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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg/220px-Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg/330px-Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg/440px-Peru_Zeremonialmesser_Sican_EthnM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1785" data-file-height="2805" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sican_culture" title="Sican culture">Sican</a> <a href="/wiki/Tumi" title="Tumi">tumi</a>, or ceremonial knife, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, 850–1500 <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</span></span></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America</b> is the extraction, purification and alloying of metals and metal crafting by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> prior to European contact in the late 15th century. Indigenous Americans had been using native metals from ancient times, with recent finds of gold artifacts in the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andean</a> region dated to 2155–1936 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North American</a> copper finds being dated to approximately 5000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The metal would have been <a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">found in nature</a> without the need for <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>, and shaped into the desired form using hot and cold hammering without chemical alteration or <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloying</a>. As of 1999, "no one has found evidence that points to the use of melting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North America."<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1999_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  136">(p 136)</span></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> the case is quite different. Indigenous South Americans had full <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> with smelting and various metals being purposely alloyed. <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica">Metallurgy in Mesoamerica</a> and western Mexico may have developed following contact with South America through Ecuadorian marine traders.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_(siglos_XIV-XV).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg/220px-Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg/330px-Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg/440px-Dinero_azada_de_Mexico_%28siglos_XIV-XV%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5675" data-file-height="4638" /></a><figcaption>Bronze <a href="/wiki/Axe-monies" title="Axe-monies">axe-money</a> from Mexico at the <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_Museum_of_Valencia" title="Prehistory Museum of Valencia">Prehistory Museum of Valencia</a></figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="South_America">South America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>South American metal working seems to have developed in the Andean region of modern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> with gold and <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">native copper</a> being hammered and shaped into intricate objects, particularly <a href="/wiki/Ornament_(art)" title="Ornament (art)">ornaments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scattolin-2010_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scattolin-2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent finds date the earliest gold work to 2155–1936 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the earliest copper work to 1432–1132 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Scattolin-2010_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scattolin-2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ice core studies in Bolivia suggest copper smelting may have begun as early as 700 BC, over 2700 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1410–1090 BC, gilding was practiced in coastal Peru.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further evidence for this type of metal work comes from the sites at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Waywaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waywaka (page does not exist)">Waywaka</a> (near Andahuaylas in southern Peru), <a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn" class="mw-redirect" title="Chavín">Chavín</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kotosh" title="Kotosh">Kotosh</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bruhns1994_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruhns1994-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it seems to have been spread throughout Andean societies by the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_periods_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural periods of Peru">Early horizon</a> (1000–200 BC). </p><p>Unlike other metallurgy traditions where metals gained importance through practical use in weaponry and everyday utensils, metals in South America (and later Central America) were mainly valued as adornments and status objects. Though also functional objects were produced, even in the metallurgically advanced Andean cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a> era stone tools were never completely replaced by bronze items in everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Early horizon, advances in metal working produced spectacular and characteristic Andean gold objects made by the joining of smaller metal sheets, and also <a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">gold-silver alloy</a> appeared. </p><p>Two traditions seem to have developed alongside each other – one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another in the <a href="/wiki/Altiplano" title="Altiplano">Altiplano</a> region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. There is evidence for <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copper_sulphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper sulphide">copper sulphide</a> in the Altiplano region around the Early horizon. Evidence for this comes from copper slag recovered at several sites,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the ore itself possibly coming from the south Chilean-Bolivian border. Near Puma Punku, Bolivia, and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia, <i>portable</i> smelting kilns were used to cast I-shaped "cramps" (fasteners) in place, to join large stone blocks during construction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Their chemical analysis shows </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="float:right;"> 95.15% </div></td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper alloy">copper</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"> 2.05% </div></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"> 1.70% </div></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"> 0.84% </div></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="float:right;"> 0.26% </div></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The estimated date of these <a href="/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting (metalworking)">pours</a> lies between 800 and 500 BC. </p><p>Evidence for fully developed smelting, however, only appears with the <a href="/wiki/Moche_(culture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moche (culture)">Moche</a> culture (northern coast, 200 BC – 600 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ores were extracted from shallow deposits in the Andean foothills. They were probably smelted nearby, as pictorially depicted on the metal artifacts themselves and on ceramic vessels. Smelting was done in adobe brick furnaces with at least three blow pipes to provide the air flow needed to reach the high temperatures. The resulting ingots would then have been moved to coastal centers for shaping in specialised workshops.