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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Russian Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russian_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Russian Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Russian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Workers'_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workers'_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Workers' councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workers'_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Russian Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Within_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Within_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Within the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Within_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Communist_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Communist_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Post-Communist Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Communist_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Outside Russia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outside_Russia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Outside Russia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Outside_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elsewhere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elsewhere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Elsewhere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elsewhere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Soviet (council)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="سوفيت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سوفيت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3viet" title="Sóviet – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sóviet" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovetl%C9%99r" title="Sovetlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sovetlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%9E%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Савецкая ўлада – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Савецкая ўлада" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_(%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0)" title="Съвети (СССР) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Съвети (СССР)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_(kuzulio%C3%B9)" title="Soviet (kuzulioù) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Soviet (kuzulioù)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sov%C4%9Bt" title="Sovět – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sovět" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet_(r%C3%A5d)" title="Sovjet (råd) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sovjet (råd)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjet" title="Sowjet – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sowjet" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%AD%CF%84" title="Σοβιέτ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σοβιέτ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3viet" title="Sóviet – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sóviet" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soveto" title="Soveto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Soveto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobiet_(kontseilua)" title="Sobiet (kontseilua) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sobiet (kontseilua)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3iv%C3%A9id_(comhdh%C3%A1il)" title="Sóivéid (comhdháil) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Sóivéid (comhdháil)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EB%B9%84%EC%97%90%ED%8A%B8" title="소비에트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소비에트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet" title="Sovjet – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sovjet" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_(dewan)" title="Soviet (dewan) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Soviet (dewan)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="סובייט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סובייט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%81_%D2%AF%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Кеңес үкіметі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кеңес үкіметі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovieti" title="Sovieti – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sovieti" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovietas" title="Sovietas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sovietas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szovjet_(tan%C3%A1cs)" title="Szovjet (tanács) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szovjet (tanács)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet" title="Sovjet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sovjet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%93%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88" title="ソビエト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソビエト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet" title="Sovjet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sovjet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rada_(sowiet)" title="Rada (sowiet) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rada (sowiet)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviete_(conselho)" title="Soviete (conselho) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Soviete (conselho)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" title="Soviet – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Soviet" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Советы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Советы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Soviet (council)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet" title="Sovjet – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sovjet" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Совјет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Совјет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet" title="Sovjet – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sovjet" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ty%C3%B6l%C3%A4isten_ja_sotilaiden_neuvostot" title="Työläisten ja sotilaiden neuvostot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Työläisten ja sotilaiden neuvostot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet_(r%C3%A5d)" title="Sovjet (råd) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sovjet (råd)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovyet_(konsey)" title="Sovyet (konsey) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sovyet (konsey)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Ради депутатів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B" class="extiw" title="ru:Советы">the corresponding article</a> in Russian</b>.  <i><small>(October 2013)</small></i> <small>Click [show] for important translation instructions.</small></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Fru.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B&sl=ru&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en">View</a> a machine-translated version of the Russian article.</li> <li>Machine translation, like <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepl.com">DeepL</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/">Google Translate</a>, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.</li> <li>Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.</li> <li>You <b>must</b> provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Copying_within_Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia:Copying within Wikipedia">copyright attribution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Help:Edit_summary" title="Help:Edit summary">edit summary</a> accompanying your translation by providing an <a href="/wiki/Help:Interlanguage_links" title="Help:Interlanguage links">interlanguage link</a> to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is <code>Content in this edit is translated from the existing Russian Wikipedia article at [[:ru:Советы]]; see its history for attribution.</code></li> <li>You may also add the template <code>{{Translated|ru|Советы}}</code> to the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Soviet_(council)" title="Talk:Soviet (council)">talk page</a>.</li> <li>For more guidance, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation" title="Wikipedia:Translation">Wikipedia:Translation</a>.</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg/287px-1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg" decoding="async" width="287" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg/431px-1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg/574px-1917petrogradsoviet_assembly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1242" /></a><figcaption>Soviet assembly in <a href="/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a>, 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>soviet</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">совет</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">sovet</i></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[sɐˈvʲet]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f6\/Ru-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.ogg\/Ru-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f6/Ru-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.ogg/Ru-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.ogg" title="File:Ru-совет.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">council</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">workers' council</a> that follows a <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> ideology, particularly in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>. Soviets were the main form of government in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a>. </p><p>The first soviets were established during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">1905 Revolution</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. In 1917, following the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a>, a state of <a href="/wiki/Dual_power" title="Dual power">dual power</a> emerged between the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a> and the soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ended later that year with the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, during which the <a href="/wiki/Second_All-Russian_Congress_of_Workers%27_and_Soldiers%27_Deputies%27_Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="Second All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies' Soviets">Second Congress of Soviets</a> proclaimed itself as the supreme governing body of the country. </p><p>Because soviets gave the name to the later <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, they are frequently associated with the state's establishment. However, the term may also refer to any workers' council that is socialist, such as the <a href="/wiki/Irish_soviets" title="Irish soviets">Irish soviets</a>. Soviets do not inherently need to adhere to the ideology of the Soviet Union. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Soviet" is derived from a <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> word meaning council, assembly, advice, harmony, or concord,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>trans 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and all ultimately deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> <a href="/wiki/Verb_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb stem">verbal stem</a> of *vět-iti "to inform", related to the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ('to know'; cf. "wetenschap" 'science').<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The word "sovietnik" means "councillor", from the Russian word "soviet" plus the Russian suffix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-ник">-ник</a> denoting an occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of organizations in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> were called "council" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">сове́т</span>). For example, in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Council (Russian Empire)">State Council</a>, which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Polish and Ukrainian word is respectively <span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">rada</i></span> and <span title="Ukrainian-language text"><span lang="uk">рада</span></span>, 'council, advice', from Middle High German <i>rāt</i>. See <a href="/wiki/Rada" title="Rada">Rada</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Empire">Russian Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Russian Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/300px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/450px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg/600px-%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2005" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>Deputies of the first soviet, 1905.