CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Presidency of Calvin Coolidge - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"f4c350db-e273-444b-8189-368a7b763a2b","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge","wgTitle":"Presidency of Calvin Coolidge","wgCurRevisionId":1252005411,"wgRevisionId":1252005411,"wgArticleId":51478832,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Official website not in Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018","Pages using Sister project links with default search","Articles with Internet Archive links","Presidency of Calvin Coolidge","1923 establishments in the United States", "1929 disestablishments in the United States","Presidencies of the United States","1920s in the United States","Calvin Coolidge","Herbert Hoover"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge","wgRelevantArticleId":51478832,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true, "wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q29109910","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges": "ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/1200px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/800px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1067"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/640px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="853"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge rootpage-Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Presidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Presidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Presidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Presidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Accession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Accession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Judicial appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Domestic affairs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Domestic_affairs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Domestic affairs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Domestic_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Harding_administration_scandals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harding_administration_scandals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Harding administration scandals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harding_administration_scandals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_and_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economy and regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxation_and_government_spending" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation_and_government_spending"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Taxation and government spending</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation_and_government_spending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Immigration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_farm_subsidies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_farm_subsidies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Opposition to farm subsidies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_farm_subsidies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Mississippi_Flood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Mississippi_Flood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Great Mississippi Flood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Mississippi_Flood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Labor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Other issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prohibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prohibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1</span> <span>Prohibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prohibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2</span> <span>Civil rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Foreign affairs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Foreign affairs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-League_of_Nations_and_World_Court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#League_of_Nations_and_World_Court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>League of Nations and World Court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-League_of_Nations_and_World_Court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reparations_and_war_debts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reparations_and_war_debts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Reparations and war debts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reparations_and_war_debts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disarmament_and_renunciation_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disarmament_and_renunciation_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Disarmament and renunciation of war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disarmament_and_renunciation_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elections_during_the_Coolidge_presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elections_during_the_Coolidge_presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Elections during the Coolidge presidency</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elections_during_the_Coolidge_presidency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Elections during the Coolidge presidency subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elections_during_the_Coolidge_presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Election_of_1924" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1924"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Election of 1924</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1924-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1928_and_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1928_and_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Election of 1928 and transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1928_and_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Historical reputation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholarly_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Scholarly sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 2 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-2" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">2 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%AC" title="رئاسة كالفن كوليدج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رئاسة كالفن كوليدج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidenza_di_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidenza di Calvin Coolidge – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Presidenza di Calvin Coolidge" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q29109910#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&oldid=1252005411" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&id=1252005411&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPresidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPresidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q29109910" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">U.S presidential administration from 1923 to 1929</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="padding-bottom:2px; padding-top:2px;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:0; padding-bottom:1px;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge"><img alt="Calvin Coolidge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="padding-top:2px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b><span style="font-size:120%">Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</span></b></span><br />August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="#Administration">See list</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></div><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> →</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 8px;" /> <div class="center"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:6px 0 2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/100px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/150px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/200px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1012" /></a></span></div><br /><div style="line-height:normal; min-height:1px; padding-bottom:;">Seal of the president<br />(1894–1945)</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="margin-top:7px; padding-top:0;"><span class="official-website"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forbeslibrary.org/coolidge/">Library website</a></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvin_Coolidge_(3x4_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/75px-Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/113px-Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg/150px-Calvin_Coolidge_%283x4_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1075" data-file-height="1422" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Calvin Coolidge</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Early_life_and_family_history" title="Calvin Coolidge">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge">Autobiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of things named after Calvin Coolidge">Eponyms</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">48th Governor of Massachusetts</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Lieutenant_Governor_and_Governor_of_Massachusetts_(1916−1921)" title="Calvin Coolidge">Governorship</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">30th President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_executive_actions_by_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of executive actions by Calvin Coolidge">Executive actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1913%E2%80%931933#Harding_and_Coolidge,_1921–1929" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Cabinet" title="Calvin Coolidge">Cabinet appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of federal judges appointed by Calvin Coolidge">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1928" title="Flood Control Act of 1928">Flood Control Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927" title="Great Mississippi Flood of 1927">Great Mississippi Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_Act_of_1925" title="Helium Act of 1925">Helium Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927" title="Radio Act of 1927">Radio Act of 1927</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Vice Presidential and Presidential campaigns</div> <ul><li>1920 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1924 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>1928 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_National_Convention#Balloting_results" title="1928 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_do_not_choose_to_run" title="I do not choose to run">I do not choose to run</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-presidency</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Calvin Coolidge Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential library</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge's signature"><img alt="Calvin Coolidge's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/C_Coolidge_signature.svg/150px-C_Coolidge_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/C_Coolidge_signature.svg/225px-C_Coolidge_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/C_Coolidge_signature.svg/300px-C_Coolidge_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="183" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Calvin_Coolidge_series" title="Template:Calvin Coolidge series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Calvin_Coolidge_series" title="Template talk:Calvin Coolidge series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Calvin_Coolidge_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Calvin Coolidge series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>'s tenure as the 30th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> began on August 2, 1923, when Coolidge became president upon <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding's</a> death, and ended on March 4, 1929. A <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, Coolidge had been <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a> for 2 years, 151 days when he succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of Harding. Elected to a full four–year term in <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a>, Coolidge gained a reputation as a <a href="/wiki/Small-government_conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-government conservative">small-government conservative</a>. Coolidge was succeeded by former Secretary of Commerce <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> after the <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928 presidential election</a>. </p><p>Coolidge adeptly handled the aftermath of several Harding administration scandals, and by the end of 1924 he had dismissed most officials implicated in the scandals. He presided over a strong economy and sought to shrink the regulatory role of the federal government. Along with Secretary of the Treasury <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon</a>, Coolidge won the passage of three major tax cuts. Using powers delegated to him by the 1922 <a href="/wiki/Fordney%E2%80%93McCumber_Tariff" title="Fordney–McCumber Tariff">Fordney–McCumber Tariff</a>, Coolidge kept <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariff</a> rates high in order to <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protect</a> American manufacturing profits and high wages. He blocked passage of the <a href="/wiki/McNary%E2%80%93Haugen_Farm_Relief_Bill" title="McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill">McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill</a>, which would have involved the federal government in the persistent <a href="/wiki/Farm_crisis" title="Farm crisis">farm crisis</a> by raising prices paid to farmers for five crops. The strong economy combined with restrained government spending produced consistent government surpluses, and total federal debt shrank by one quarter during Coolidge's presidency. Coolidge also signed the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a>, which greatly restricted immigration into the United States. In foreign policy, Coolidge continued to keep the United States out of membership or major engagement with the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. However he supported disarmament agreements and sponsored the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> of 1928 to outlaw most wars. </p><p>Coolidge was greatly admired during his time in office, and he surprised many by declining to seek another term. Public opinion on Coolidge soured shortly after he left office as the nation plunged into the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. Many linked the nation's economic collapse to Coolidge's policy decisions, which did nothing to discourage the wild speculation that was going on and rendered so many vulnerable to economic ruin. Though his reputation underwent a renaissance during the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> administration, <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States#General_findings" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">modern assessments of Coolidge's presidency</a> are divided. He is adulated among advocates of smaller government and <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i>; supporters of an active central government generally view him less favorably, while both sides praise his support of racial equality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel12–13Greenberg1–7_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel12–13Greenberg1–7-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accession">Accession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Accession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge">First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Presidency of Warren G. Harding</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg/220px-CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg/330px-CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg/440px-CalvinCoolidgeimmigration3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2885" data-file-height="1994" /></a><figcaption>Coolidge signing several bills as General <a href="/wiki/John_J._Pershing" title="John J. Pershing">John J. Pershing</a> looks on</figcaption></figure> <p>Coolidge, who served as the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">governor of Massachusetts</a> from 1919 through 1921 was nominated at the <a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">1920 Republican National Convention</a> for the ticket of <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> for president and Coolidge for vice president. Coolidge became the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> ticket was victorious in the <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920 presidential election</a>. On August 2, 1923, President Harding died unexpectedly while on a speaking tour of the Western United States. Vice President Coolidge was visiting his <a href="/wiki/Coolidge_Homestead" title="Coolidge Homestead">family home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> when he received word by a messenger of Harding's death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess308–309_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess308–309-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge's father, a <a href="/wiki/Notary_public" title="Notary public">notary public</a>, administered the <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office#United_States" title="Oath of office">oath of office</a> in the family parlor at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923. The following day, Coolidge traveled to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, where he was sworn in again by Justice <a href="/wiki/Adolph_A._Hoehling_Jr." title="Adolph A. Hoehling Jr.">Adolph A. Hoehling Jr.</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">Supreme Court of the District of Columbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess310–315_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess310–315-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge addressed Congress when it reconvened on December 6, 1923, expressing support for many of Harding's policies, including Harding's formal budgeting process and the enforcement of immigration restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess328–329Sobel248–249_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess328–329Sobel248–249-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; float:right; clear:right;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Coolidge cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></th><td>1923–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold">none</th><td>1923–1925</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes</a></th><td>1925–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a></th><td>1923–1925</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Kellogg" title="Frank B. Kellogg">Frank B. Kellogg</a></th><td>1925–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon</a></th><td>1923–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_W._Weeks" title="John W. Weeks">John W. Weeks</a></th><td>1923–1925</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_F._Davis" title="Dwight F. Davis">Dwight F. Davis</a></th><td>1925–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harry_M._Daugherty" title="Harry M. Daugherty">Harry M. Daugherty</a></th><td>1923–1924</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a></th><td>1924–1925</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_G._Sargent" title="John G. Sargent">John G. Sargent</a></th><td>1925–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._New" title="Harry S. New">Harry S. New</a></th><td>1923–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Denby_(politician)" title="Edwin Denby (politician)">Edwin Denby</a></th><td>1923–1924</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Curtis_D._Wilbur" title="Curtis D. Wilbur">Curtis D. Wilbur</a></th><td>1924–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Hubert Work</a></th><td>1923–1928</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Owen_West" title="Roy Owen West">Roy Owen West</a></th><td>1928–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cantwell_Wallace" title="Henry Cantwell Wallace">Henry Cantwell Wallace</a></th><td>1923–1924</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Mason_Gore" title="Howard Mason Gore">Howard Mason Gore</a></th><td>1924–1925</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Marion_Jardine" title="William Marion Jardine">William Marion Jardine</a></th><td>1925–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></th><td>1923–1928</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_F._Whiting" title="William F. Whiting">William F. Whiting</a></th><td>1928–1929</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_J._Davis" title="James J. Davis">James J. Davis</a></th><td>1923–1929</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although a few of Harding's cabinet appointees were scandal-tarred, Coolidge initially retained all of them out of an ardent conviction that, as successor to a deceased elected president, he was obligated to retain his predecessor's counselors and policies until the next election. He kept Harding's able speechwriter <a href="/wiki/Judson_T._Welliver" class="mw-redirect" title="Judson T. Welliver">Judson T. Welliver</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Crawford" title="Stuart Crawford">Stuart Crawford</a> replaced Welliver in November 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg48–49_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg48–49-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge appointed <a href="/wiki/C._Bascom_Slemp" title="C. Bascom Slemp">C. Bascom Slemp</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> Congressman and experienced federal politician, to work jointly with Edward T. Clark, a Massachusetts Republican organizer whom he retained from his vice-presidential staff, as <a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_President_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary to the President (United States)">Secretaries to the President</a> (a position equivalent to the modern <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">White House Chief of Staff</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess320–322_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess320–322-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the most powerful person in Coolidge's Cabinet was Secretary of the Treasury <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon</a>, who controlled the administration's financial policies and was regarded by many, including House Minority Leader <a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a>, as more powerful than Coolidge himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERusnak1983270–271_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERusnak1983270–271-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secretary of Commerce <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> also held a prominent place in Coolidge's Cabinet, in part because Coolidge found value in Hoover's ability to win positive publicity with his pro-business proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002224–227_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002224–227-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> directed Coolidge's foreign policy until he resigned in 1925 following Coolidge's re-election. He was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Kellogg" title="Frank B. Kellogg">Frank B. Kellogg</a>, who had previously served as a senator and as the ambassador to Great Britain. Coolidge made two other appointments following his re-election, with <a href="/wiki/William_M._Jardine" class="mw-redirect" title="William M. Jardine">William M. Jardine</a> taking the position of Secretary of Agriculture and <a href="/wiki/John_G._Sargent" title="John G. Sargent">John G. Sargent</a> becoming Attorney General.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg111–112_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg111–112-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge appointed Sargent only after the Senate rejected his first choice, <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Warren" title="Charles B. Warren">Charles B. Warren</a>, who was the first Cabinet nominee to be <a href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Cabinet of the United States">rejected by the Senate</a> since 1868.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell31_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell31-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge did not have a vice president during his first term, but <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dawes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Dawes">Charles Dawes</a> became vice president at the start of Coolidge's second term. Dawes and Coolidge clashed over farm policy and other issues.