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two workshops found and studied near the administrative sections of their towns, again showing the prestige of metal. Analysis of a Moche statue composed of numerous thin metal layers revealed complex plating and gilding involving a combination of immersion in acidic solutions and the application of extreme heat.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The objects themselves were still mainly adornments, now often being attached to beads. In fact, in the Lambayeque and Chimu cultures (750–1400 CE), a wide range of functional metal items were produced such as bowls, plates, drinking vessels, boxes, plates, models, scales and especially beakers (acquillas), but mostly for ceremonial or elite use.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some functional objects were fashioned, but they were elaborately decorated and often found in high-status burials, seemingly still used more for symbolic than for practical purposes. The appearance of gold or silver seems to have been important, with a high number of gilded or silvered objects as well as the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Tumbaga" title="Tumbaga">Tumbaga</a>, a alloy of copper and gold, and sometimes also silver. Arsenic <a href="/wiki/Copper_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper alloys">bronze</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was also smelted from sulphidic ores, a practice either independently developed or learned from the southern tradition. The earliest known powder metallurgy, and earliest working of platinum in the world, was apparently developed by the cultures of Esmeraldas (northwest Ecuador) before the Spanish conquest<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning with the La Tolita culture (600 BC – 200 CE), Ecuadorian cultures mastered the soldering of platinum grains through alloying with copper, gold and silver, producing platinum-surfaced rings, handles, ornaments and utensils. This technology was eventually noticed and adopted by the Spanish <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1730</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coastal communities of <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a>, as exemplified by those near <a href="/wiki/Tocopilla" title="Tocopilla">Tocopilla</a>, produced their own metal objects for practical use in the 900–1400 CE period.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro,_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg/220px-Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg/330px-Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg/440px-Muisca_raft_-_detail_-_Museo_del_Oro%2C_Bogot%C3%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The gold <a href="/wiki/Muisca_raft" title="Muisca raft">Muisca raft</a> in the Museo del Oro, Bogotá</figcaption></figure> <p>Metallurgy gradually spread north into Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica, reaching Guatemala and Belize by 800 CE. By <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100–700 CE</span>, <a href="/wiki/Depletion_gilding" title="Depletion gilding">depletion gilding</a> was developed by the Nahuange culture of Colombia to produce ornamental variations such as <a href="/wiki/Rose_gold" class="mw-redirect" title="Rose gold">rose gold</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Muisca goldworking</a>, from modern <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, made a wide variety of small ornamental and religious objects from about 600 CE onwards. The gold <a href="/wiki/Muisca_raft" title="Muisca raft">Muisca raft</a> is probably the best-known single object. This is in the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Museum,_Bogot%C3%A1" title="Gold Museum, Bogotá">Gold Museum, Bogotá</a>, the largest of the six "gold museums" owned by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Bank of Colombia">Central Bank of Colombia</a> displaying gold from the <a href="/wiki/Muisca" title="Muisca">Muisca</a> and other pre-Columbian cultures in the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inca_Empire">Inca Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Inca Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Only with the <a href="/wiki/Incas" class="mw-redirect" title="Incas">Incas</a> would metals really come into practical use.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At Machu Picchu and other sites, metal was used for bolas, plumb bobs, chisels, gravers, pry bars, tweezers, needles, plates, fish hooks, spatulas, ladles, knives (tumi), bells, breastplates, lime spoons, mace heads, ear spools, bowls, cloak pins (tupus), axes, and foot plow adzes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, they remained materials through which to display wealth and status. The characteristic importance placed on colour, which had led to some of the earlier developments, was still present (sun/moon association with gold/silver). Metals other than gold also had an intrinsic value, with axe pieces being of particular note in this regard. With the spread of metal tools by the Incas, it is thought possible that a more Old World use of metals would have become more common. In any case, as Bruhns notes, "[b]ronze can be seen as an expensive substitute for the equally efficient stone".<sup id="cite_ref-Bruhns1994_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruhns1994-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  183">(p 183)</span></sup> However, sediment research in Bolivia has revealed that metals such as silver were smelted on a very large scale, thousands of tons, from late Tiwanaku to Inca times (1000–1530 CE), which suggests that the paucity of metal (particularly precious metal) at Inca sites is more likely caused by Spanish acquisition and export than by limited pre-colonial use.