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workers'_councils"><span id="Workers.27_councils"></span>Workers' councils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Workers' councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg/250px-Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg/375px-Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg/500px-Lev_Trotsky_1906-3.3_V1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Soviet" title="Saint Petersburg Soviet">Soviet of Workers' Deputies of St. Petersburg</a> in 1905: <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> in the center. The soviets were an early example of a <a href="/wiki/Workers_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Workers council">workers council</a></figcaption></figure><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet historiography">official historiography of the Soviet Union</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">workers' council</a> (soviet) formed in May 1905 in <a href="/wiki/Ivanovo" title="Ivanovo">Ivanovo</a> (north-east of <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1905 Russian Revolution">1905 Russian Revolution</a> (<i>Ivanovsky Soviet</i>). However, in his memoirs, the Russian anarchist <a href="/wiki/Volin" title="Volin">Volin</a> claims that he witnessed the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/St_Petersburg_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="St Petersburg Soviet">St Petersburg Soviet</a> in January 1905. The Russian workers were largely organized at the turn of the 20th century, leading to a government-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Trade-union" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade-union">trade-union</a> <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a>. </p><p>In 1905, as the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–1905) increased the strain on Russian industrial production, the workers began to strike and rebel. The soviets represented an autonomous workers' movement, one that broke free from the government's oversight of workers' unions and played a major role in the 1905 Russian Revolution. Soviets sprang up throughout the industrial centers of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, usually organizing <a href="/wiki/Meeting" title="Meeting">meetings</a> at the factory level. These soviets disappeared after the revolution of 1905, but re-emerged under <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> leadership during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">revolutions of 1917</a>. </p><p>Soviets emerged as inclusive bodies to lead workers, and to organize strikes and to politically and militarily fight the government of <a href="/wiki/Russian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian empire">Russian empire</a> mainly through <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>, with the primary actors being <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">socialist revolutionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchists">anarchists</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a>'s party was a minority.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time they established minor <a href="/wiki/Worker_cooperatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker cooperatives">worker cooperatives</a>, though the operations were minor due to Russian crackdown on leftist organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Revolution">Russian Revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Russian Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_in_1920_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="2372" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik party">Bolshevik party</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068,_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/134px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/201px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/268px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="939" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and a key figure in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The popular organizations which came into existence during the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> were called "Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies". These bodies were supposed to hold things together under the provisional government until the election of a constituent assembly could take place; in a sense, they were vigilance committees designed to guard against <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolution">counter-revolution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Petrograd_Soviet" title="Petrograd Soviet">Petrograd Soviet</a> of 4,000 members was the most important of these, on account of its position in the capital and its influence over the garrison.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of the Revolution, these soviets were under control of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionary_Party" title="Socialist Revolutionary Party">Socialist Revolutionary Party</a>, and even the <a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a> had a larger share of the elected representatives than the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>. As <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> continued and the Russians met defeat after defeat, and the provisional government proved inadequate at establishing industrial peace, the Bolsheviks began to grow in support. By degrees, the Bolsheviks dominated with a leadership which demanded "all power to the soviets."<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bolsheviks promised the workers a government run by workers' councils to overthrow the bourgeoisie's main government body - the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a>. In October 1917, the provisional government was overthrown, giving all power to the Soviets. <a href="/wiki/John_Reed_(journalist)" title="John Reed (journalist)">John Reed</a>, an American eyewitness to the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, wrote, "Until February 1918 anybody could vote for delegates to the Soviets. Even had the bourgeoisie organised and demanded representation in the Soviets, they would have been given it. For example, during the regime of the Provisional Government there was bourgeois representation in the Petrograd Soviet – a delegate of the Union of Professional Men which comprised doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism" title="Terrorism and Communism">Terrorism and Communism</a></i> (1920) that "In Petrograd, in November 1917, we also elected a Commune (Town Council) on the basis of the most democratic voting, without limitations for the bourgeoisie. These elections, being boycotted by the bourgeoisie parties, gave us a crushing majority. The democratically elected Council voluntarily submitted to the Petrograd Soviet... the Soviet Government placed no obstacle in the way of the bourgeois parties; and if the Cadets, the SRs and the Mensheviks, who had their press which was openly calling for the overthrow of the Soviet Government, boycotted the elections, it was only because at that time they still hoped soon to make an end of us with the help of armed force... If the Petrograd bourgeoisie had not boycotted the municipal elections, its representatives would have entered the Petrograd Council. They would have remained there up to the first Social Revolutionary and Cadet rising, after which ... they would probably have been arrested if they did not leave the Council in good time, as at a certain moment did the bourgeois members of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> wrote that the soviets were originally politically open and inclusive entities, writing in <i>The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky</i> (1918) that, "the