<sup id="cite_ref-dawesvp1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawesvp1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge_judicial_appointments" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin Coolidge judicial appointments">Calvin Coolidge judicial appointments</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone_Supreme_Court_nomination" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination">Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination</a></div> <p>Coolidge appointed only <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>. Stone was Coolidge's fellow <a href="/wiki/Amherst_College" title="Amherst College">Amherst</a> alumnus, a <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> lawyer, and a conservative Republican. Stone was serving as dean of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School" title="Columbia Law School">Columbia Law School</a> when Coolidge appointed him to be attorney general in 1924 to restore the reputation tarnished by Harding's Attorney General, <a href="/wiki/Harry_M._Daugherty" title="Harry M. Daugherty">Harry M. Daugherty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess364_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess364-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stone proved to be a firm believer in <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a> and was regarded as one of the court's <a href="/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_(Supreme_Court)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Three Musketeers (Supreme Court)">three liberal justices</a> who would often vote to uphold New Deal legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalston110_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalston110-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge nominated 17 judges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</a>, and 61 judges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States district courts">United States district courts</a>. He appointed <a href="/wiki/Genevieve_R._Cline" title="Genevieve R. Cline">Genevieve R. Cline</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Customs_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Customs Court">United States Customs Court</a>, making Cline the first woman to serve in the federal judiciary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman216_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman216-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge also signed the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1925" title="Judiciary Act of 1925">Judiciary Act of 1925</a> into law, allowing the Supreme Court more discretion over its workload. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Domestic_affairs">Domestic affairs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Domestic affairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harding_administration_scandals">Harding administration scandals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Harding administration scandals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Gang" title="Ohio Gang">Ohio Gang</a></div> <p>In the waning days of Harding's administration, several scandals had begun to emerge into public view. Though Coolidge was not implicated in any corrupt dealings, he was faced with the fallout of the scandals in the early days of his presidency. The <a href="/wiki/Teapot_Dome_Scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Teapot Dome Scandal">Teapot Dome Scandal</a> tainted the careers of former Secretary of the Interior <a href="/wiki/Albert_B._Fall" title="Albert B. Fall">Albert B. Fall</a> (who had resigned in March 1923) and Secretary of the Navy <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Denby_(politician)" title="Edwin Denby (politician)">Edwin Denby</a>, and additional scandals implicated Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Harry_M._Daugherty" title="Harry M. Daugherty">Harry M. Daugherty</a> and former Veterans Bureau director <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Forbes" title="Charles R. Forbes">Charles R. Forbes</a>. A bipartisan Senate investigation led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Walsh" title="Thomas J. Walsh">Thomas J. Walsh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert LaFolette</a> began just weeks into Coolidge's presidency. As the investigation uncovered further misconduct, Coolidge appointed <a href="/wiki/Atlee_Pomerene" title="Atlee Pomerene">Atlee Pomerene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a> as <a href="/wiki/Special_prosecutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Special prosecutor">special prosecutors</a>, but he remained personally unconvinced as to the guilt of Harding's appointees. Despite congressional pressure, he refused to dismiss Denby, who instead resigned of his own accord in March 1924. That same month, after Daugherty refused to resign, Coolidge fired him. Coolidge also replaced the <a href="/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation">Director of the Bureau of Investigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Burns" title="William J. Burns">William J. Burns</a>, with <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>. The investigation by Pomerene and Roberts, combined with the departure of the scandal-tarred Harding appointees, served to disassociate Coolidge from the Harding administration's misdeeds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg49–53_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg49–53-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By May 1924, Harding's scandals had largely receded from public attention, though a separate scandal involving former Postmaster General <a href="/wiki/Will_H._Hays" title="Will H. Hays">Will H. Hays</a> would briefly garner headlines in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell47–48_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell47–48-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy_and_regulation">Economy and regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economy and regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_radio_broadcast_in_the_United_States" title="Regulation of radio broadcast in the United States">Regulation of radio broadcast in the United States</a></div> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left;">It is probable that a press which maintains an intimate touch with the business currents of the nation is likely to be more reliable than it would be if it were a stranger to these influences. After all, <b>the chief business of the American people is business</b>. They are profoundly concerned with buying, selling, investing and prospering in the world. (emphasis added) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><i><b>President Calvin Coolidge's address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Washington D.C.,</b> January 25, 1925</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShlaes324_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShlaes324-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During Coolidge's presidency, the United States experienced a period of rapid economic growth known as the "<a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unemployment remained low while the country's <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> rose from $85.2 billion in 1924 to $101.4 in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller274,_281_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller274,_281-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Nathan Miller, "the postwar years ushered in an age of consumerism with a broader base of participation than had ever existed before in America or anywhere else."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller150–151_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller150–151-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of automobiles in the United States increased from 7 million in 1919 to 23 million in 1929, while the percentage of households with electricity rose from 16 percent in 1912 to 60 percent in the mid-1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The regulatory state under Coolidge was, as one biographer described it, "thin to the point of invisibility."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell72_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell72-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge believed that promoting the interests of manufacturers was good for society as a whole, and he sought to reduce taxes and regulations on businesses while imposing <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariffs</a> to <a href="/wiki/Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">protect</a> those interests against foreign competition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge demonstrated his disdain for regulation by appointing commissioners to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> (FTC) and the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> who did little to restrict the activities of businesses under their jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell66–72Sobel318_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell66–72Sobel318-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under leadership of Chairman <a href="/wiki/William_E._Humphrey" title="William E. Humphrey">William E. Humphrey</a>, a Coolidge appointee, the FTC largely stopped prosecuting anti-trust cases, allowing companies like <a href="/wiki/Alcoa" title="Alcoa">Alcoa</a> to dominate entire industries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell71–72_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell71–72-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge also avoided interfering with the workings of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board_of_Governors" title="Federal Reserve Board of Governors">Federal Reserve</a>, which kept interest rates low and allowed for the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Margin_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Margin trading">margin trading</a> in the stock market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg146–148_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg146–148-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1922 <a href="/wiki/Fordney%E2%80%93McCumber_Tariff" title="Fordney–McCumber Tariff">Fordney–McCumber Tariff</a> allowed the president some leeway in determining tariff rates, and Coolidge used his power to raise the already-high rates set by Fordney–McCumber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg72–73_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg72–73-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also staffed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States Tariff Commission</a>, a board that advised the president on tariff rates, with businessmen who favored high tariffs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell70_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell70-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secretary of Commerce Hoover energetically used government auspices to promote business efficiency and develop new industries like air travel and radio.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell64–65_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell64–65-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoover was a strong proponent of cooperation between government and business, and he organized numerous conferences of intellectuals and businessmen which made various recommendations. Relatively few reforms were passed, but the proposals created the image of an active administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002226–227_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002226–227-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radios</a> grew from 300,000 (or approximately 1 percent) to 10 million,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell32–33_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell32–33-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which grew further to a majority of U.S. households by 1931 and 75 percent of U.S. households by 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_p._217_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam_p._217-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927" title="Radio Act of 1927">Radio Act of 1927</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a> (FRC) under the auspices of the Commerce Department, and the FRC granted numerous <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_license" title="Broadcast license">licenses</a> to large, commercial <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting" title="Radio broadcasting">radio stations</a> that demonstrated that they served "the public interest, convenience, or necessity", and the Act also established the <a href="/wiki/Equal-time_rule" title="Equal-time rule">equal-time rule</a> for <a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio broadcasters in the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg131–132_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg131–132-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1927act_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1927act-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Hoover's request, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Air_Commerce_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Commerce Act">Air Commerce Act</a>, which granted the Commerce Department the authority to regulate air travel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller318–319_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller318–319-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Coolidge administration provided matching funds for roads under the authorization of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Highway_Act_of_1921" title="Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921">Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell32_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell32-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total mileage of highways doubled in the 1920s, and the administration helped establish the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Numbered_Highway_System" title="United States Numbered Highway System">United States Numbered Highway System</a>, which provided for orderly designation of highways and uniform signage on those highways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell100–101_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell100–101-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some have labeled Coolidge as an adherent of the <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> ideology, which some critics claim led to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell207_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell207-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobel" title="Robert Sobel">Robert Sobel</a> argues instead that Coolidge's belief in <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> guided his economic policy, writing, "as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governor of Massachusetts</a>, Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation, opposed <a href="/wiki/Child_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Child labor">child labor</a>, imposed economic controls during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, favored safety measures in factories, and even worker representation on corporate boards...such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg47Ferrell62_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg47Ferrell62-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian David Greenberg argues that Coolidge's economic policies, designed primarily to bolster American industry, are best described as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Hamiltonian</a> rather than laissez-faire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation_and_government_spending">Taxation and government spending</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Taxation and government spending"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon#Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon § Secretary of the Treasury</a></div> <p>Coolidge took office in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, during which the United States had raised taxes to unprecedented rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeller1982780_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeller1982780-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge's taxation policy was largely set by Treasury Secretary Mellon, who held that "scientific taxation"—lower taxes—would actually increase rather than decrease government receipts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Greenberg127–229_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Greenberg127–229-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1921" title="Revenue Act of 1921">Revenue Act of 1921</a>, which had been proposed by Mellon, had reduced the top marginal tax rate from 71 percent to 58 percent, and Mellon sought to further reduce rates and abolish other taxes during Coolidge's presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg71–72_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg71–72-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge spent early 1924 opposing the <a href="/wiki/World_War_Adjusted_Compensation_Act" title="World War Adjusted Compensation Act">World War Adjusted Compensation Act</a> or "Bonus Bill," which he believed would be a fiscally irresponsible expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess341_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess341-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a budget surplus, many legislators wanted to reward the veterans of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> with extra compensation, arguing that the soldiers had been paid poorly during the war. Coolidge and Mellon preferred to use the budget surplus to cut taxes, and they did not believe that the country could pass the Bonus Bill, cut taxes, and maintain a balanced budget. However, the Bonus Bill gained wide support and was endorsed by several prominent Republicans, including <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Charles Curtis</a>. Congress overrode Coolidge's veto of the Bonus Bill, handing the president a defeat in his first major legislative battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg77–79_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg77–79-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With his legislative priorities in jeopardy following the debate over the Bonus Bill, Coolidge backed off on his goal of lowering the top tax rate down to 25 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg79–80_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg79–80-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After much legislative haggling, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1924" title="Revenue Act of 1924">Revenue Act of 1924</a>, which reduced income tax rates and eliminated all income taxation for some two million people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Fuess382–383_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Fuess382–383-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act reduced the top marginal tax rate from 58 percent to 46 percent, but increased the <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Estate tax">estate tax</a> and bolstered it with a new <a href="/wiki/Gift_tax" title="Gift tax">gift tax</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel278–279_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel278–279-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his re-election in 1924, Coolidge sought further tax reductions,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg128_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg128-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Congress cut taxes with the Revenue Acts of <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1926" title="Revenue Act of 1926">1926</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1928" title="Revenue Act of 1928">1928</a>. Congress abolished the gift tax in 1926, but Mellon was unable to win repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Estate_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Estate tax in the United States">estate tax</a>, which had been established by the <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1916" title="Revenue Act of 1916">Revenue Act of 1916</a>. In addition to cutting top rates, the tax acts also increased the amount of <a href="/wiki/Tax_exemption" title="Tax exemption">income exempt from taxation</a>, and by 1928 only 2 percent of taxpayers paid any federal income tax. By 1930, one-third of federal revenue came from income taxes, one-third from corporate taxes, and most of the remaining third came from the tariff and excise taxes on tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell169–171_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell169–171-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge inherited a budget surplus of $700 million, but also a federal debt of $22.3 billion, with most of that debt having been accumulated in World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell26_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell26-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal spending remained flat during Coolidge's administration, contributing to the retirement of about one-fourth of the federal debt. Coolidge would be the last president to significantly reduce the total amount of federal debt until <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>'s tenure in the 1990s, although intervening presidents would preside over a reduction of debt in proportion to the country's gross domestic product.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg3_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration">Immigration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Immigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">History of immigration to the United States</a></div> <p>A strong <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist</a> movement had arisen in the years prior to Coolidge's presidency,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with hostility focused on immigrants from Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A constituent writing to Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Borah" title="William Borah">William Borah</a> reflected the opinion of many who favored immigration restriction, stating "immigration should be completely stopped for at least one generation until we can assimilate and Americanize the millions who are in our midst."