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been claimed that the Inca Empire expanded into Diaguita lands in what is now north-central Chile because of its mineral wealth, but that view is rejected by some scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorandi1988_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorandi1988-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, an additional possibility is that the Incas invaded the relatively well-populated <a href="/wiki/Calchaqu%C3%AD" title="Calchaquí">Eastern Diaguita valleys</a> (present-day Argentina) to obtain labor to send to Chilean mining districts.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorandi1988_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorandi1988-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Incas influenced <a href="/wiki/Diaguita" title="Diaguita">Diaguitas</a>, who adopted Incan metalworking techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farther south in Chile, <a href="/wiki/Mapuche" title="Mapuche">Mapuche</a> tribes within or near the Incan Empire paid tributes in gold.<sup id="cite_ref-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incan <i><a href="/wiki/Yanakuna" title="Yanakuna">yanakuna</a></i> are believed by archaeologists <a href="/wiki/Tom_Dillehay" title="Tom Dillehay">Tom Dillehay</a> and Américo Gordon to have extracted gold south of the Incan frontier in free Mapuche territory. Following that thought, the main motive for Incan expansion into Mapuche territory would have been to access <a href="/wiki/History_of_mining_in_Chile" title="History of mining in Chile">gold mines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dillehay1988_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dillehay1988-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the Mapuche people of central and south-central Chile, gold had an important cultural significance that predates <a href="/wiki/Incas_in_Central_Chile" title="Incas in Central Chile">Inca contact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Spanish conquest of Chile</a>, Mapuches are reported by various chroniclers to use gold ornaments.<sup id="cite_ref-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PayàsPuigarnau-VillenaAraya-2021-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Osvaldo_Silva" title="Osvaldo Silva">Osvaldo Silva</a> gold ornaments of the Mapuche of the <a href="/wiki/Penco" title="Penco">Concepción area</a> evidence some kind of interaction between the Mapuche and the Inca that may have been trade, gifts, or spoils of war taken from a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Maule" title="Battle of the Maule">defeated Inca army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Silva1983_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silva1983-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pre-Hispanic Mapuche tools are known to have been relatively simple and made of wood and stone, but a few of them were actually made of copper and <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-villalobosSurindigena_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-villalobosSurindigena-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BengoaAntiguo190-191_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BengoaAntiguo190-191-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron">Iron</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Iron was never smelted by Native Americans, thus the New World never entered a proper "<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>" before European discovery, and the term is not used of the Americas. But there was limited use of native (unsmelted) iron ore, from magnetite, iron pyrite and ilmenite (iron–titanium), especially in the Andes (Chavin and Moche cultures) and Mesoamerica, after 900 BC and until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 CE</span>. Various forms of iron ore were mined,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> drilled and highly polished. There is considerable evidence that this technology, its raw materials and end products were widely traded in Mesoamerica throughout the Formative era (2000–200<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lumps of iron pyrite, magnetite, and other materials were mostly shaped into mirrors, pendants, medallions, and headdress ornaments for decorative and ceremonial effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Taube-1992-2018-Ch8_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taube-1992-2018-Ch8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, concave iron ore mirrors were apparently used for firing and optical purposes by the Olmec (1500–400<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC) and Chavin (900–300<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC) cultures,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ilmenite "beads" may have served as hammers for fine work.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones-Jones-Jones-1997_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-Jones-Jones-1997-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Olmec and Izapa (300<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC – 100<span class="nowrap"> </span>CE) also seem to have used iron magnetism to align and position monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have developed a zeroth-order compass using a magnetite bar.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Mesoamerican uses of native iron seem to have been military. Steven Jones proposed that the Olmec sewed ilmenite "beads" into protective mail armour or helmets.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones-Jones-Jones-1997_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-Jones-Jones-1997-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron pyrite mosaics and plates formed protective tezcacuitlapalli (mirrored back flap shields) and breastplate ornaments in the military attire of the Teotihuacan (100 BC – 600 AD), Toltec (800–1150 AD) and Chichen Itza (800–1200 CE) cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-Taube-1992-2018-Ch8_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taube-1992-2018-Ch8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lead">Lead</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lead"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lead ore (galena) in relatively pure form is present geologically in a number of places in North America. Some native populations mined and used the lead. <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_America_and_Caribbean">Central America and Caribbean</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Central America and Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_pendant,_Panama,_Veraguas,_11th-16th_century_AD,_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG/220px-Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG/330px-Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG/440px-Double_pendant%2C_Panama%2C_Veraguas%2C_11th-16th_century_AD%2C_gold_-_De_Young_Museum_-_DSC00377.