Uto-Aztecan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numic_languages" title="Numic languages">Numic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Paiute_language" title="Northern Paiute language">Northern Paiute</a> <small>(including Bannock)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono_language_(California)" title="Mono language (California)">Mono</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoshoni_language" title="Shoshoni language">Shoshoni</a> <small>(including <a href="/wiki/Gosiute_dialect" title="Gosiute dialect">Gosiute</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_language" title="Comanche language">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbisha_language" title="Timbisha language">Timbisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Numic_language" title="Colorado River Numic language">Colorado River</a> <small>(Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, <a href="/wiki/Ute_dialect" title="Ute dialect">Ute</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawaiisu_language" title="Kawaiisu language">Kawaiisu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Takic_languages" title="Takic languages">Takic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicole%C3%B1o_language" title="Nicoleño language">Nicoleño</a></i>?</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Serran_languages" title="Serran languages">Serran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Serrano_language" title="Serrano language">Serrano</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vanyume#Language" title="Vanyume">Vanyume</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitanemuk_language" title="Kitanemuk language">Kitanemuk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tataviam_language" title="Tataviam language">Tataviam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tongva_language" title="Tongva language">Tongva</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cupan_languages" title="Cupan languages">Cupan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla_language" title="Cahuilla language">Cahuilla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o_language" title="Cupeño language">Cupeño</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o_language" title="Luiseño language">Luiseño-Juaneño</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_language" title="Hopi language">Hopi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbatulabal_language" title="Tübatulabal language">Tübatulabal</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Uto-Aztecan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Uto-Aztecan languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tepiman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepiman languages">Tepiman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pimic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O%CA%BCodham_language" title="Oʼodham language">Oʼodham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pima_Bajo_language" title="Pima Bajo language">Pima Bajo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tepehuan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tepehuan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Tepehuan language">Northern Tepehuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Tepehuan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Tepehuan language">Southern Tepehuan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tepecano_language" title="Tepecano language">Tepecano</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tarahumaran_languages" title="Tarahumaran languages">Tarahumaran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huarijio_language" title="Huarijio language">Huarijio</a> <ul><li>Upriver Huarijio</li> <li>Downriver Huarijio</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarahumara_language" title="Tarahumara language">Tarahumara</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tubar_language" title="Tubar language">Tubar</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opatan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Opatan languages">Opatan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudeve_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudeve language">Eudeve</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opata_language" title="Opata language">Opata</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cahitan_languages" title="Cahitan languages">Cahita</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_language" title="Yaqui language">Yaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayo_language" title="Mayo language">Mayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Corachol_languages" title="Corachol languages">Corachol</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cora_language" title="Cora language">Cora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichol_language" title="Huichol language">Huichol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guachichil_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guachichil language">Guachichil</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aztecan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztecan languages">Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nahuatl11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nahuatl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Nahuatl_languages" title="Central Nahuatl languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl" title="Classical Nahuatl">Classical Nahuatl</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morelos_Nahuatl" title="Morelos Nahuatl">Morelos Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetelcingo_Nahuatl" title="Tetelcingo Nahuatl">Tetelcingo Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala%E2%80%93Puebla_Nahuatl" title="Tlaxcala–Puebla Nahuatl">Tlaxcala–Puebla Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Puebla_Nahuatl" title="Central Puebla Nahuatl">Central Puebla Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrero_Nahuatl" title="Guerrero Nahuatl">Guerrero Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ometepec_N%C3%A1huatl" title="Ometepec Náhuatl">Ometepec Nahuatl</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Coahuila_Nahuatl" title="Southern Coahuila Nahuatl">Coahuila Nahuatl</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Huasteca</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huasteca_Nahuatl" title="Huasteca Nahuatl">Huasteca Nahuatl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Peripheral_Nahuatl" title="Western Peripheral Nahuatl">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n_Nahuatl" title="Michoacán Nahuatl">Michoacán Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coatepec_Nahuatl" title="Coatepec Nahuatl">Coatepec Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temascaltepec_Nahuatl" title="Temascaltepec Nahuatl">Temascaltepec Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicanero_language" title="Mexicanero language">Durango Nahuatl</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cazcan_language" title="Cazcan language">Cazcan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochutec_language" title="Pochutec language">Pochutec</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Peripheral_Nahuatl" title="Eastern Peripheral Nahuatl">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Puebla_Nahuatl" title="Sierra Puebla Nahuatl">Sierra Puebla Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehuacan%E2%80%93Zongolica_Nahuatl" title="Tehuacan–Zongolica Nahuatl">Tehuacan–Zongolica Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orizaba_Nahuatl" title="Orizaba Nahuatl">Orizaba Nahuatl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_Nahuatl" title="Isthmus Nahuatl">Isthmus Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabasco_Nahuatl" title="Tabasco Nahuatl">Tabasco Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipil language">Pipil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language_in_the_United_States" title="Nahuatl language in the United States">Nahuatl language in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Uto-Aztecan_language" title="Proto-Uto-Aztecan language">Proto-Uto-Aztecan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Nahuan_language" title="Proto-Nahuan language">Proto-Nahuan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="List of extinct Uto-Aztecan languages">List of extinct Uto-Aztecan languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1032226/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4120272-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Nahuatl language"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85010670">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Nahuatl (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11940015q">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Nahuatl (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11940015q">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00568060">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="aztéčtina"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph201903&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007282313805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&oldid=1276192206">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nahuatl&oldid=1276192206</a>"</div></div> 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-66b5777589-ls497","wgBackendResponseTime":151,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.491","walltime":"2.738","ppvisitednodes":{"value":23968,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":516987,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":18978,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":22,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":445552,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2402.275 1 -total"," 15.99% 384.199 63 Template:Cite_book"," 13.75% 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-10T22:48:18Z","dateModified":"2025-02-17T12:14:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/31\/Historia_general_de_las_cosas_de_nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_page_406_2.png","headline":"language of the Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family"}</script> </body> </html>