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell113_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell113-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to Coolidge's presidency, Congress had passed the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a>, which imposed a literacy test on immigrants, and the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act" title="Emergency Quota Act">Emergency Quota Act</a> of 1921, which put a temporary cap on the number of immigrants accepted into the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years after the passage of the Emergency Quota Act, members of Congress debated the substance of a permanent immigration bill. Most leaders of both parties favored a permanent bill that would greatly restrict immigration, with the major exception being <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a> and other urban Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell113–114_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell113–114-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Business leaders had previously favored unlimited immigration to the United States, but mechanization, the entrance of women into the labor force, and the migration of Southern blacks into the North had all contributed to reduced demand for foreign-born labor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller148–149_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller148–149-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge endorsed an extension of the cap on immigration in his 1923 State of the Union, but his administration was less supportive of the continuation of the <a href="/wiki/National_Origins_Formula" title="National Origins Formula">National Origins Formula</a>, which effectively restricted immigration from countries outside of <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern Europe</a>. Secretary of State Hughes strongly opposed the quotas, particularly the total ban on Japanese immigration, which violated the <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907</a> with Japan. Despite his own reservations, Coolidge chose to sign the restrictive <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Emergency Quota Act had limited annual immigration from any given country to 3% of the immigrant population from that country living in the United States in 1920; the Immigration Act of 1924 changed this to 2% of the immigrant population from a given country living in the United States in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell114–115_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell114–115-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Immigration Act of 1924 remained in force until the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</a>, it greatly affected the demographics of immigration for several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_farm_subsidies">Opposition to farm subsidies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Opposition to farm subsidies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coolidge-Dawes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Coolidge-Dawes.jpg/170px-Coolidge-Dawes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Coolidge-Dawes.jpg/255px-Coolidge-Dawes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Coolidge-Dawes.jpg/340px-Coolidge-Dawes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>Coolidge with his vice president, <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the most contentious issue of Coolidge's presidency was relief for farmers, whose incomes had collapsed after World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell41_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell41-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many farmers were unable to sell their crops, in a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">overproduction</a>. Contributing factors to agricultural overproduction included increasing competition on world markets and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractors</a>, which increased the productivity of individual farmers and opened up farmland that had previously been devoted to growing crops used to feed farm animals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell81–83_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell81–83-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overproduction led to an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Farm_crisis" title="Farm crisis">farm crisis</a> that proved devastating to many rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams216–218_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams216–218-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The farm crisis was a major political issue throughout the 1920s as farmers remained a powerful voting bloc despite the rising tide of urbanization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell83_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell83-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secretary of Agriculture <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cantwell_Wallace" title="Henry Cantwell Wallace">Henry Cantwell Wallace</a> floated the possibility of restricting the number of acres that each farmer would be allowed to farm, but the unpopularity of this proposal among farmers made it politically infeasible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell83–84_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell83–84-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1924 elections, the Coolidge administration introduced an agricultural plan that emphasized <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative" title="Agricultural cooperative">agricultural cooperatives</a> to help control prices, but it found little favor among farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell85–88_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell85–88-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The farm bloc instead coalesced behind the ideas of <a href="/wiki/George_Peek" title="George Peek">George Peek</a>, whose proposals to raise farm prices inspired the <a href="/wiki/McNary%E2%80%93Haugen_Farm_Relief_Bill" title="McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill">McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell88–89_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell88–89-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McNary–Haugen proposed the establishment of a federal farm board that would purchase surplus production in high-yield years and hold it for later sale or sell it abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess383–384_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess383–384-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government would lose money in selling the crops abroad, but would recoup some of that loss through fees on farmers who benefited from the program.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell89_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell89-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of the bill argued that the program was little different from protective tariffs, which they argued were used to disproportionately benefit industrial concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell90_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell90-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge opposed McNary-Haugen, declaring that agriculture must stand "on an independent business basis," and said that "government control cannot be divorced from political control."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess383–84_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess383–84-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first and second incarnations of the McNary-Haugen bill were defeated in 1924 and 1925, but the bill remained popular as the farm crisis continued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell89–90_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell89–90-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A decline in cotton prices in 1925 raised the possibility that Southern congressmen would join with Western congressmen in supporting a major agricultural bill. Seeking to prevent the creation of a major new government program, Coolidge sought to peel away potential supporters of McNary-Haugen and mobilized businessmen and other groups in opposition to the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell90–93_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell90–93-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He supported the Curtis-Crisp Act, which would have created a federal board to lend money to farm co-operatives in times of surplus, but the bill floundered in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel327_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel327-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1927, Congress took up the McNary-Haugen bill again, this time narrowly passing it, and Coolidge vetoed it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his veto message, Coolidge expressed the belief that the bill would do nothing to help farmers, benefiting only exporters and expanding the federal bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel331_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel331-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress did not override the veto, but it passed the bill again in May 1928 by an increased majority; again, Coolidge vetoed it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Farmers never have made much money," said Coolidge, adding, "I do not believe we can do much about it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell86_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell86-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secretary Jardine developed his own plan to address the farm crisis that established a <a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Board" title="Federal Farm Board">Federal Farm Board</a>, and his plan eventually would form the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Marketing_Act_of_1929" title="Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929">Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929</a>, which was passed months after Coolidge left office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams230–231_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams230–231-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Mississippi_Flood">Great Mississippi Flood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Great Mississippi Flood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coolidge has often been criticized for his actions during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927" title="Great Mississippi Flood of 1927">Great Mississippi Flood of 1927</a>, the worst natural disaster to hit the Gulf Coast until <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He initially declined the request of six governors to provide federal assistance and visit the site of the flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller344_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller344-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he did eventually name Secretary Hoover to a head a federal commission in charge of flood relief, scholars argue that Coolidge overall showed a lack of interest in federal flood control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge did not believe that personally visiting the region after the floods would accomplish anything, and that it would be seen as mere political grandstanding. He also did not want to incur the federal spending that flood control would require; he believed property owners should bear much of the cost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy330–331_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy330–331-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress, meanwhile, favored a bill that would place the federal government completely in charge of flood mitigation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry372–374_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry372–374-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Congress passed a compromise measure in 1928, Coolidge declined to take credit for it and signed the <a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1928" title="Flood Control Act of 1928">Flood Control Act of 1928</a> in private on May 15.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg135_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg135-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor">Labor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Labor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history of the United States</a></div> <p>Union membership declined during the 1920s, partly because of consistently rising wages and the declining length of the average work week. Compared to previous years, Coolidge's tenure saw relatively few strikes, and the only major labor disturbance Coolidge faced was the 1923 anthracite coal strike.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell73–74_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell73–74-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge generally avoided labor issues, leaving the administration's response to unrest in the mines to Hoover. Hoover produced the Jacksonville agreement, a voluntary compact between miners and mining companies, but the agreement had little effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell75–76_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell75–76-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1920s, the conservative <a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a> issued several holdings that damaged labor unions and allowed federal courts to use injunctions to end strikes. The Supreme Court was also hostile to federal regulations designed to ensure minimal working conditions, and it declared <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">minimum wage laws</a> unconstitutional in the 1923 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell78–80_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell78–80-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1924, after the Supreme Court twice struck down federal laws regulating and taxing goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 and 16, Congress approved an amendment to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> that would specifically authorize Congress to regulate <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">"labor of persons under eighteen years of age"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge expressed support for the amendment in his first State of the Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg76_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg76-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amendment, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor Amendment</a>, was never ratified by the requisite number of states, and, as there was no time limit set for its ratification, is still pending before the states.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Supreme Court made the Child Labor Amendment a <a href="/wiki/Mootness" title="Mootness">moot</a> issue with its ruling in the 1941 case of <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby_Lumber_Co." title="United States v. Darby Lumber Co.">United States v. Darby Lumber Co.</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prohibition">Prohibition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prohibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a>, ratified in 1920, had effectively established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States, and the <a href="/wiki/Volstead_Act" title="Volstead Act">Volstead Act</a> had established penalties for violating the amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell105–106_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell105–106-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge personally opposed Prohibition, but sought to enforce federal law and refrained from serving liquor in the White House.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller137–138_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller137–138-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Congress had established the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Prohibition" title="Bureau of Prohibition">Bureau of Prohibition</a> to enforce the Volstead Act, federal enforcement of Prohibition was lax. As most states left enforcement of Prohibition to the federal government, the illegal production of alcoholic beverages flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell106–107_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell106–107-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaders of <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a> like <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Rothstein" title="Arnold Rothstein">Arnold Rothstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a> arranged for the importation of alcohol from <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and other locations, and the profitability of <a href="/wiki/Rum-running" title="Rum-running">bootlegging</a> contributed to the rising influence of organized crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller296–297,_301_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller296–297,_301-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, alcohol consumption fell dramatically during the 1920s, in part due to the high price of alcoholic drinks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell107_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell107-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_rights">Civil rights</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Civil rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">ratification of the 19th amendment</a> in August 1920 gave women the right to vote in every state in time for the 1920 elections. Politicians responded to the greatly enlarged electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, public schools, and world peace.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women did respond to these issues, but in terms of general voting they had the same outlook and the same voting behavior as men. Thus by 1928, they realized that special appeals had little effect and there was less special attention.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg/220px-1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg/330px-1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg/440px-1924_Indian_Citizenship_Act.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3321" data-file-height="2532" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Osage_Nation" title="Osage Nation">Osage</a> men with Coolidge after he signed the bill granting Native Americans on reservations full citizenship</figcaption></figure> <p>Coolidge spoke in favor of the civil rights of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, saying in his first <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union address">State of the Union address</a> that their rights were "just as sacred as those of any other citizen" under the U.S. Constitution and that it was a "public and a private duty to protect those rights."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel250McCoy328–329_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel250McCoy328–329-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1923SOTU_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1923SOTU-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He appointed no known members of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> to office; indeed, the Klan lost most of its influence during his term.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelzenberg83–96_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFelzenberg83–96-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also repeatedly called for laws to prohibit <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a>, saying in his 1923 State of the Union address that it was a "hideous crime" of which African-Americans were "by no means the sole sufferers" but made up the "majority of the victims."<sup id="cite_ref-1923SOTU_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1923SOTU-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, congressional attempts to pass anti-lynching legislation were blocked by Southern Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel249–250_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel249–250-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge did not emphasize the appointment of African-Americans to federal positions, and he did not appoint any prominent blacks during his tenure as president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell109–110_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell109–110-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women suffrage had little effect in the South, where very few black women were allowed to vote. </p><p>On June 2, 1924, partially in recognition of the thousands of natives who joined the military during WW1, Coolidge signed the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act</a>, which granted U.S. citizenship to all <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, while permitting them to retain tribal land and cultural rights. By that time, two-thirds of Native Americans were already citizens, having gained citizenship through marriage, military service, or the land allotments that had earlier taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2-3_us_citizenship_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2-3_us_citizenship-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-coolidge_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coolidge-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act was unclear on whether the federal government or the tribal leaders retained tribal sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloria91_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloria91-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge also appointed the Committee of One Hundred, a reform panel to examine federal institutions and programs dealing with Indian nations. This committee recommended that the government conduct an in-depth investigation into reservation life, resulting in the <i><a href="/wiki/Meriam_Report" title="Meriam Report">Meriam Report</a></i> of 1928.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_affairs">Foreign affairs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Foreign affairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1913%E2%80%931933" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933">History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="League_of_Nations_and_World_Court">League of Nations and World Court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: League of Nations and World Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although not an isolationist, Coolidge was reluctant to enter into foreign alliances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel342_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel342-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considered the 1920 Republican victory as a rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilsonian</a> position that the United States should join the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not completely opposed to the idea, Coolidge believed the League, as then constituted, did not serve American interests, and he did not advocate membership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He spoke in favor of the United States joining the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a> (World Court), provided that the nation would not be bound by advisory decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy360_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy360-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, the Senate eventually approved joining the Court (with reservations).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy363_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy363-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The League of Nations accepted the reservations, but it suggested some modifications of its own. The Senate failed to act on the modifications, and the United States never joined the World Court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg114–116_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg114–116-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reparations_and_war_debts">Reparations and war debts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reparations and war debts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a>, several European nations struggled with debt, much of which was owed to the United States. These European nations were in turn owed an enormous sum from Germany in the form of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations" title="World War I reparations">World War I reparations</a>, and the German economy buckled under the weight of these reparations. Coolidge rejected calls to forgive Europe's debt or lower tariffs on European goods, but the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">Occupation of the Ruhr</a> in 1923 stirred him to action. On Secretary of State Hughes's initiative, Coolidge appointed Charles Dawes to lead an international commission to reach an agreement on Germany's reparations. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a> provided for restructuring of the German debt, and the United States loaned money to Germany to help it repay its debt to other countries. The Dawes Plan led to a boom in the German economy, as well as a sentiment of international cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg88–90_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg88–90-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Building on the success of the Dawes Plan, U.S. ambassador <a href="/wiki/Alanson_B._Houghton" title="Alanson B. Houghton">Alanson B. Houghton</a> helped organize the Locarno Conference in October 1925. The conference was designed to ease tensions between Germany and France, the latter of which feared a German rearmament. In the <a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a>, France, Belgium, and Germany each agreed to respect the borders established by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> and pledged not to attack each other. Germany also agreed to arbitrate its eastern boundaries with the states created in the Treaty of Versailles.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disarmament_and_renunciation_of_war">Disarmament and renunciation of war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disarmament and renunciation of war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a></div> <p>Coolidge's primary foreign policy initiative was the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> of 1928, named for Secretary of State Kellogg and French foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Aristide_Briand" title="Aristide Briand">Aristide Briand</a>. Nearly all major countries signed it. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories to "renounce war, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess421–423_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess421–423-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty did not achieve the immediate ending of wars—but it did provide the founding principle for international law after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy380–381Greenberg123–124_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy380–381Greenberg123–124-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge's policy of international disarmament allowed the administration to decrease military spending, a part of Coolidge's broader policy of decreasing government spending.