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2765" data-file-height="2382" /></a><figcaption>Gold double pendant, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veraguas" class="mw-redirect" title="Veraguas">Veraguas</a>, <span class="nowrap">11th–16th century AD</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Gold, copper and <a href="/wiki/Tumbaga" title="Tumbaga">tumbaga</a> objects started being produced in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> between 300–500 CE. Open-molded casting with oxidation gilding and cast filigrees were in use. By 700–800 CE, small metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of gold and tumbaga ornaments constituted the usual regalia of persons of high status in Panama and Costa Rica.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest specimen of metalwork from the Caribbean is a gold-alloy sheet carbon dated to 70–374 CE. Most Caribbean metallurgy has been dated to between 1200 and 1500 CE and consists of simple, small pieces such as sheets, pendants, beads and bells. These are mostly gold or a gold alloy (with copper or silver) and have been found to be largely cold hammered and sand-polished alluvial nuggets, although a few items seem to have been produced by lost wax casting. It is presumed that at least some of these items were acquired by trade from Colombia.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica">Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BronzeTztztz.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/BronzeTztztz.JPG/220px-BronzeTztztz.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/BronzeTztztz.JPG/330px-BronzeTztztz.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/BronzeTztztz.JPG/440px-BronzeTztztz.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Copper_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper alloy">Copper alloy</a> bells and tool, <a href="/wiki/Tarascan_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarascan state">Tarascan state</a> (1300 to 1530)</figcaption></figure> <p>Metallurgy only appears in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> in 800 CE with the best evidence from West <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. Much like in South America, fine metals were seen as a material for the elite. Metal's special qualities of colour and resonance seemed to have appealed most and then led to the particular technological developments seen in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Hosler-1988_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosler-1988-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exchange of ideas and goods with peoples from the Ecuador and Colombia region (likely via a maritime route) seems to have fueled early interest and development. Similar metal artifact types are found in West Mexico and the two regions: copper rings, needles, and tweezers being fabricated in the same ways as in Ecuador and also found in similar archaeological contexts. A multitude of bells were also found, but in this case they were cast using the same <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a> method as seen in Colombia.<sup id="cite_ref-Hosler-1988_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosler-1988-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, copper was being used almost exclusively. </p><p>Continual contact kept the flow of ideas from that same region and later, coinciding with the development of Andean long distance maritime trade, influence from further south seems to have reached the region and led to a second period (1200–1300 CE to the Spanish arrival).<sup id="cite_ref-Hosler-1988_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hosler-1988-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this time, <a href="/wiki/Copper_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper alloys">copper alloys</a> were being explored by West Mexican metallurgists, partly because the different mechanical properties were needed to fashion specific artifacts, particularly <a href="/wiki/Axe-monies" title="Axe-monies">axe-monies</a> – further evidence for contact with the Andean region. However, in general the new properties such alloys introduced were developed to meet regional needs, especially wirework bells, which at times had such high tin content in the bronze that it was irrelevant for its mechanical properties but gave the bells a golden colour. </p><p>The actual artifacts and then techniques were imported from the south, but west Mexican metallurgists worked ores from the abundant local deposits; the metal was not being imported. Even when the technology spread from West into north-eastern, central and southern Mexico, artifacts that can be traced back to West Mexican ores are abundant, if not exclusive. It is not always clear if the metal reached its final destination as an ingot, an ore or a finished artifact. Provenance studies on metal artifacts from southern Mesoamerica cast with the <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost wax technique</a> and dissimilar to west Mexican artifacts have shown that there might have been a second point of emergence of metallurgy into Mesoamerica there since no known source could be identified.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Tarascan Empire, copper and bronze was used for chisels, punches, awls, tweezers, needles, axes, discs, and breastplates.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> did not initially adopt metal working, even though they had acquired metal objects from other peoples. However, as conquest gained them metal working regions, the technology started to spread. By the time of the Spanish conquest, a bronze-smelting technology had already been developed. Spanish conquistadors used indigenous smelting technology to produce weapons and tools.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_America">Northern America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Northern America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological evidence has not revealed metal smelting or alloying of metals by <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> native peoples north of the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>; however, they did use <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">native copper</a> extensively.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Copper_Culture">Old Copper Culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Old Copper Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As widely accepted as this statement might be, it should not be considered synonymous with a lack of metal objects, as it points out native copper was relatively abundant, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1999_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latest glacial period had resulted in the scouring of copper bearing rocks. Once the ice retreated, these were readily available for use in a variety of sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1999_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copper was shaped via cold hammering into objects from very early dates (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period</a> in the Great Lakes region: 8000–1000 BC). There is also evidence of actual <a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction" title="Copper extraction">mining of copper veins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Copper_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Copper Complex">Old Copper Complex</a>), but disagreement exists as to the dates.