disenfranchisement of the bourgeoisie is not a necessary and indispensable feature of the dictatorship of the proletariat. And in Russia, the Bolsheviks, who long before October put forward the slogan of proletarian dictatorship, did not say anything in advance about disenfranchising the exploiters. This aspect of the dictatorship did not make its appearance 'according to the plan' of any particular party; it emerged of itself in the course of the struggle ... even when the Mensheviks (who compromised with the bourgeoisie) still ruled the soviets, the bourgeoisie cut themselves off from the soviets of their own accord, boycotted them, put themselves up in opposition to them and intrigued against them. The soviets arose without any constitution and existed without one for more than a year (from the spring of 1917 to the summer of 1918). The fury of the bourgeoisie against this independent and omnipotent (because it was all-embracing) organisation of the oppressed; the fight, the unscrupulous, self-seeking and sordid fight, the bourgeoisie waged against the soviets; and, lastly, the overt participation of the bourgeoisie (from the Cadets to the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries, from <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Pavel Milyukov</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Alexander Kerensky</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Kornilov mutiny</a> – all this paved the way for the formal exclusion of the bourgeoisie from the Soviets."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bolsheviks and their allies came out with a program called "soviet government". The soviet system was described as "a higher type of state" and "a higher form of democracy" which would "arouse the masses of the exploited toilers to the task of making new history". Furthermore, it offered "to the oppressed toiling masses the opportunity to participate actively in the free construction of a new society". According to Lenin, soviet rule "is nothing else than the organized form of the dictatorship of the proletariat". A code of rules governing elections to the soviets was framed in March 1918, but the following classes were disqualified to vote: "Those who employ others for profit; those who live on incomes not derived from their own work – interest on capital, industrial enterprises or landed property; private business men, agents, middlemen; monks and priests of all denominations; ex-employees of the old police services and members of the <a href="/wiki/Romanov_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov dynasty">Romanov dynasty</a>; lunatics and criminals."<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With village and factory soviets as a base, there arose a vast pyramid of district, cantonal, county and regional soviets, each with its executive soviet. Over and above these stood the "<a href="/wiki/All-Russian_Congress_of_Soviets" title="All-Russian Congress of Soviets">All-Russian Soviet Congress</a>", which appointed an "<a href="/wiki/All-Russian_Central_Executive_Committee" title="All-Russian Central Executive Committee">All-Russian Central Executive Committee</a>" of not more than 200 members, which in turn chooses the "<a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Commissars" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of the People's Commissars">Soviet of People's Commissaries</a>" – the Ministry. Beginning with a minimum of three and maximum of 50 members for smaller communities, the maximum for town soviets was fixed at 1,000 members. The soviet system was seen as an alternative to parliamentary systems for administering <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican</a> governments.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Within_the_Soviet_Union">Within the Soviet Union</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Within the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of the Creation of the USSR">Declaration of the Creation of the USSR</a>, and successively the <a href="/wiki/1924_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union</a>, the Soviets were the basis of government in the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factory and village Soviets would send delegates to town Soviets, and in turn the town Soviet would send delegates to the regional Soviet, town and regional Soviets elected delegates to the provincial Soviet, provincial Soviets sent delegates to the Soviet of the constituent republic, and the Soviets of the <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Union Republics</a> sent delegates to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets of the U.S.S.R.</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 1936, the election of delegates up the pyramid became direct with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet" title="Supreme Soviet">Supreme Soviets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Elections of delegates were made by a show of hands in open factory and village meetings, or in meetings of the rank and file of the army. Any candidate was personally known to the electors, and his qualifications could be argued about immediately in front of his face. Delegates once elected were liable to 'recall' should they cease to represent the views of their electorate. Since this electorate was a real entity, always in existence and discussing politics from day to day, it had a live and changing public opinion. Thus the will of his 'constituency' could easily, unmistakably and effectively be brought home to the delegate; and it was equally easy for him to report back to his electors. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Holme, "The Soviets and Ourselves: Two Commonwealths"</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Local constituents within the factory and village soviet would compile a list of what they want the government to do, and the role of the elected delegates was to carry out the given tasks. Unsatisfactory delegates are liable to recall by majority decision of the electorate: in the 30s, fifteen delegates were so recalled within four years in Moscow alone. There were very few full time administrative workers or state functionaries; instead, many citizens would take part in the day-to-day running of the government. In the 1940s, it was estimated that at any given time there were over a million people participating in the running of the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each Soviet has a variety of committees, parallel to the government departments in the USSR as a whole- public employees aided, advised and ran their relevant committees- for example, teachers would be on education sections, and doctors on healthcare sections: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>One major factor making the standing committees a more likely arena for deputy participation in the work of the soviet is their smaller size [...] in 1985 nearly 2 million deputies were members of one or another standing committee - about 80 percent of all deputies. In addition, deputies are assisted in their work by unpaid volunteers (<i>aktiv</i>) with a particular interest or expertise in the issues before the committee. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Hahn, "Soviet Grassroots: Citizen Participation in Local Soviet Government"</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Union Republics</a>, Provinces and Town Soviets had jurisdiction to run their own industry, take censuses, employ more doctors, teachers, and nurses, build schools, libraries and hospitals so long as it did not directly conflict with the national policy. More than half of the Union Republic's income went towards local grants, and local Soviets were largely allowed to determine how their budget was spent.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the Bolshevik view of the state, the word <i>soviet</i> <a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">extended</a> its meaning to any overarching body that obtained the authority of a group of soviets. In this sense, individual soviets became part of a <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federal</a> structure - Communist government bodies at local level and <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">republic</a> level<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were called "soviets", and at the top of the hierarchy, the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets" title="Congress of Soviets">Congress of Soviets</a> became the nominal core of the Union government of the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a> (USSR), officially formed in December 1922. Successive <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Constitutions</a> recognised the leading role of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> in politics,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> - the <a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936 Constitution</a> deemed it the "leading nucleus of all organisations of workers, whether public or state".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soviets were structured as the instruments through which the Party governed the country. Thus the organs of the Communist Party (the highest being the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>) made decisions on state policy, while the soviets acted as a system for public approval of implementing the Party's programme. </p><p>Later,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (December 2015)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> in the USSR, <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">republics</a> were also called soviets<sup id="cite_ref-:212_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:212-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and local-government bodies were named soviet (<i>sovyet</i>: council) with an adjective indicating the administrative level, customarily abbreviated: <i>gorsoviet</i> (<i>gorodskoy sovyet</i>: city council), <i>raysoviet</i>/<i>raisoviet'</i> (<i>rayonny sovyet</i>: <a href="/wiki/Raion" title="Raion">raion</a> council), <i><a href="/wiki/Selsoviet" title="Selsoviet">selsoviet</a></i> (<i>sel'sky sovyet</i>: rural council), <i>possoviet</i> (<i>poselkovy sovyet</i>: settlement council). In practice deputies in a soviet often worked in standing committees and carried out functions with the help of unpaid volunteers (the <i>aktiv</i> - <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">актив</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Communist_Russia">Post-Communist Russia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Post-Communist Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although English speakers perceive the term as connoting the defunct <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the same word is used in Russian for the <a href="/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)" title="Federation Council (Russia)">Federation Council</a> of the post-communist <a href="/wiki/Federal_Assembly_(Russia)" title="Federal Assembly (Russia)">Russian Federal Assembly</a>. Its untranslated name is Сове́т Федера́ции (Sovyet Federatsii). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_Russia">Outside Russia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Outside Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg/220px-Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg/330px-Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg/440px-Poznan_1918_meeting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2086" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>Polish soldiers and workers electing a council in <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, November 1918</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Councils_in_Poland" title="Workers' Councils in Poland">Workers' Councils in Poland</a></div> <p>Workers' councils, known as <i>rady delegatów robotniczych</i> (councils of workers' delegates) or simply <i>rady robotnicze</i> (workers' councils), were formed in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> at various times throughout the 20th century. The first known examples occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_in_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_(1905%E2%80%931907)" title="Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)">Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1905 Russian Revolution">1905 Russian Revolution</a>, wherein workers in <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a> took control of factories and sometimes even entire towns until tsarist authorities quelled the rebellion using police and military forces; alongside <a href="/wiki/Central_Russia" title="Central Russia">Central Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, Congress Poland was one of the most active centres of the 1905 of revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1918, soviets began popping up all around Poland, which was regaining independence after <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">123 years of colonial rule</a>. Over 100 workers' councils operated there in the years 1918–1919, assembling around 500,000 workers and peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-onet_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onet-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most numerous and radical councils were located in <a href="/wiki/Kra%C5%9Bnik" title="Kraśnik">Kraśnik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, <a href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock" title="Płock">Płock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zag%C5%82%C4%99bie_D%C4%85browskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagłębie Dąbrowskie">Zagłębie Dąbrowskie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-onet_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onet-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some of the <i>rady</i> managed to form self-defence units, the councils were dismantled by July 1919 – mostly due to suppression by the Polish government and withdrawal