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeller1982778_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeller1982778-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge also favored an extension of the Washington Naval Treaty to cover <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruisers</a>, but the U.S., Britain, and Japan were unable to come to an agreement at the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Naval_Conference" title="Geneva Naval Conference">Geneva Naval Conference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller349_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller349-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge was impressed with the success of the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a> of 1921–22, and called a second international conference in 1927 to deal with related naval issues, especially putting limits on the number of warships under 10,000 tons. The <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Naval_Conference" title="Geneva Naval Conference">Geneva Naval Conference</a> failed because France refused to participate, and also because most of the delegates were admirals who did not want to limit their fleets.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a>, the U.S. had refused to recognize the government of <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Obreg%C3%B3n" title="Álvaro Obregón">Álvaro Obregón</a>, one of the revolution's leaders. Secretary of State Hughes had worked with Mexico to normalize relations during the Harding administration, and President Coolidge recognized the Mexican government in 1923. To help Obregón defeat a rebellion, Coolidge also lifted an embargo on Mexico and encouraged U.S. banks to loan money to the Mexican government. In 1924, <a href="/wiki/Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles" title="Plutarco Elías Calles">Plutarco Elías Calles</a> took office as President of Mexico, and Calles sought to limit American property claims and take control of the holdings of the Catholic Church. However, Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Morrow" title="Dwight Morrow">Dwight Morrow</a> convinced Calles to allow Americans to retain their rights to property purchased before 1917, and Mexico and the United States enjoyed good relations for the remainder of Coolidge's presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg117–119_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg117–119-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the aid of a Catholic priest from the U.S., Morrow also helped bring an end to the <a href="/wiki/Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a>, a Catholic revolt against Calles's government.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States' occupation of <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Haiti</a> continued under Coolidge's administration, though Coolidge withdrew American troops from the <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> in 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess414–417Ferrell122–123_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess414–417Ferrell122–123-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. established a domestic constabulary in the Dominican Republic to promote internal order without the need for U.S. intervention, but the constabulary's leader, <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Trujillo" title="Rafael Trujillo">Rafael Trujillo</a>, eventually seized power.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge led the U.S. delegation to the <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Conference" title="Pan-American Conference">Sixth International Conference of American States</a>, January 15–17, 1928, in <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. This was the only international trip Coolidge made during his presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, he extended an <a href="/wiki/Olive_branch" title="Olive branch">olive branch</a> to Latin American leaders embittered over America's <a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">interventionist policies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 88 years he was the only sitting president to have visited Cuba, until <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> did so in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the leadership of economist <a href="/wiki/Edwin_W._Kemmerer" title="Edwin W. Kemmerer">Edwin W. Kemmerer</a>, the U.S. extended its influence in Latin America through financial advisers. With the support of the State Department, Kemmerer negotiated agreements with <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, and other countries in which the countries received loans and agreed to follow the advice of U.S. financial advisers. These "Kemmerized" countries received substantial investments and became increasingly dependent on trade with the United States. While the countries enjoyed good economic conditions in the 1920s, many would struggle in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relations with Japan had warmed with the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty and were further bolstered by U.S. aid in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake" title="1923 Great Kantō earthquake">1923 Great Kantō earthquake</a>, which killed as many as 200,000 Japanese and left another 2 million homeless. However, relations soured with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, which banned immigration from Japan to the United States. U.S. officials encouraged Japan to protest the ban while the legislation was drafted, but Japanese threats backfired as supporters of the legislation used the threats to galvanize opposition to Japanese immigration. The immigration legislation sparked a major backlash in Japan, strengthening the position of those in Japan who favored expansionism over cooperation with Western powers.<sup id="cite_ref-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Coolidge administration at first avoided engagement with the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, which was led by <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>. The administration protested the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> when it resulted in attacks on foreigners, and refused to consider renegotiating treaties reached with China when it had been under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. In 1927, Chiang purged his government of communists and began to seek U.S. support. Seeking closer relations with China, Secretary of State Kellogg agreed to grant tariff autonomy, meaning that China would have the right to set import duties on American goods.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elections_during_the_Coolidge_presidency">Elections during the Coolidge presidency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Elections during the Coolidge presidency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1924">Election of 1924</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Election of 1924"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1924.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ElectoralCollege1924.svg/260px-ElectoralCollege1924.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ElectoralCollege1924.svg/390px-ElectoralCollege1924.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ElectoralCollege1924.svg/520px-ElectoralCollege1924.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>1924 electoral college results</figcaption></figure> <p>The nation initially did not know what to make of Coolidge, who had maintained a low profile in the Harding administration; many even expected him to be replaced on the ballot in the <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 presidential election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel226–228Fuess303–305Ferrell43–51_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel226–228Fuess303–305Ferrell43–51-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1923 <a href="/wiki/United_Mine_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="United Mine Workers">United Mine Workers</a> coal strike presented an immediate challenge to Coolidge, who avoided becoming closely involved in the strike. Pennsylvania Governor <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, a progressive Republican and potential rival for the 1924 presidential nomination, quickly settled the strike with little input from the federal government. Pinchot's settlement of the strike backfired, as he took the blame for rising coal prices, and Coolidge quickly consolidated his power among Republican elites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZieger1965566–581_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZieger1965566–581-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potential opponents like Governor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Orren_Lowden" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Orren Lowden">Frank Lowden</a> of Illinois and General <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood" title="Leonard Wood">Leonard Wood</a> failed to generate support for a challenge to Coolidge, while automobile magnate <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> endorsed Coolidge for president in December 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell53–54_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell53–54-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">Republican Convention</a> was held on June 10–12, 1924, in <a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland, Ohio">Cleveland, Ohio</a>; Coolidge was nominated on the first ballot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge's nomination made him the second unelected president to win his party's nomination for another term, after <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg91–94_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg91–94-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the convention, Coolidge courted progressive Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Borah" title="William Borah">William Borah</a> to join the ticket, but Borah refused to relinquish his Senate seat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell55–57_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell55–57-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Republicans then nominated Lowden for vice president on the second ballot, but he also declined. Finally diplomat and banker <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes</a> was nominated on the third ballot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Democrats held their <a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1924 Democratic National Convention">convention</a> the next month in New York City. Wilson's Treasury Secretary <a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William Gibbs McAdoo</a> had been regarded by many as the front-runner, but his candidacy was damaged by his connection to the Teapot Dome Scandal. Nonetheless, he entered the convention as one of the two strongest candidates, alongside Governor <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a> of New York.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell57–58_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell57–58-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith and McAdoo epitomized the divide in the Democratic Party; Smith drew support from Northeastern cities, with their large ethnic populations of Catholics and Jews. McAdoo's base was in the Protestant strongholds of the rural South and West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller165_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller165-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention deadlocked over the presidential nominee, and after 103 ballots, the delegates finally agreed on a little-known compromise candidate, <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">John W. Davis</a>, who picked the brother of <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>. The Democrats' hopes were buoyed when <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">Robert LaFollette</a>, a Republican senator from Wisconsin, <a href="/wiki/Nomination_of_Robert_M._La_Follette_for_President,_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomination of Robert M. La Follette for President, 1924">split from the GOP</a> to form a new <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1924)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1924)">Progressive Party</a>. La Follette's Progressives were hostile to the conservatism of both major party candidates, and energized by the ongoing farm crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShideler1950448–449_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShideler1950448–449-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They hoped to throw the election to the House by denying the Republican ticket an electoral vote majority, and some Progressives hoped to permanently disrupt the two-party system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShideler1950449–450_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShideler1950449–450-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, many believed that the split in the Republican party, like the one in 1912, would allow a Democrat to win the presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel300_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel300-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the conventions and the death of his younger son Calvin, Coolidge became withdrawn; he later said that "when he [the son] died, the power and glory of the Presidency went with him."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929190_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929190-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the most subdued Republican campaign in memory, partly because of Coolidge's grief, but also because of his naturally non-confrontational style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel302–303_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel302–303-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge relied on advertising executive <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Fairchild_Barton" title="Bruce Fairchild Barton">Bruce Barton</a> to lead his messaging campaign, and Barton's ads depicted Coolidge as a symbol of solidity in an era of speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley616–417_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley616–417-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Republicans had been tarred by several scandals, by 1924 several Democrats had also been implicated and the partisan responsibility of the issue had been muddled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBates1955319–323_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBates1955319–323-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coolidge and Dawes won every state outside the South except Wisconsin, La Follette's home state. Coolidge won 54 percent of the popular vote, while Davis took just 28.8 percent and La Follette won 16.6 percent, one of the strongest <a href="/wiki/List_of_third_party_performances_in_United_States_presidential_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="List of third party performances in United States presidential elections">third-party presidential showings</a> in U.S. history. In the concurrent <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1924">congressional elections</a>, Republicans increased their majorities in the House and Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg106–107_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg106–107-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1928_and_transition">Election of 1928 and transition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Election of 1928 and transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928 United States presidential election</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover">Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1928.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElectoralCollege1928.svg/260px-ElectoralCollege1928.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElectoralCollege1928.svg/390px-ElectoralCollege1928.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/ElectoralCollege1928.svg/520px-ElectoralCollege1928.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Republican Herbert Hoover defeated Democrat Al Smith in the 1928 election.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the 1924 election, many pundits assumed that Coolidge would seek another term in 1928, but Coolidge had other plans. While on vacation in mid-1927, Coolidge issued a terse statement, "<a href="/wiki/I_do_not_choose_to_run" title="I do not choose to run">I do not choose to run</a>", for a second full term as president.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his memoirs, Coolidge explained his decision not to run: "The Presidential office takes a heavy toll of those who occupy it and those who are dear to them. While we should not refuse to spend and be spent in the service of our country, it is hazardous to attempt what we feel is beyond our strength to accomplish."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929239_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929239-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Coolidge's retirement, speculation on the 1928 Republican presidential nominee focused on Senator Charles Curtis, Senator William Borah, former Governor Frank Lowden, Vice President Dawes, former Secretary of State Hughes, and, especially, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller342_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller342-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coolidge was reluctant to endorse Hoover as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell195_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell195-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoover also faced opposition from Mellon and other conservatives due to Hoover's progressive stance on some issues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller342–343_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller342–343-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, Hoover's standing at the head of the party was solidified by his handling of the Great Mississippi Flood, and he faced little opposition at the <a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_National_Convention" title="1928 Republican National Convention">1928 Republican National Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller348,_351_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller348,_351-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accepting the presidential nomination, Hoover stated, "we in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land...given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller359_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller359-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having been badly defeated in the last two presidential elections, and still facing bitter divisions between the Southern and Northeastern wings of the party, few Democrats believed their party would win the 1928 presidential election. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/1928_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1928 Democratic National Convention">1928 Democratic National Convention</a>, Al Smith had emerged as the prohibitive favorite for the presidential nomination. Like Hoover, Smith was nominated on the first ballot of his party's national convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller351–352_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller351–352-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith's policies differed little from those of Hoover, and the 1928 presidential campaign instead centered on Smith's character, affiliation with the Catholic Church, and opposition to Prohibition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller360–3361_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller360–3361-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoover won a landslide victory, even taking Smith's home state of New York and several states in the <a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller362–363_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller362–363-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Historical reputation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jason Roberts in 2014 argues that Coolidge's legacy is still passionately debated by scholars and politicians. He writes: </p> <dl><dd>An introverted man, he nonetheless was a successful politician who won all but one election....He was perceived as a conservative yet supported many progressive issues at the state and local level. He was viewed as a traditionalist yet successfully exploited the new technologies of the day such as film and radio. This enigmatic man put his stamp on the policies of the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Coolidge was generally popular with the American people. He inspired trust, especially for his quiet devotion to duty. Claude Feuss wrote in 1940: </p> <dl><dd>The qualities which Coolidge displayed as a young legislator were faithfulness to duty, reliability, discretion, tolerance, integrity, and common sense. The same qualities were his as president. "throughout his career we find in him a deep-seated regard for law, for authority, or tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>McCoy emphasizes Coolidge's efficiency as president: </p> <dl><dd>As chief executive, Coolidge was effective because of his simple, direct, and responsible style. He normally formulated his policies only after consultation and study. Coolidge expected his subordinates to do their jobs efficiently based on those policies and it was clear that if they could not do so, he might replace them. Consequently, the president generally received faithful service from his appointees. He reinforced this by effectively using the Bureau of the Budget to control executive expenditures and programs. If Coolidge did not have a lot to administer compared with later presidents, he administered what he did have exceptionally well. Coolidge was also an excellent spokesman for his administration. He held regular press conferences—his only innovation as president—which he handled like an affable though strict schoolmaster.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Critical commentary increased with the onset of the Great Depression shortly after he left office, when opponents linked the economic troubles to Coolidge's economic policies. Coolidge's reputation in foreign policy also suffered in the 1930s as it became clear that certain policies had come undone under pressure from Germany and Japan. In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and other conservatives looked to the Coolidge administration as a model of laissez-faire policy.<sup id="cite_ref-millerlegacy_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-millerlegacy-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferrell praises Coolidge for avoiding major scandals and reducing the debt, but criticizes Coolidge's inactivity in foreign policy and his failure to respond to rising stock market speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell206–207_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell206–207-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polls of historians and political scientists have generally <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">ranked</a> Coolidge as a below-average president. A 2018 poll of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>’s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Coolidge as the 28th best president.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll of historians ranked Coolidge as the 27th best president.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greenberg writes: </p> <blockquote><p>Scholarly opinion looks upon the Coolidge presidency with skepticism, ranking him relatively low among American chief executives in terms of his administration's positive impact and legacy. Despite his personal integrity, he offered no sweeping vision or program of action that the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson had led the public to associate with presidential greatness.