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1999_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extraction would have been extremely difficult. <a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstones</a> may have been used to break off pieces small enough to be worked. This labor-intensive process might have been eased by building a fire on top of the deposit, then quickly dousing the hot rock with water, creating small cracks. This process could be repeated to create more small cracks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The copper could then be cold-hammered into shape, which would make it brittle, or hammered and heated in an annealing process to avoid this. The final object would then have to be ground and sharpened using local sandstone. Numerous bars have also been found, possibly indicative<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (November 2013)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> of trade for which their shaping into a bar would also serve as proof of quality. </p><p> Great Lake artifacts found in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Woodlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Woodlands">Eastern Woodlands</a> of North America seem to indicate there were widespread trading networks by 1000 BC. Progressively the usage of copper for tools decreases with more jewelry and adornments being found. This is believed to be indicative of social changes to a more hierarchical society.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1999_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of copper mining pits have been found along the lake shore of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>, and on <a href="/wiki/Isle_Royale" title="Isle Royale">Isle Royale</a>. These pits may have been in use as far back as 8,000 years ago. This copper was mined and then made into objects such as heavy spear points and tools of all kinds. It was also made into mysterious crescent objects that some archaeologists believe were religious or ceremonial items. The crescents were too fragile for utilitarian use, and many have 28 or 29 notches along the inner edge, the approximate number of days in a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_month" title="Lunar month">lunar month</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan-2005_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-2005-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg/220px-Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg/330px-Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Hopewell_culture_falcon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="239" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a> copper falcon, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200 BC – 1 CE</span>, Ohio<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>The Old Copper Culture mainly flourished in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>. However at least 50 Old Copper items, including spear points and ceremonial crescents have been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>. A few more in <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, and at least one, a crescent, has turned up in <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, 2,000 kilometres from its homeland in Ontario. It is most likely that these copper items arrived in the plains as trade goods rather than people of the Old Copper Culture moving into these new places. However from one excavated site in eastern Manitoba we can see that at least some people were moving northwest. At a site near <a href="/wiki/Bissett,_Manitoba" title="Bissett, Manitoba">Bissett</a> archaeologists have found copper tools, weapons, and waste material of manufacture, along with a large nugget of raw copper. This site however was dated to around 4,000 years ago, a time of cooler climate when the <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest_of_Canada" title="Boreal forest of Canada">boreal forest's</a> treeline moved much further south. Though if these migrants moved with their metallurgy up the <a href="/wiki/Winnipeg_River" title="Winnipeg River">Winnipeg River</a> at this time they may have continued onward, into <a href="/wiki/Lake_Winnipeg" title="Lake Winnipeg">Lake Winnipeg</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan_River" title="Saskatchewan River">Saskatchewan River</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan-2005_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-2005-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This Old Copper Culture never became particularity advanced, and never discovered the principle of creating <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. This means that many, though they could make metal objects and weapons, continued to use their flint tools, which could maintain a sharper edge for much longer. The unalloyed copper could simply not compete, and in the later days of the Old Copper Culture the metal was almost exclusively used for ceremonial items.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryan-2005_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan-2005-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> However this Great Lake model as a unique source of copper and of copper technologies remaining somewhat static for over 6,000 years has recently come into some level of criticism, particularly since other deposits seem to have been available to ancient North Americans, even if much smaller.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg/220px-Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg/330px-Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg/440px-Spiro_Wulfing_and_Etowah_repousse_plates_HRoe_2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Plates from <a href="/wiki/Wulfing_cache" title="Wulfing cache">Malden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etowah_plates" title="Etowah plates">Etowah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copper_in_the_Mississippian_culture">Copper in the Mississippian culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Copper in the Mississippian culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian period</a> (800–1600 CE, varying locally), elites at major political and religious centers throughout the midwestern and southeastern United States used copper ornamentation as a sign of their status by crafting the sacred material into representations connected with the Chiefly Warrior cult of the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Southeastern Ceremonial Complex</a> (S.E.C.C.).