of support from the reformist <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party" title="Polish Socialist Party">Polish Socialist Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>rady robotnicze</i> also appeared in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">World War II</a> 1944–1947,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_protests_of_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="Poznań protests of 1956">Poznań protests of 1956</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a>, in 1970, as well as the strike committees and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">councils of 1980–1981</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the wake of World War I, the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democrats</a> took power in <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, setting up the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Bavaria" title="People's State of Bavaria">People's State of Bavaria</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Eisner" title="Kurt Eisner">Kurt Eisner</a>, a popular Jewish writer. Eisner, an eccentric and well known figure in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, succeeded in carrying out a bloodless coup with a few hundred men on 7 November 1918, occupying the seat of parliament and government, and proclaiming a republic. He was assassinated three months after, whereupon a <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">short-lived soviet republic</a> was established by the Bavarian workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 May 1919, the <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(German_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (German Empire)">German Army</a>, along with local Bavarian <a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a>, overthrew the nascent republic, massacring several hundred persons in the process, including many non-Communist. A Social Democratic government was thereupon restored, however, political power passed to the Bavarian right.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The political turmoil of post-war Bavaria was also the political springboard of Hitler's political career. Hitler, having returned to Munich in late November 1918, detested the soviet state (he elaborated on his aversion to it in his autobiographical work, <i><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></i>, where he also claimed he once narrowly avoided arrest by the state). After the fall of the soviet administration in Bavaria, Hitler began his "first more or less political activity", informing a military commission regarding those involved in the short-lived soviet state. This work might have been what ensured his future employment with the <i><a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a></i> in Munich as an "educational officer" whose task was combating "dangerous" ideas like communism, pacifism, and democracy among the army's ranks (many soldiers had taken part in the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a>; in fact it was sparked by <a href="/wiki/Kiel_mutiny" title="Kiel mutiny">mutinous German sailors</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_base_area" title="Revolutionary base area">Revolutionary base area</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">Nanchang uprising</a>, the term was also used by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communists</a> in the 1920s taking control in <a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">some parts of the country</a>, which were later declared as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a> in 1931. The CSR was China's first communist government in a structure that would later evolve into the People's Republic of China, but was ultimately wiped out by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Chinese Nationalist</a> forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Cultural_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cultural-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> led a short-lived soviet in <a href="/wiki/Bama_Yao_Autonomous_County" title="Bama Yao Autonomous County">Bama County</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elsewhere">Elsewhere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Elsewhere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term soon came to be used outside the former Russian Empire following 1917. The <a href="/wiki/Limerick_Soviet" title="Limerick Soviet">Limerick Soviet</a> was formed in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland#Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Ireland</a> in 1919 at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence" title="Irish War of Independence">Irish War of Independence</a>, and sprung up alongside a number of <a href="/wiki/Irish_soviets" title="Irish soviets">soviets in Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">soviet republic was established in Bavaria</a> on 7 April 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1920, the <i><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Dreadnought" title="Workers' Dreadnought">Workers' Dreadnought</a></i> published "A Constitution for British Soviets" in preparation for the launch of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_(British_Section_of_the_Third_International)" title="Communist Party (British Section of the Third International)">Communist Party (British Section of the Third International)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here the focus was on "household" soviets "[i]n order that mothers and those who are organisers of the family life of the community may be adequately represented." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations">Translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: <span lang="uk">рада</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Rada" title="Rada">rada</a></i>); <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <i lang="pl">rada</i>; <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: <span lang="be">савет</span>; <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>: <span lang="uz">совет</span>; <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>: <span lang="kk">совет/кеңес</span>; <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>: <span title="Georgian-language text"><span lang="ka" style="font-style: normal;">საბჭო</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>: <span lang="az">совет</span>; <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: <i lang="lt">taryba</i>; <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>: <i lang="ro">soviet</i> (<a href="/wiki/Moldovan_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet">Moldovan Cyrillic</a>: совет); <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>: <i lang="lv">padome</i>; <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>: <span lang="ky">совет</span>; <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a>: <span lang="tg">шӯравӣ</span>; <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>: <span lang="hy">խորհուրդ / սովետ</span>; <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>: <span lang="tk">совет</span>; <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>: <i lang="et">nõukogu</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/soviet" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:soviet">soviet</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace Soviet Republic">Alsace Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitsrat_f%C3%BCr_Kunst" title="Arbeitsrat für Kunst">Arbeitsrat für Kunst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_democracy" title="Cellular democracy">Cellular democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)" title="Federation Council (Russia)">Federation Council (Russia)</a>, which translates as Сове́т Федера́ции (<i>Soviet Federatsii</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_soviets" title="Free soviets">Free soviets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution">German Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_soviets" title="Irish soviets">Irish soviets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi%E2%80%93Fujian_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet">Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_democracy" title="Participatory democracy">Participatory democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing (assembly)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_control" title="Workers' control">Workers' control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' council</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Earlier, in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a>, there were three levels of soviet hierarchy: local, <a href="/wiki/Russia#Subdivisions" title="Russia">republic</a>, and federal-republic.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cleveland.com/world/index.ssf/2009/10/stalin_put_on_trial_loses_russ.html">cleveland.com - Stalin put on trial, loses: Russian court rejects 'bloodthirsty cannibal' libel suit by grandson</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-provisional-government/">"The Provisional Government | History of Western Civilization II"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Provisional+Government+%26%23124%3B+History+of+Western+Civilization+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsuny-hccc-worldhistory2%2Fchapter%2Fthe-provisional-government%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-americana-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlein1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Klein, Henri F. (1920). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Soviet"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Soviet">"Soviet" </a></span>. In Rines, George Edwin (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Soviet&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Henri+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'Farrell1963" class="citation journal cs1">O'Farrell, P. J. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020859000002285">"The Russian Revolution and the Labour Movements of Australia and New Zealand, 1917–1922"</a>. <i>International Review of Social History</i>. <b>8</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">177–</span>197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020859000002285">10.1017/S0020859000002285</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145637715">145637715</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=The+Russian+Revolution+and+the+Labour+Movements+of+Australia+and+New+Zealand%2C+1917%E2%80%931922&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E177-%3C%2Fspan%3E197&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020859000002285&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145637715%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=O%27Farrell&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020859000002285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/4d22590a23c2f0196f7b8853e30dd1d9/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1819040">"Rosenberg, "Liberals in the Russian Revolution, the Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917-1921" (Book Review)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProQuest&rft.atitle=Rosenberg%2C+%22Liberals+in+the+Russian+Revolution%2C+the+Constitutional+Democratic+Party%2C+1917-1921%22+%28Book+Review%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F4d22590a23c2f0196f7b8853e30dd1d9%2F1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D1819040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1997" class="citation book cs1">Waldron, Peter (7 April 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=okxdDwAAQBAJ"><i>The End of Imperial Russia, 1855–1917</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1919+Limerick+Soviet+%26%23124%3B+Robert+Nielsen&rft.pub=Robertnielsen21.wordpress.com&rft.date=2012-10-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frobertnielsen21.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F10%2F06%2F1919-limerick-soviet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDorney2013" class="citation web cs1">Dorney, John (6 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theirishstory.com/2013/06/06/the-general-strike-and-irish-independence/">"The General Strike and Irish independence – The Irish Story"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+General+Strike+and+Irish+independence+%E2%80%93+The+Irish+Story&rft.date=2013-06-06&rft.aulast=Dorney&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theirishstory.com%2F2013%2F06%2F06%2Fthe-general-strike-and-irish-independence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+%28council%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libcom.org/library/constitution-british-soviets-points-communist-programme-sylvia-pankhurst">A Constitution for British Soviets</a>," <i>Workers' Dreadnought</i>, Vol VII No.13 19 June 1919</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_(council)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviets" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soviets">Soviets</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Edward Acton, <i>Rethinking the Russian Revolution</i> (1990), Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6530-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-6530-8">0-7131-6530-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Cliff" title="Tony Cliff">Tony Cliff</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1976/lenin2/index.htm">Lenin: All Power to the Soviets</a></i> (1976), Pluto Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voline" class="mw-redirect" title="Voline">Voline</a>, <i>The Unknown Revolution</i>, Black Rose Books.</li> <li>Rex A. Wade, <i>The Russian Revolution, 1917</i> (2005), Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84155-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84155-0">0-521-84155-0</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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