<sup id="cite_ref-millerlegacy_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-millerlegacy-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel12–13Greenberg1–7-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel12–13Greenberg1–7_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 12–13; <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 1–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess308–309-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess308–309_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 308–309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess310–315-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess310–315_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 310–315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess328–329Sobel248–249-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess328–329Sobel248–249_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 328–329; <a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 248–249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg48–49-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg48–49_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess320–322-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess320–322_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 320–322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERusnak1983270–271-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERusnak1983270–271_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRusnak1983">Rusnak 1983</a>, pp. 270–271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002224–227-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002224–227_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPolskyTkacheva2002">Polsky & Tkacheva 2002</a>, pp. 224–227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg111–112-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg111–112_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell31-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell31_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dawesvp1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dawesvp1_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141106112435/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Charles_Dawes.htm">"Charles G. Dawes, 30th Vice President (1925–1929)"</a>. <i>US Senate</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Charles_Dawes.htm">the original</a> on 6 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+Senate&rft.atitle=Charles+G.+Dawes%2C+30th+Vice+President+%281925%E2%80%931929%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fcommon%2Fgeneric%2FVP_Charles_Dawes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess364-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess364_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, p. 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalston110-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalston110_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGalston">Galston</a>, 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman216-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman216_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreeman">Freeman</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg49–53-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg49–53_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 49–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell47–48-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell47–48_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShlaes324-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShlaes324_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShlaes">Shlaes</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg68–69_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 68–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller274,_281-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller274,_281_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 274, 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller150–151-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller150–151_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell72-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell72_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg12–13_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell66–72Sobel318-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell66–72Sobel318_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 66–72; <a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell71–72-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell71–72_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg146–148-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg146–148_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 146–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg72–73-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg72–73_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 72–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell70-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell70_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell64–65-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell64–65_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 64–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002226–227-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolskyTkacheva2002226–227_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPolskyTkacheva2002">Polsky & Tkacheva 2002</a>, pp. 226–227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell32–33-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell32–33_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam_p._217-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_p._217_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Putnam" title="Robert D. Putnam">Putnam, Robert D.</a> (2000). <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Alone" title="Bowling Alone"><i>Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bowlingalone00robe/page/216/mode/2up">217</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684832838" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684832838"><bdi>978-0684832838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bowling+Alone%3A+The+Collapse+and+Revival+of+American+Community&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0684832838&rft.aulast=Putnam&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig2004" class="citation journal cs1">Craig, Steve (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233149747">"How America Adopted Radio: Demographic Differences in Set Ownership Reported in the 1930–1950 U.S. Censuses"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Broadcasting_%26_Electronic_Media" title="Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media">Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media</a></i>. <b>48</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 179–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15506878jobem4802_2">10.1207/s15506878jobem4802_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145186571">145186571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Broadcasting+%26+Electronic+Media&rft.atitle=How+America+Adopted+Radio%3A+Demographic+Differences+in+Set+Ownership+Reported+in+the+1930%E2%80%931950+U.S.+Censuses&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-195&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15506878jobem4802_2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145186571%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F233149747&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg131–132-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg131–132_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1927act-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1927act_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b45924&view=1up&seq=204"><i>Radio Act of 1927</i></a> (Public Law 69-632), February 23, 1927, pages 186-200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller318–319-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller318–319_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 318–319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell32-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell32_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell100–101-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell100–101_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell207-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell207_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Sobel, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060308075125/http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_sobel.html">"Coolidge and American Business"</a>. John F. Kennedy Library and Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_sobel.html">the original</a> on March 8, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coolidge+and+American+Business&rft.pub=John+F.+Kennedy+Library+and+Museum&rft.aulast=Sobel&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jfklibrary.org%2Fcoolidge_sobel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg47Ferrell62-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg47Ferrell62_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, p. 47; <a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeller1982780-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeller1982780_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeller1982">Keller 1982</a>, p. 780.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Greenberg127–229-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Greenberg127–229_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 310–311; <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 127–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg71–72-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg71–72_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess341-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess341_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg77–79-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg77–79_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 77–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg79–80-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg79–80_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 79–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Fuess382–383-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel310–311Fuess382–383_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 310–311; <a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 382–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel278–279-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel278–279_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 278–279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg128-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg128_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell169–171-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell169–171_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 169–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell26-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell26_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg3-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg3_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg82–84_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Herring|2008|pp=467–468_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, pp. 467–468</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell113-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell113_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell113–114-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell113–114_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 113–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller148–149-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller148–149_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell114–115-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell114–115_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 114–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell41-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell41_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell81–83-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell81–83_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 81–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams216–218-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams216–218_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams">Williams</a>, pp. 216–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell83-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell83_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell83–84-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell83–84_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell85–88-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell85–88_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 85–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell88–89-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell88–89_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess383–384-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess383–384_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 383–384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell89-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell89_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell90-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell90_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess383–84-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess383–84_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 383–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell89–90-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell89–90_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 89–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell90–93-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell90–93_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 90–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel327-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel327_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess388Ferrell93_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, p. 388; <a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel331-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel331_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell86-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell86_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams230–231-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams230–231_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams">Williams</a>, pp. 230–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel315Barry286–287Greenberg132–135_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 315; <a href="#CITEREFBarry">Barry</a>, pp. 286–287; <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 132–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller344-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller344_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, p. 344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy330–331-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy330–331_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, pp. 330–331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry372–374-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry372–374_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarry">Barry</a>, pp. 372–374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg135-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg135_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell73–74-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell73–74_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 73–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell75–76-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell75–76_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell78–80-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell78–80_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 78–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuckabee1997" class="citation web cs1">Huckabee, David C. (September 30, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015810/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf">"Ratification of Amendments to the U.S. Constitution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Research Service reports">Congressional Research Service reports</a></i>. Washington D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on June 27, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congressional+Research+Service+reports&rft.atitle=Ratification+of+Amendments+to+the+U.S.+Constitution&rft.date=1997-09-30&rft.aulast=Huckabee&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.au.af.mil%2Fau%2Fawc%2Fawcgate%2Fcrs%2F97-922.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg76-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg76_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305113638/http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/03/four-amendments-that-almost-made-it-into-the-constitution-2/">"Four amendments that almost made it into the constitution"</a>. <i>Constitution Daily</i>. Philadelphia: The National Constitution Center. March 23, 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/03/four-amendments-that-almost-made-it-into-the-constitution-2/">the original</a> on March 5, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Constitution+Daily&rft.atitle=Four+amendments+that+almost+made+it+into+the+constitution&rft.date=2014-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.constitutioncenter.org%2F2014%2F03%2Ffour-amendments-that-almost-made-it-into-the-constitution-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVile2003" class="citation book cs1">Vile, John R. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T0IGUhxqUuYC&pg=PA63"><i>Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments, Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues, 1789–2002</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851094288" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851094288"><bdi>978-1851094288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Constitutional+Amendments%2C+Proposed+Amendments%2C+and+Amending+Issues%2C+1789%E2%80%932002&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1851094288&rft.aulast=Vile&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT0IGUhxqUuYC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell105–106-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell105–106_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 105–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller137–138-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller137–138_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 137–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell106–107-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell106–107_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 106–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller296–297,_301-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller296–297,_301_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 296–297, 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell107-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell107_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynn Dumenil, <i>The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s</i> (1995) pp 98–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Kristi_Andersen" title="Kristi Andersen">Kristi Andersen</a>, <i>After Suffrage: Women in Partisan and Electoral Politics before the New Deal</i> (1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel250McCoy328–329-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel250McCoy328–329_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 250; <a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, pp. 328–329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1923SOTU-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1923SOTU_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1923SOTU_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge%27s_First_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Calvin Coolidge's First State of the Union Address">s:Calvin Coolidge's First State of the Union Address</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFelzenberg83–96-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelzenberg83–96_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFelzenberg">Felzenberg</a>, pp. 83–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel249–250-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel249–250_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 249–250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell109–110-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell109–110_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Madsen, Deborah L., ed. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-AapCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168"><i>The Routledge Companion to Native American Literature</i></a>. Routledge. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317693192" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317693192"><bdi>978-1317693192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Native+American+Literature&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317693192&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-AapCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2-3_us_citizenship-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2-3_us_citizenship_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Kappler1929" class="citation web cs1">Charles Kappler (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081011204536/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol4/html_files/v4p1165.html">"Indian affairs: laws and treaties Vol. IV, Treaties"</a>. Government Printing Office. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol4/html_files/v4p1165.html">the original</a> on 2008-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+affairs%3A+laws+and+treaties+Vol.+IV%2C+Treaties&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1929&rft.au=Charles+Kappler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fkappler%2Fvol4%2Fhtml_files%2Fv4p1165.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coolidge-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-coolidge_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2016/07/26/calvin-coolidge-first-sitting-prez-adopted-tribe-starts-desecration-mount-rushmore-165223">Alysa Landry, "Calvin Coolidge: First Sitting Prez Adopted by Tribe Starts Desecration of Mount Rushmore"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111222006/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2016/07/26/calvin-coolidge-first-sitting-prez-adopted-tribe-starts-desecration-mount-rushmore-165223">Archived</a> 2016-11-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Indian Country Today,</i> 26 July 2016; accessed same day</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeloria91-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeloria91_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeloria">Deloria</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel342-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel342_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy184–185_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, pp. 184–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy360-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy360_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, p. 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy363-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy363_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg114–116-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg114–116_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 114–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg88–90-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg88–90_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 88–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, pp. 459–460</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess421–423-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess421–423_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 421–423.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy380–381Greenberg123–124-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCoy380–381Greenberg123–124_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCoy">McCoy</a>, pp. 380–381; <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeller1982778-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeller1982778_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeller1982">Keller 1982</a>, p. 778.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller349-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller349_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, p. 349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Gibbs, "The Naval Conferences of the Interwar Years: A study in Anglo-American Relations" <i>Naval War College Review</i> 30#1 (Special issue Summer 1977), pp. 50–63 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44641788">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg117–119-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg117–119_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 117–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, p. 477</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess414–417Ferrell122–123-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess414–417Ferrell122–123_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 414–417; <a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 122–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, p. 473</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/coolidge-calvin">"Travels of President Calvin Coolidge"</a>. U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Travels+of+President+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State+Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fdepartmenthistory%2Ftravels%2Fpresident%2Fcoolidge-calvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160220091810/http://millercenter.org/president/biography/coolidge-foreign-affairs">"Calvin Coolidge: Foreign Affairs"</a>. <i>millercenter.org</i>. Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/biography/coolidge-foreign-affairs">the original</a> on February 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=millercenter.org&rft.atitle=Calvin+Coolidge%3A+Foreign+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fbiography%2Fcoolidge-foreign-affairs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2014" class="citation web cs1">Kim, Susanna (December 18, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yahoo.com/news/heres-happened-last-time-us-president-visited-cuba-222336829--abc-news-topstories.html">"Here's What Happened the Last Time a US President Visited Cuba"</a>. ABC News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Here%27s+What+Happened+the+Last+Time+a+US+President+Visited+Cuba&rft.pub=ABC+News&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Susanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yahoo.com%2Fnews%2Fheres-happened-last-time-us-president-visited-cuba-222336829--abc-news-topstories.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, pp. 471–472</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring (2008)</a>, pp. 467–470</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel226–228Fuess303–305Ferrell43–51-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel226–228Fuess303–305Ferrell43–51_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 226–228; <a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 303–305; <a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 43–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZieger1965566–581-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZieger1965566–581_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZieger1965">Zieger 1965</a>, pp. 566–581.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell53–54-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell53–54_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuess345–346_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuess">Fuess</a>, pp. 345–346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg91–94-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg91–94_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 91–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell55–57-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell55–57_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 55–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell57–58-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell57–58_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller165-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller165_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShideler1950448–449-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShideler1950448–449_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShideler1950">Shideler 1950</a>, pp. 448–449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShideler1950449–450-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShideler1950449–450_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShideler1950">Shideler 1950</a>, pp. 449–450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel300-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel300_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929190-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929190_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoolidge1929">Coolidge 1929</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel302–303-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel302–303_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobel">Sobel</a>, pp. 302–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuckley616–417-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuckley616–417_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuckley">Buckley</a>, pp. 616–417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Terry Hynes, "Media Manipulation and Political Campaigns: Bruce Barton and the Presidential Elections of the Jazz Age." <i>Journalism History</i> 4.3 (1977): 93+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBates1955319–323-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBates1955319–323_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBates1955">Bates 1955</a>, pp. 319–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg106–107-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg106–107_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenberg">Greenberg</a>, pp. 106–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Clemens and Athern P. Daggett, "Coolidge's 'I Do Not Choose to Run': Granite or Putty?." <i>New England Quarterly</i> (1945) 19#2: 147–163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/361282">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929239-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoolidge1929239_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoolidge1929">Coolidge 1929</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller342-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller342_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell195-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell195_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller342–343-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller342–343_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 342–343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller348,_351-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller348,_351_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 348, 351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller359-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller359_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, p. 359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller351–352-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller351–352_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 351–352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller360–3361-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller360–3361_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 360–3361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller362–363-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller362–363_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller">Miller</a>, pp. 362–363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jason Roberts, "The Biographical Legacy of Calvin Coolidge in the 1924 Presidential Election" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PTIWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT323">online p. 193</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaude_M._Fuess1940" class="citation book cs1">Claude M. Fuess (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fGV8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT279"><i>Calvin Coolidge – The Man from Vermont</i></a>. pp. 494–495. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1446549049" title="Special:BookSources/978-1446549049"><bdi>978-1446549049</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+Coolidge+%E2%80%93+The+Man+from+Vermont&rft.pages=494-495&rft.date=1940&rft.isbn=978-1446549049&rft.au=Claude+M.+Fuess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfGV8CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald McCoy, "Coolidge, Calvin" in <i>American National Biography</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0600109">https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0600109</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-millerlegacy-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-millerlegacy_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-millerlegacy_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Greenberg, David (4 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge/impact-and-legacy">"Calvin Coolidge: Impact and Legacy"</a>. <i>Miller Center</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=Calvin+Coolidge%3A+Impact+and+Legacy&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fcoolidge%2Fimpact-and-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrell206–207-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrell206–207_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrell">Ferrell</a>, pp. 206–207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018" class="citation news cs1">Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (19 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/">"How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Does+Trump+Stack+Up+Against+the+Best+%E2%80%94+and+Worst+%E2%80%94+Presidents%3F&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Rottinghaus&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Justin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2018%2F02%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fhow-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall">"Presidential Historians Survey 2017"</a>. <i>C-SPAN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Presidential+Historians+Survey+2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fpresidentsurvey2017%2F%3Fpage%3Doverall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_sources">Scholarly sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Scholarly sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adler, Selig. <i>The Uncertain Giant, 1921–1941: American Foreign Policy Between the Wars</i> (1965).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_M._Barry" title="John M. Barry">Barry, John M.</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risingtidegreatm00barr"><i>Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684840024" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684840024"><bdi>978-0684840024</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rising+Tide%3A+The+Great+Mississippi+Flood+of+1927+and+How+It+Changed+America&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0684840024&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisingtidegreatm00barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ciment, James. <i>Encyclopedia of the Jazz Age: From the End of World War I to the Great Crash</i> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Jazz-Age-2-Volumes/dp/0765680785/">Excerpt</a></li> <li>Cohen, Warren I. <i>Empire Without Tears: America’s Foreign Relations 1921–1933.</i> (1987)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeloria" class="citation book cs1">Deloria, Vincent (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VzWIpZBZgA0C"><i>American Indian Policy in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806124247" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806124247"><bdi>978-0806124247</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Policy+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0806124247&rft.aulast=Deloria&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVzWIpZBZgA0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ellis, L. Ethan. <i>Republican foreign policy, 1921–1933</i> (1968)</li> <li>Ellis, L. Ethan. <i>Frank B. Kellogg and American Foreign Relations, 1925–1929</i> (1961).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrell" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Ferrell, Robert H.</a> (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofcalv0000ferr"><i>The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kansas" title="University Press of Kansas">University Press of Kansas</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0700608928" title="Special:BookSources/978-0700608928"><bdi>978-0700608928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0700608928&rft.aulast=Ferrell&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofcalv0000ferr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jo_Freeman" title="Jo Freeman">Freeman, Jo</a> (2002). <i>A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics</i>. Rowman and Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847698059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847698059"><bdi>978-0847698059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Room+at+a+Time%3A+How+Women+Entered+Party+Politics&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0847698059&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuess" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Fuess" title="Claude Fuess">Fuess, Claude M.</a> (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157145/page/n8"><i>Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont</i></a>. Little, Brown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+Coolidge%3A+The+Man+from+Vermont&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Fuess&rft.aufirst=Claude+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.157145%2Fpage%2Fn8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Graff, Henry F., ed. <i>The Presidents: A Reference History</i> (3rd ed. 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidentprofiles.com//">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/calvincoolidge00gree"><i>Calvin Coolidge</i></a>. The American Presidents Series. <a href="/wiki/Times_Books" title="Times Books">Times Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805069570" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805069570"><bdi>978-0805069570</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+Coolidge&rft.series=The+American+Presidents+Series&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0805069570&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcalvincoolidge00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr"><i>From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195078220" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195078220"><bdi>978-0195078220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3B+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+Since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0195078220&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromcolonytosupe00herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hicks, John D. <i>Republican Ascendancy: 1921–1933</i> (1960) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicanascend017977mbp">Online</a>, scholarly survey focused on politics.</li> <li>Leuchtenburg, William. <i>The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–32</i> (1958) politics, econmomics & society; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perilsofprosperi00leuc_0">Online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Louria, Margot. <i>Triumph and Downfall: America’s Pursuit of Peace and Prosperity, 1921–1933</i> (2001)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy" class="citation book cs1">McCoy, Donald R. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/calvincoolidgequ00mcco"><i>Calvin Coolidge: The Quiet President</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+Coolidge%3A+The+Quiet+President&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcalvincoolidgequ00mcco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Nathan (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newworldcoming1900mill_0"><i>New World Coming: The 1920s and the Making of Modern America</i></a></span>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684852950" title="Special:BookSources/0684852950"><bdi>0684852950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+World+Coming%3A+The+1920s+and+the+Making+of+Modern+America&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0684852950&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewworldcoming1900mill_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Murray, Robert K. <i>The Politics of Normalcy: Governmental Theory and Practice in the Harding-Coolidge Era</i> (1973).</li> <li>Palmer, Niall. <i>The 20s in America: Politics and History</i> (Edinburgh University Press, 2006)</li> <li>Rhodes, Benjamin D. <i>United States Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, 1918-1941: The Golden Age of American Diplomatic and Military Complacency</i> (Greenwood, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wuPEEAAAQBAJ&dq=.+United+States+Foreign+Policy+in+the+Interwar+Period,&pg=PP6">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaes" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes, Amity</a> (2013). <i>Coolidge</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061967559" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061967559"><bdi>978-0061967559</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coolidge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0061967559&rft.aulast=Shlaes&rft.aufirst=Amity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sibley, Katherine A.S., ed. <i>A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover</i> (2014); 616pp; essays by scholars stressing historiography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PTIWBAAAQBAJ&dq=+A+Companion+to+Warren+G.+Harding,+%2B&pg=PT17">online</a></li> <li>Silver, Thomas B. <i>Coolidge and the Historians</i> (1982) 159 pages; favors Coolidge</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSobel" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobel" title="Robert Sobel">Sobel, Robert</a> (1998). <i>Coolidge: An American Enigma</i>. <a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0895264107" title="Special:BookSources/978-0895264107"><bdi>978-0895264107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coolidge%3A+An+American+Enigma&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0895264107&rft.aulast=Sobel&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Allen_White" title="William Allen White">White, William Allen</a> (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/puritaninbabylon011493mbp"><i>A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Puritan+in+Babylon%3A+The+Story+of+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=William+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpuritaninbabylon011493mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates1955" class="citation journal cs1">Bates, J. Leonard (1955). "The Teapot Dome Scandal and the Election of 1924". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>60</b> (2): 303–322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1843188">10.2307/1843188</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1843188">1843188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Teapot+Dome+Scandal+and+the+Election+of+1924&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=303-322&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1843188&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1843188%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=J.+Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Blair, John L. "Coolidge the Image-Maker: The President and the Press, 1923–1929." <i>New England Quarterly</i> (1973) #4: 499–522. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/364812">Online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckley" class="citation journal cs1">Buckley, Kerry W. (December 2003). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'A President for the "Great Silent Majority': Bruce Barton's Construction of Calvin Coolidge". <i>The New England Quarterly</i>. <b>76</b> (4): 593–626. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1559844">10.2307/1559844</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559844">1559844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%27A+President+for+the+%22Great+Silent+Majority%27%3A+Bruce+Barton%27s+Construction+of+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=593-626&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1559844&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1559844%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=Kerry+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clemens, Cyril, and Athern P. Daggett, "Coolidge's 'I Do Not Choose to Run': Granite or Putty?." <i>New England Quarterly</i> (1945) 19#2: 147–163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/361282">online</a></li> <li>Cornwell Jr, Elmer E. "Coolidge and presidential leadership." <i>Public Opinion Quarterly</i> 21.2 (1957): 265–278. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2746742">Online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelzenberg" class="citation journal cs1">Felzenberg, Alvin S. (Fall 1998). "Calvin Coolidge and Race: His Record in Dealing with the Racial Tensions of the 1920s". <i>New England Journal of History</i>. <b>55</b> (1): 83–96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Calvin+Coolidge+and+Race%3A+His+Record+in+Dealing+with+the+Racial+Tensions+of+the+1920s&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-96&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Felzenberg&rft.aufirst=Alvin+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalston" class="citation journal cs1">Galston, Miriam (November 1995). "Activism and Restraint: The Evolution of Harlan Fiske Stone's Judicial Philosophy". <i>70 Tulane Law Review 137+</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=70+Tulane+Law+Review+137%2B&rft.atitle=Activism+and+Restraint%3A+The+Evolution+of+Harlan+Fiske+Stone%27s+Judicial+Philosophy&rft.date=1995-11&rft.aulast=Galston&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller1982" class="citation journal cs1">Keller, Robert R. (1982). "Supply-Side Economic Policies during the Coolidge-Mellon Era". <i>Journal of Economic Issues</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 773–790. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00213624.1982.11504032">10.1080/00213624.1982.11504032</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4225215">4225215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=Supply-Side+Economic+Policies+during+the+Coolidge-Mellon+Era&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=773-790&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00213624.1982.11504032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4225215%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Leffler, Melvyn P. "American Policy Making and European Stability, 1921–1933." <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 46.2 (1977): 207–228. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3637932">online</a></li> <li>McKercher, Brian. "Reaching for the Brass Ring: The Recent Historiography of Interwar American Foreign Relations." <i>Diplomatic History</i> 15.4 (1991): 565–598. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24912140">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolskyTkacheva2002" class="citation journal cs1">Polsky, Andrew J.; Tkacheva, Olesya (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43975/1/10767_2004_Article_452810.pdf">"Legacies versus Politics: Herbert Hoover, Partisan Conflict, and the Symbolic Appeal of Associationalism in the 1920s"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 207–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fa%3A1020525029722">10.1023/a:1020525029722</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43975">2027.42/43975</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020160">20020160</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142508983">142508983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Politics%2C+Culture%2C+and+Society&rft.atitle=Legacies+versus+Politics%3A+Herbert+Hoover%2C+Partisan+Conflict%2C+and+the+Symbolic+Appeal+of+Associationalism+in+the+1920s&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-235&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F43975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142508983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20020160%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2Fa%3A1020525029722&rft.aulast=Polsky&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft.au=Tkacheva%2C+Olesya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2F2027.42%2F43975%2F1%2F10767_2004_Article_452810.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Roberts, Jason. "The Biographical Legacy of Calvin Coolidge and the 1924 Presidential Election." in Sibley, ed., <i>A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover</i> (2014): 193–211.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusnak1983" class="citation journal cs1">Rusnak, Robert J. (1983). "Andrew W. Mellon: Reluctant Kingmaker". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 269–278. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547924">27547924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Andrew+W.+Mellon%3A+Reluctant+Kingmaker&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-278&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27547924%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rusnak&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShideler1950" class="citation journal cs1">Shideler, James H. (1950). "The La Follette Progressive Party Campaign of 1924". <i>The Wisconsin Magazine of History</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 444–457. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4632172">4632172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wisconsin+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=The+La+Follette+Progressive+Party+Campaign+of+1924&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=444-457&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4632172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shideler&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sobel, Robert. "Coolidge and American Business" (Calvin Coolidge Presidential Foundation, 1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coolidgefoundation.org/resources/essays-papers-addresses-35/">online</a></li> <li>Webster, Joel. "Coolidge against the world: Peace, prosperity, and foreign policy in the 1920s." (2017).(MA thesis, James madison U. 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1508&context=master201019">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, C. Fred (Spring 1996). "William M. Jardine and the Foundations for Republican Farm Policy, 1925–1929". <i>Agricultural History</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 216–232. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3744534">3744534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agricultural+History&rft.atitle=William+M.+Jardine+and+the+Foundations+for+Republican+Farm+Policy%2C+1925%E2%80%931929&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=216-232&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3744534%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=C.+Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">Williams, William Appleman.</a> "The Legend of Isolationism in the 1920s." <i>Science & Society</i> (1954): 1–20. Highly influential article from the Wisconsin school argues. US foreign policy was not isolationist, but was economically very involved with the world. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laapush.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Isolation-in-1920s.pdf">Online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZieger1965" class="citation journal cs1">Zieger, Robert H. (1965). "Pinchot and Coolidge: The Politics of the 1923 Anthracite Crisis". <i>The Journal of American History</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 566–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1890848">10.2307/1890848</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1890848">1890848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Pinchot+and+Coolidge%3A+The+Politics+of+the+1923+Anthracite+Crisis&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=566-581&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1890848&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1890848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zieger&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoolidge1919" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/havefaithinmassa00cooluoft"><i>Have Faith in Massachusetts: A Collection of Speeches and Messages</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt">Houghton Mifflin</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Have+Faith+in+Massachusetts%3A+A+Collection+of+Speeches+and+Messages&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Coolidge&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhavefaithinmassa00cooluoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoolidge1926" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (2004) [1926]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/foundationsofrep00unit"><i>Foundations of the Republic: Speeches and Addresses</i></a>. University Press of the Pacific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1410215989" title="Special:BookSources/1410215989"><bdi>1410215989</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+the+Republic%3A+Speeches+and+Addresses&rft.pub=University+Press+of+the+Pacific&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1410215989&rft.aulast=Coolidge&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ffoundationsofrep00unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoolidge1929" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autobiographycal011459mbp"><i>The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge</i></a>. Cosmopolitan Book Corp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0944951031" title="Special:BookSources/0944951031"><bdi>0944951031</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.pub=Cosmopolitan+Book+Corp&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=0944951031&rft.aulast=Coolidge&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fautobiographycal011459mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannaford" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (2001). Peter Hannaford (ed.). <i>The Quotable Calvin Coolidge: Sensible Words for a New Century</i>. Images From The Past, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1884592331" title="Special:BookSources/978-1884592331"><bdi>978-1884592331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quotable+Calvin+Coolidge%3A+Sensible+Words+for+a+New+Century&rft.pub=Images+From+The+Past%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1884592331&rft.aulast=Coolidge&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuintFerrell" class="citation book cs1">Coolidge, Calvin (1964). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Ferrell, Robert H.</a>; Quint, Howard H. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77365439"><i>The Talkative President: The Off-the Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Press" title="University of Massachusetts Press">University of Massachusetts Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082409705X" title="Special:BookSources/082409705X"><bdi>082409705X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78066526">78066526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talkative+President%3A+The+Off-the+Record+Press+Conferences+of+Calvin+Coolidge&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78066526&rft.isbn=082409705X&rft.aulast=Coolidge&rft.aufirst=Calvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D77365439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Calvin+Coolidge" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Coolidge" class="extiw" title="wikt:Coolidge">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Calvin_Coolidge" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Calvin Coolidge">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Coolidge%2C+Calvin%2C+1872%E2%80%931933.&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forbeslibrary.org/coolidge/coolidge.shtml">Calvin Coolidge Presidential Library & Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coolidgefoundation.org/">Calvin Coolidge Presidential Foundation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge">Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia</a>, brief articles on Coolidge and his presidency</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#coolidge">Text of a number of Coolidge speeches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miller_Center_of_Public_Affairs" title="Miller Center of Public Affairs">Miller Center of Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/c/calvin_coolidge/index.html">Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/coolidge/index.html">Calvin Coolidge: A Resource Guide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Coolidge%2C%20Calvin%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Calvin%20Coolidge%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Coolidge%2C%20Calvin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Calvin%20Coolidge%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Coolidge%2C%20C%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Calvin%20Coolidge%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Coolidge%2C%20Calvin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Calvin%20Coolidge%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coolidge_1924">President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Ground</a></i>, the first presidential film with sound recording</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?151626-1/life-portrait-calvin-coolidge">"Life Portrait of Calvin Coolidge"</a>, from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/American_Presidents:_Life_Portraits" title="American Presidents: Life Portraits">American Presidents: Life Portraits</a></i>, September 27, 1999</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0177633/">Calvin Coolidge</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_presidents" title="Template:US presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_presidents" title="Template talk:US presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and<br />presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#First_presidency_(1885–1889)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency<br />timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Republican_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;;background:#E81B23; color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Republican_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Republican Party</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth Party System</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Republican_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets">Presidential<br />tickets</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Convention" title="Republican National Convention">national<br />conventions</a>,<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Republican Party presidential primaries">presidential<br />primaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1856_Republican_National_Convention" title="1856 Republican National Convention">1856 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_L._Dayton" title="William L. Dayton">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Republican_National_Convention" title="1860 Republican National Convention">1860 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">1864 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Republican_National_Convention" title="1868 Republican National Convention">1868 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Republican_National_Convention" title="1872 Republican National Convention">1872 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">1876 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Republican_National_Convention" title="1880 Republican National Convention">1880 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Republican_National_Convention" title="1884 Republican National Convention">1884 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_A._Logan" title="John A. Logan">Logan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">1892 (Minneapolis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_Republican_National_Convention" title="1896 Republican National Convention">1896 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart" title="Garret Hobart">Hobart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Republican_National_Convention" title="1900 Republican National Convention">1900 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Republican_National_Convention" title="1904 Republican National Convention">1904 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_Republican_National_Convention" title="1908 Republican National Convention">1908 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention" title="1912 Republican National Convention">1912 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Butler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1912 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_National_Convention" title="1916 Republican National Convention">1916 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1916 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">1920 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1920 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">1924 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Dawes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1924 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_National_Convention" title="1928 Republican National Convention">1928 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1928 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_National_Convention" title="1932 Republican National Convention">1932 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_National_Convention" title="1936 Republican National Convention">1936 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alf_Landon" title="Alf Landon">Landon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Knox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_National_Convention" title="1940 Republican National Convention">1940 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Willkie</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_L._McNary" title="Charles L. McNary">McNary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_National_Convention" title="1944 Republican National Convention">1944 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">Bricker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_National_Convention" title="1948 Republican National Convention">1948 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">1960 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Lodge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_National_Convention" title="1964 Republican National Convention">1964 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">1968 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention" title="1972 Republican National Convention">1972 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_National_Convention" title="1976 Republican National Convention">1976 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">1980 (Detroit)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">1984 (Dallas)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_National_Convention" title="1988 Republican National Convention">1988 (New Orleans)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_National_Convention" title="1992 Republican National Convention">1992 (Houston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_National_Convention" title="1996 Republican National Convention">1996 (San Diego)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jack_Kemp" title="Jack Kemp">Kemp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1996 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_National_Convention" title="2000 Republican National Convention">2000 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2000 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_National_Convention" title="2004 Republican National Convention">2004 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2004 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_National_Convention" title="2008 Republican National Convention">2008 (St. Paul)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2008 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_National_Convention" title="2012 Republican National Convention">2012 (Tampa)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_National_Convention" title="2016 Republican National Convention">2016 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2016 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_National_Convention" title="2020 Republican National Convention">2020 (Charlotte/other locations)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2020 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Convention" title="2024 Republican National Convention">2024 (Milwaukee)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2024 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/2028_Republican_National_Convention" title="2028 Republican National Convention">2028 (Houston)</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">Presidential</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a> (1865–1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a> (1869–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a> (1881–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a> (1889–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">McKinley</a> (1897–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">Taft</a> (1909–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Harding</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coolidge</a> (1923–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1974–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> (1981–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> (1989–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a> (2001–2009)</li> <li>Trump (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House<br />leaders</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">Speakers</a>,<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">Conference<br />chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Pennington" title="William Pennington">Pennington</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galusha_A._Grow" title="Galusha A. Grow">Grow</a> (1861–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a> (1863–1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_M._Pomeroy" title="Theodore M. Pomeroy">Pomeroy</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a> (1869–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._McCrary" title="George W. McCrary">McCrary</a> (1875–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hale" title="Eugene Hale">Hale</a> (1877–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Frye" title="William P. Frye">Frye</a> (1879–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Warren_Keifer" title="J. Warren Keifer">Keifer</a> (1881–1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1883–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Henderson_(politician)" title="Thomas J. Henderson (politician)">T. J. Henderson</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1895–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Henderson" title="David B. Henderson">D. B. Henderson</a> (1899–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1903–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_(Illinois_politician)" title="James Robert Mann (Illinois politician)">Mann</a> (1911–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_H._Gillett" title="Frederick H. Gillett">Gillett</a> (1919–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Longworth" title="Nicholas Longworth">Longworth</a> (1925–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Snell" title="Bertrand Snell">Snell</a> (1931–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a> (1939–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Halleck" title="Charles A. Halleck">Halleck</a> (1959–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1965–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes" title="John Jacob Rhodes">Rhodes</a> (1973–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Michel" title="Robert H. Michel">Michel</a> (1981–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a> (1995–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Hastert" title="Dennis Hastert">Hastert</a> (1999–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Boehner" title="John Boehner">Boehner</a> (2007–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> (2015–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_McCarthy" title="Kevin McCarthy">McCarthy</a> (2019–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Johnson</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Committee" title="Republican National Committee">RNC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jarvis_Raymond" title="Henry Jarvis Raymond">Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Lawrence_Ward" title="Marcus Lawrence Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachariah_Chandler" title="Zachariah Chandler">Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Donald_Cameron" title="J. Donald Cameron">Cameron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Jewell" title="Marshall Jewell">Jewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_M._Sabin" title="Dwight M. Sabin">Sabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Jones_(industrialist)" title="Benjamin Franklin Jones (industrialist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay" title="Matthew Quay">Quay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Clarkson" title="James S. Clarkson">Clarkson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James_Campbell" title="William James Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Carter" title="Thomas H. Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Hanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Payne" title="Henry Clay Payne">Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou" title="George B. Cortelyou">Cortelyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._New" title="Harry S. New">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Harris_Hitchcock" title="Frank Harris Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fremont_Hill" title="John Fremont Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Rosewater" title="Victor Rosewater">Rosewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Hilles" title="Charles D. Hilles">Hilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Russell_Willcox" title="William Russell Willcox">Wilcox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_H._Hays" title="Will H. Hays">Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Adams" title="John T. Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Butler" title="William M. Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_H._Huston" title="Claudius H. Huston">Huston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_D._Fess" title="Simeon D. Fess">Fess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Sanders" title="Everett Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_P._Fletcher" title="Henry P. Fletcher">Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hamilton_(Kansas_politician)" title="John Hamilton (Kansas politician)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_Walsh" title="Bailey Walsh">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_E._Spangler" title="Harrison E. Spangler">Spangler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Brownell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Carroll_Reece" title="B. Carroll Reece">Reece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Scott" title="Hugh Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Gabrielson" title="Guy Gabrielson">Gabrielson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield" title="Arthur Summerfield">Summerfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wesley_Roberts" title="C. Wesley Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Hall" title="Leonard W. Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meade_Alcorn" title="Meade Alcorn">Alcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thruston_Ballard_Morton" title="Thruston Ballard Morton">T. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_Burch" title="Dean Burch">Burch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_C._Bliss" title="Ray C. Bliss">Bliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Morton" title="Rogers Morton">R. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(politician)" title="Mary Louise Smith (politician)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Brock" title="Bill Brock">Brock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Richards_(Utah_politician)" title="Richard Richards (Utah politician)">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Laxalt" title="Paul Laxalt">Laxalt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Yeutter" title="Clayton Yeutter">Yeutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bond_(political_executive)" title="Richard Bond (political executive)">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haley_Barbour" title="Haley Barbour">Barbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Nicholson_(Secretary_of_Veterans_Affairs)" title="Jim Nicholson (Secretary of Veterans Affairs)">Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Gilmore" title="Jim Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Racicot" title="Marc Racicot">Racicot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Gillespie" title="Ed Gillespie">Gillespie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Mehlman" title="Ken Mehlman">Mehlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Mart%C3%ADnez" title="Mel Martínez">Martínez</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan" title="Mike Duncan">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan" title="Mike Duncan">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Steele" title="Michael Steele">Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reince_Priebus" title="Reince Priebus">Priebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronna_McDaniel" title="Ronna McDaniel">McDaniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Whatley" title="Michael Whatley">Whatley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chair elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2009_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2009 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2011 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2013 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2015 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2017 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2021_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2021 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2023 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_parties_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="List of state parties of the Republican Party (United States)">Parties</a> by<br />state and<br />territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Republican_Party" title="Alabama Republican Party">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Republican_Party" title="Alaska Republican Party">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Republican_Party" title="Arizona Republican Party">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Arkansas" title="Republican Party of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Republican_Party" title="California Republican Party">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Republican_Party" title="Colorado Republican Party">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Republican_Party" title="Connecticut Republican Party">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_State_Committee_of_Delaware" title="Republican State Committee of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Florida" title="Republican Party of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Republican_Party" title="Georgia Republican Party">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Republican_Party" title="Hawaii Republican Party">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Republican_Party" title="Idaho Republican Party">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Republican_Party" title="Illinois Republican Party">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Republican_Party" title="Indiana Republican Party">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Iowa" title="Republican Party of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Republican_Party" title="Kansas Republican Party">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Kentucky" title="Republican Party of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Louisiana" title="Republican Party of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Republican_Party" title="Maine Republican Party">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Republican_Party" title="Maryland Republican Party">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Republican_Party" title="Massachusetts Republican Party">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Republican_Party" title="Michigan Republican Party">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Minnesota" title="Republican Party of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Republican_Party" title="Mississippi Republican Party">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Republican_Party" title="Missouri Republican Party">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Republican_Party" title="Montana Republican Party">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Republican_Party" title="Nebraska Republican Party">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Republican_Party" title="Nevada Republican Party">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Republican_State_Committee" title="New Hampshire Republican State Committee">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Republican_Party" title="New Jersey Republican Party">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_New_Mexico" title="Republican Party of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Republican_State_Committee" title="New York Republican State Committee">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="North Carolina Republican Party">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="North Dakota Republican Party">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Republican_Party" title="Ohio Republican Party">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Republican_Party" title="Oklahoma Republican Party">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Republican_Party" title="Oregon Republican Party">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Republican_Party" title="Pennsylvania Republican Party">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Republican_Party" title="Rhode Island Republican Party">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="South Carolina Republican Party">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="South Dakota Republican Party">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Republican_Party" title="Tennessee Republican Party">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Republican_Party" title="Utah Republican Party">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Republican_Party" title="Vermont Republican Party">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Virginia" title="Republican Party of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Republican_Party" title="Washington State Republican Party">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Republican_Party" title="West Virginia Republican Party">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Wisconsin" title="Republican Party of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Republican_Party" title="Wyoming Republican Party">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_American_Samoa" title="Republican Party of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Republican_Party" title="District of Columbia Republican Party">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Guam" title="Republican Party of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)" title="Republican Party (Northern Mariana Islands)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Republican Party of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Republican Party of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)_organizations" title="Republican Party (United States) organizations">Affiliated <br /> organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">House Conference</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Digest" title="Legislative Digest">Legislative Digest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steering_and_Policy_Committees_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Steering and Policy Committees of the United States House of Representatives">Steering and Policy Committees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Senate Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Republican_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Republican Policy Committee">Policy Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">Factions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_Solvers_Caucus" title="Problem Solvers Caucus">Problem Solvers Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governance_Group" title="Republican Governance Group">Republican Governance Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">Republican Study Committee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Fundraising<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Congressional_Committee" title="National Republican Congressional Committee">National Republican Congressional Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Redistricting_Trust" title="National Republican Redistricting Trust">National Republican Redistricting Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Senatorial_Committee" title="National Republican Senatorial Committee">National Republican Senatorial Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Attorneys_General_Association" title="Republican Attorneys General Association">Republican Attorneys General Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governors_Association" title="Republican Governors Association">Republican Governors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Sectional<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_Republicans" title="College Republicans">College Republicans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairpersons_of_the_College_Republicans" title="List of chairpersons of the College Republicans">Chairmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Hispanic_Conference" title="Congressional Hispanic Conference">Congressional Hispanic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">Log Cabin Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Jewish_Coalition" title="Republican Jewish Coalition">Republican Jewish Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Hispanic_Assembly" title="Republican National Hispanic Assembly">Republican National Hispanic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Abroad" title="Republicans Abroad">Republicans Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teen_Age_Republicans" title="Teen Age Republicans">Teen Age Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">Young Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Overseas" title="Republicans Overseas">Republicans Overseas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_School_Republican_National_Federation" title="High School Republican National Federation">High School Republican National Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Factional<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Majority_for_Choice" title="Republican Majority for Choice">Republican Majority for Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Liberty_Caucus" title="Republican Liberty Caucus">Republican Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Coalition_for_Life" title="Republican National Coalition for Life">Republican National Coalition for Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Caucus" title="Liberty Caucus">Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wish_List_(political_organization)" title="The Wish List (political organization)">The Wish List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Republican Party presidential primaries">Primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_presidential_debates" title="Republican Party presidential debates">Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_the_Republican_Party" title="Bibliography of the history of the Republican Party">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Democracy_Union" title="International Democracy Union">International Democracy Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Timeline of modern American conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Calvin_Coolidge" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Calvin_Coolidge" title="Template:Calvin Coolidge"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Calvin_Coolidge" title="Template talk:Calvin Coolidge"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Calvin_Coolidge" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Calvin Coolidge"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Calvin_Coolidge" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">30th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1923–1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">29th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1921–1923)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts#Commonwealth_of_Massachusetts:_1780–present" title="Governor of Massachusetts">48th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governor of Massachusetts</a> (1919–1921)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Early_life_and_family_history" title="Calvin Coolidge">Early life and family history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_Homestead" title="Coolidge Homestead">Boyhood home and first inauguration site</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Notch_Cemetery" title="Plymouth Notch Cemetery">gravesite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge_House" title="Calvin Coolidge House">Calvin Coolidge House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Early_career_and_marriage" title="Calvin Coolidge">Early career and marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Lieutenant_Governor_and_Governor_of_Massachusetts_(1916−1921)" title="Calvin Coolidge">Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_police_strike" title="Boston police strike">Boston police strike</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Vice_presidency_(1921−1923)" title="Calvin Coolidge">Vice Presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Post-presidency_(1929–1933)" title="Calvin Coolidge">Retirement and death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Calvin Coolidge Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library and Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Industry_and_trade" title="Calvin Coolidge">Industry and trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Taxation_and_government_spending" title="Calvin Coolidge">Taxation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1924" title="Revenue Act of 1924">Revenue Act of 1924</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1926" title="Revenue Act of 1926">Revenue Act of 1926</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1928" title="Revenue Act of 1928">Revenue Act of 1928</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegheny_National_Forest" title="Allegheny National Forest">Allegheny National Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Civil_rights" title="Calvin Coolidge">Civil rights</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarke%E2%80%93McNary_Act" title="Clarke–McNary Act">Clarke–McNary Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1924" title="Oil Pollution Act of 1924">Oil Pollution Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_Adjusted_Compensation_Act" title="World War Adjusted Compensation Act">World War Adjusted Compensation Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Opposition_to_farm_subsidies" title="Calvin Coolidge">Opposition to farm subsidies</a> (<a href="/wiki/McNary%E2%80%93Haugen_Farm_Relief_Bill" title="McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill">McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1925" title="Judiciary Act of 1925">Judiciary Act of 1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Federal Corrupt Practices Act">Federal Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Labor_Act" title="Railway Labor Act">Railway Labor Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_Act_of_1926" title="Passport Act of 1926">Passport Act of 1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Flood_control" title="Calvin Coolidge">Flood control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Great_Mississippi_Flood_of_1927" title="Great Mississippi Flood of 1927">Great Mississippi Flood of 1927</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1928" title="Flood Control Act of 1928">Flood Control Act of 1928</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1926 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Addresses (1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1927_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1927 State of the Union Address">1927)</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_do_not_choose_to_run" title="I do not choose to run">I do not choose to run</a>" (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927" title="Radio Act of 1927">Radio Act of 1927</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal-time_rule" title="Equal-time rule">Equal-time rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McFadden_Act" title="McFadden Act">McFadden Act</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brave_Little_State_of_Vermont_speech" title="Brave Little State of Vermont speech">Brave Little State of Vermont speech</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McSweeney-McNary_Act_of_1928" title="McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928">McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Conservation_Act" title="Migratory Bird Conservation Act">Migratory Bird Conservation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Jenkins_Act" title="Reed–Jenkins Act">Reed–Jenkins Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Foreign_policy" title="Calvin Coolidge">Foreign policy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Nicaragua" title="United States occupation of Nicaragua">United States occupation of Nicaragua</a> (1912–1933), <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">United States occupation of Haiti</a> (1915–1934), <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">United States occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1916–1924), <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a> (1922), <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover">Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge#Cabinet" title="Calvin Coolidge">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of federal judges appointed by Calvin Coolidge">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone_Supreme_Court_nominations" title="Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nominations">Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1918_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">1920 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920 United States presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidential transition of Warren G. Harding">transition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">1924 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 United States presidential election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge">The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge</a></i> (1929)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Calvin_Coolidge" title="List of things named after Calvin Coolidge">Things named after Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sesquicentennial_coinage" title="United States Sesquicentennial coinage">Sesquicentennial half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Coolidge" title="SS President Coolidge">SS <i>President Coolidge</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a></i> (1979 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Coolidge" title="Grace Coolidge">Grace Coolidge</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Coolidge" title="John Coolidge">John Coolidge</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin_Coolidge_Sr." title="John Calvin Coolidge Sr.">John Calvin Coolidge Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Galusha_Coolidge" title="Calvin Galusha Coolidge">Calvin Galusha Coolidge</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Brown_(U.S._senator)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Brown (U.S. senator)">Arthur Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olympia_Brown" title="Olympia Brown">Olympia Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Coolidge" title="Charles A. Coolidge">Charles A. Coolidge</a> (cousins)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_A._Coolidge" title="Marcus A. Coolidge">Marcus A. Coolidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Coolidge" title="Arthur W. Coolidge">Arthur W. Coolidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martha_Coolidge" title="Martha Coolidge">Martha Coolidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Coolidge" title="Carlos Coolidge">Carlos Coolidge</a> (distant relations)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Rice_(colonist)" title="Edmund Rice (colonist)">Edmund Rice</a> (ancestor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Roy_(dog)" title="Rob Roy (dog)">Rob Roy</a> (family dog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_(raccoon)" title="Rebecca (raccoon)">Rebecca</a> (pet raccoon)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">← Warren G. Harding</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">← Thomas R. Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Calvin_Coolidge" title="Category:Calvin Coolidge">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/18px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/27px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/35px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/21px-Trumpet01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/32px-Trumpet01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/42px-Trumpet01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="539" data-file-height="170" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:1920s" title="Portal:1920s">1920s</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q29109910#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85140462">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565692205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&oldid=1252005411">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&oldid=1252005411</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Category:Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">Presidency of Calvin Coolidge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1923_establishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1923 establishments in the United States">1923 establishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1929_disestablishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1929 disestablishments in the United States">1929 disestablishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidencies_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidencies of the United States">Presidencies of the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1920s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1920s in the United States">1920s in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Calvin_Coolidge" title="Category:Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Herbert_Hoover" title="Category:Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Official_website_not_in_Wikidata" title="Category:Official website not in Wikidata">Official website not in Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_default_search" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with default search">Pages using Sister project links with default search</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 October 2024, at 07:52<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-8rtpv","wgBackendResponseTime":147,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.832","walltime":"2.405","ppvisitednodes":{"value":19824,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":258410,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":26184,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":26,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":244993,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1927.734 1 -total"," 17.42% 335.897 122 Template:Sfn"," 15.40% 296.793 1 Template:Infobox_administration"," 15.00% 289.116 1 Template:Infobox"," 14.26% 274.904 1 Template:Reflist"," 9.47% 182.583 1 Template:Calvin_Coolidge_series"," 9.33% 179.851 1 Template:Sidebar_person/US_President"," 7.98% 153.783 10 Template:Cite_web"," 6.65% 128.158 3 Template:Infobox_administration/bodystyle"," 6.34% 122.278 8 Template:Infobox_administration/seal"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.037","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10661485,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBarry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBates1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuckley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_Kappler1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaude_M._Fuess1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoolidge1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoolidge1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoolidge1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeloria\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFelzenberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerrell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuess\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalston\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannaford\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerring2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuckabee1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeller1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadsen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolskyTkacheva2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPutnam2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintFerrell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRusnak1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShideler1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlaes\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVile2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZieger1965\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Age in years and days\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Calvin Coolidge\"] = 1,\n [\"Calvin Coolidge series\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 10,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 6,\n [\"IMDb name\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox U.S. Cabinet\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox administration\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"NYT topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Republican Party (United States)\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 122,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 18,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 14,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"US Presidential Administrations\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n3\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","29.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","29.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","9.4"],["type","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","40","3.1"],["\u003Cmw.lua:194\u003E","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::interwikiMap","40","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","20","1.6"],["[others]","140","10.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-7rwxd","timestamp":"20241125140032","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Presidency of Calvin Coolidge","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q29109910","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q29109910","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2016-08-31T22:32:32Z","dateModified":"2024-10-19T07:52:57Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/Calvin_Coolidge_cph.3g10777_%28cropped%29.jpg","headline":"U.S. presidential administration from 1923 to 1929"}</script> </body> </html>