<sup id="cite_ref-Robb-2010-03_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robb-2010-03-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ornamentation includes <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_copper_plates" title="Mississippian copper plates">Mississippian copper plates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">repousséd</a> plates of beaten copper now found as far afield as Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Some of the more famous of the plates are of <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptorial birds</a> and avian-themed dancing warriors. These plates, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rogan_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogan plates">Rogan plates</a> from <a href="/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds" title="Etowah Indian Mounds">Etowah</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiro_plates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spiro plates (page does not exist)">Spiro plates</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro</a> in Oklahoma, and the <a href="/wiki/Wulfing_cache" title="Wulfing cache">Wulfing cache</a> from southeast Missouri, were instrumental in the development of the archaeological concept known as the S.E.C.C.<sup id="cite_ref-Robb-2010-03_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robb-2010-03-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only Mississippian culture site where a copper workshop has been located by archaeologists is <a href="/wiki/Cahokia" title="Cahokia">Cahokia</a> in western Illinois, where a copper workshop dating to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moorehead_Phase_(Cahokia)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moorehead Phase (Cahokia) (page does not exist)">Moorehead Phase</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 CE</span>) was identified at <a href="/wiki/Mound_34" title="Mound 34">Mound 34</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Perino" title="Gregory Perino">Gregory Perino</a> identified the site in 1956 and archaeologists subsequently excavated it.<sup id="cite_ref-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Numerous copper fragments were found at the site; <a href="/wiki/Metallographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallographic">metallographic</a> analysis indicated that Mississippian copper workers worked copper into thin sheet through repeated hammering and <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a>, a process that could be successful over open-pit wood fires.<sup id="cite_ref-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG/220px-Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG/330px-Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG/440px-Moundville_Archaeological_Park_56.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="1504" /></a><figcaption>Mace shaped copper headdress ornaments from <a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Moundville</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the collapse of the Mississippian way of life in the 1500s with the advent of European colonization, copper still retained a place in Native American religious life as a special material. Copper was traditionally regarded as sacred by many historic period Eastern tribes. Copper nuggets are included in <a href="/wiki/Medicine_bundle" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine bundle">medicine bundles</a> among Great Lakes tribes. Among 19th century <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee Creek people">Muscogee Creeks</a>, a group of copper plates carried along the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> are regarded as some of the tribe's most sacred items.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_in_the_Pacific_Northwest">Iron in the Pacific Northwest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Iron in the Pacific Northwest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg/170px-Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg/255px-Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg/340px-Meteorite_iron_harpoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2363" data-file-height="1759" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lance</a> made from a <a href="/wiki/Narwhal" title="Narwhal">narwhal</a> tusk with an iron head made from the <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_meteorite" title="Cape York meteorite">Cape York meteorite</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Native ironwork in the Northwest Coast has been found in places like the <a href="/wiki/Ozette_Indian_Village_Archeological_Site" title="Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site">Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site</a>, where iron chisels and knives were discovered. These artifacts seem to have been crafted around 1613, based on the <a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">dendrochronological</a> analysis of associated pieces of wood in the site, and were made out of drift iron from Asian (specifically <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a>) <a href="/wiki/Shipwreck" title="Shipwreck">shipwrecks</a>, which were swept by the <a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Current</a> towards the coast of North America.<sup id="cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tradition of working with Asian drift iron was well-developed in the Northwest before European contact, and was present among several native peoples from the region, including the <a href="/wiki/Chinookan_peoples" title="Chinookan peoples">Chinookan peoples</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a>, who seem to have had their own specific word for the metallic material, which was transcribed by Frederica De Laguna as <i>gayES</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wrecking of Japanese and Chinese vessels in the North Pacific basin was fairly common, and the iron tools and weaponry they carried provided the necessary materials for the development of the local ironwork traditions among the Northwestern Pacific Coast peoples,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although there were also other sources of iron, like <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">that from meteorites</a>, which was occasionally worked using stone anvils.<sup id="cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Inuit" title="Copper Inuit">Copper Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_silverwork" title="Mapuche silverwork">Mapuche silverwork</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aldendrfr-Craig-etal-2008_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAldenderfer,_MarkCraig,_Nathan_M.Speakman,_Robert_J.Popelka-Filcoff,_Rachel2008" class="citation journal cs1">Aldenderfer, Mark; Craig, Nathan M.; Speakman, Robert J.; Popelka-Filcoff, Rachel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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R. (1999). <i>Wonderful Power: The story of ancient copper working in the Lake Superior basin</i>. Great Lakes Books Series. Wayne State University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonderful+Power%3A+The+story+of+ancient+copper+working+in+the+Lake+Superior+basin&rft.series=Great+Lakes+Books+Series&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Martin%2C+S.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin,_S._R.1999" class="citation book cs1">Martin, S. R. (1999). <i>Wonderful Power: The story of ancient copper working in the Lake Superior basin</i>. Great Lakes Books Series. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press" title="Wayne State University Press">Wayne State University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonderful+Power%3A+The+story+of+ancient+copper+working+in+the+Lake+Superior+basin&rft.series=Great+Lakes+Books+Series&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Martin%2C+S.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnawalt,_Patricia_Rieff1992" class="citation journal cs1">Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1992). "Ancient cultural contacts between Ecuador, West Mexico, and the American Southwest: Clothing similarities". <i>Latin American Antiquity</i>. <b>3</b> (2): 121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F971939">10.2307/971939</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/971939">971939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164193577">164193577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Ancient+cultural+contacts+between+Ecuador%2C+West+Mexico%2C+and+the+American+Southwest%3A+Clothing+similarities&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=121&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164193577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F971939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F971939&rft.au=Anawalt%2C+Patricia+Rieff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scattolin-2010-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scattolin-2010_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scattolin-2010_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScattolin,_M._CristinaBugliani,_M._FabianaCortés,_LeticiaPereyra_Domingorena_y_C._Marilin_Calo,_Lucas2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scattolin, M. Cristina; Bugliani, M. Fabiana; Cortés, Leticia; Pereyra Domingorena y C. Marilin Calo, Lucas (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2Fs0718-68942010000100003">"Una máscara de cobre de 3000 años. Estudios arqueometalúrgicos y comparaciones regionales"</a> [A 3000 year-old copper mask. Archeometalurgical analysis and regional comparisons]. <i>Boletín del Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino</i> (in Spanish). <b>15</b> (online ed.). Santiago de Chile: 25–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2Fs0718-68942010000100003">10.4067/s0718-68942010000100003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0718-6894">0718-6894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bolet%C3%ADn+del+Museo+Chileno+de+Arte+Precolombino&rft.atitle=Una+m%C3%A1scara+de+cobre+de+3000+a%C3%B1os.+Estudios+arqueometal%C3%BArgicos+y+comparaciones+regionales&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=25-46&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4067%2Fs0718-68942010000100003&rft.issn=0718-6894&rft.au=Scattolin%2C+M.+Cristina&rft.au=Bugliani%2C+M.+Fabiana&rft.au=Cort%C3%A9s%2C+Leticia&rft.au=Pereyra+Domingorena+y+C.+Marilin+Calo%2C+Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4067%252Fs0718-68942010000100003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_issuetoc&pid=0718-689420100001&lng=en&nrm=iso">"Table of contents"</a>. <i>Boletín del Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino</i> (in Spanish). <b>15</b> (1) (online ed.). Santiago de Chile. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0718-6894">0718-6894</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bolet%C3%ADn+del+Museo+Chileno+de+Arte+Precolombino&rft.atitle=Table+of+contents&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0718-6894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.cl%2Fscielo.php%3Fscript%3Dsci_issuetoc%26pid%3D0718-689420100001%26lng%3Den%26nrm%3Diso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span> – issue's articles are on ancient metalwork in the same era and region</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2017" class="citation journal cs1">Powell, Eric A. (September–October 2017). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=43&sid=d022d3dd-d76c-4a0c-8bda-3d22c2e5033b%40sessionmgr103">"Andean Copper Age"</a></span> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Archaeology</i>. <b>70</b> (5): 20. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8113">0003-8113</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2017</span> – via EBSCO's Master File Complete.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Andean+Copper+Age&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2017-09%2F2017-10&rft.issn=0003-8113&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.b.ebscohost.com%2Fehost%2Fpdfviewer%2Fpdfviewer%3Fvid%3D43%26sid%3Dd022d3dd-d76c-4a0c-8bda-3d22c2e5033b%2540sessionmgr103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEichler,_A.Gramlich,_G.Kellerhals,_T.Tobler,_L.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Eichler, A.; Gramlich, G.; Kellerhals, T.; Tobler, L.; Rehren, Th.; Schwikowski, M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282569">"Ice-core evidence of earliest extensive copper metallurgy in the Andes 2700 years ago"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>7</b>: 41855. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...741855E">2017NatSR...741855E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep41855">10.1038/srep41855</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282569">5282569</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28139760">28139760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ice-core+evidence+of+earliest+extensive+copper+metallurgy+in+the+Andes+2700+years+ago&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=41855&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5282569%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28139760&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep41855&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...741855E&rft.au=Eichler%2C+A.&rft.au=Gramlich%2C+G.&rft.au=Kellerhals%2C+T.&rft.au=Tobler%2C+L.&rft.au=Rehren%2C+Th.&rft.au=Schwikowski%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5282569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurger,_Richard_L.Gordon,_Robert_B.1998" class="citation journal cs1">Burger, Richard L.; Gordon, Robert B. (1998). "Early central Andean metalworking from Mina Perdida, Peru". <i>Science</i>. <b>282</b> (5391): 1108–1111. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Sci...282.1108B">1998Sci...282.1108B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.282.5391.1108">10.1126/science.282.5391.1108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9804546">9804546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Early+central+Andean+metalworking+from+Mina+Perdida%2C+Peru&rft.volume=282&rft.issue=5391&rft.pages=1108-1111&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9804546&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.282.5391.1108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998Sci...282.1108B&rft.au=Burger%2C+Richard+L.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bruhns1994-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bruhns1994_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bruhns1994_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruhns,_K._O.1994" class="citation book cs1">Bruhns, K. O. (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientsouthamer00bruh"><i>Ancient South America</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+South+America&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Bruhns%2C+K.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientsouthamer00bruh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Altroy,_Terence_N.2015" class="citation book cs1">D'Altroy, Terence N. (2015). <i>The Incas</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. pp. 318–319.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Incas&rft.pages=318-319&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2015&rft.au=D%27Altroy%2C+Terence+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeatinge,_R._W.1988" class="citation book cs1">Keatinge, R. W. (1988). <i>Peruvian Prehistory: An overview of pre-Inca and Inca society</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peruvian+Prehistory%3A+An+overview+of+pre-Inca+and+Inca+society&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.au=Keatinge%2C+R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorz,_G.Kallfass,_Mike2000" class="citation journal cs1">Horz, G.; Kallfass, Mike (2000). "The treasure of gold and silver artifacts from the royal tombs of Sipan, Peru – a study on the Moche metalworking techniques". <i>Materials Characterization</i>. <b>45</b> (4–5): 391–420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1044-5803%2800%2900093-0">10.1016/s1044-5803(00)00093-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materials+Characterization&rft.atitle=The+treasure+of+gold+and+silver+artifacts+from+the+royal+tombs+of+Sipan%2C+Peru+%E2%80%93+a+study+on+the+Moche+metalworking+techniques&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=391-420&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1044-5803%2800%2900093-0&rft.au=Horz%2C+G.&rft.au=Kallfass%2C+Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLechtman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Lechtman, Heather (1991). 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San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. e4253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22199%2Fissn.0718-1043-2021-0028">10.22199/issn.0718-1043-2021-0028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0718-1043">0718-1043</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244279716">244279716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudios+Atacame%C3%B1os&rft.atitle=Indagaciones+en+torno+al+significado+del+oro+en+la+cultura+mapuche%3A+Una+exploraci%C3%B3n+de+fuentes+y+algo+m%C3%A1s&rft.volume=67&rft.pages=e4253&rft.date=2021-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244279716%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0718-1043&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22199%2Fissn.0718-1043-2021-0028&rft.aulast=Pay%C3%A0s+Puigarnau&rft.aufirst=Getrudis&rft.au=Villena+Araya%2C+Bel%C3%A9n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.cl%2Fpdf%2Featacam%2Fv67%2F0718-1043-eatacam-67-27.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dillehay1988-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dillehay1988_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillehayGordon1988" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Dillehay" title="Tom Dillehay">Dillehay, T.</a>; Gordon, A. 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(December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230614001759/https://eerkens.ucdavis.edu/uploads/7/9/3/8/79382344/jom2007.pdf">"Hematite mining in the ancient Americas: Mina Primavera, a 2,000 year old Peruvian mine"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>JOM: The Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society</i>. <b>59</b> (12): 16–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JOM....59l..16V">2007JOM....59l..16V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11837-007-0145-x">10.1007/s11837-007-0145-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-4838">1047-4838</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2685990">2685990</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spotlight+Series&rft.pub=Mildred+Lane+Kemper+Art+Museum+%2F+Saint+Louis+Art+Museum&rft.date=2010-03&rft.aulast=Robb&rft.aufirst=Matthew+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkemperartmuseum.wustl.edu%2Ffiles%2FspotlightMar10_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chastain-DeymierBlack-etal-2011_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChastain,_Matthew_L.Deymier-Black,_Alix_C.Kelly,_John_E.Brown,_James_A.2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chastain, Matthew L.; Deymier-Black, Alix C.; Kelly, John E.; Brown, James A.; Dunand, David C. (July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dunand.northwestern.edu/pdf/chastain2011.pdf">"Metallurgical analysis of copper artifacts from Cahokia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>38</b> (7): 1727–1736. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JArSc..38.1727C">2011JArSc..38.1727C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2011.03.004">10.1016/j.jas.2011.03.004</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern U.</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Metallurgical+analysis+of+copper+artifacts+from+Cahokia&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1727-1736&rft.date=2011-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2011.03.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JArSc..38.1727C&rft.au=Chastain%2C+Matthew+L.&rft.au=Deymier-Black%2C+Alix+C.&rft.au=Kelly%2C+John+E.&rft.au=Brown%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Dunand%2C+David+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdunand.northwestern.edu%2Fpdf%2Fchastain2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrose,_David_S.Brown,_James_A.Penney,_David_W.1985" class="citation book cs1">Brose, David S.; Brown, James A.; Penney, David W. (1985). <i>Ancient Art of the American Woodlands Indians</i>. New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89558-105-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89558-105-1"><bdi>978-0-89558-105-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Art+of+the+American+Woodlands+Indians&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-89558-105-1&rft.au=Brose%2C+David+S.&rft.au=Brown%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Penney%2C+David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coupland-Mackie-Matson-2003_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoupland,_G.Mackie,_Q.Matson,_R._G.2003" class="citation book cs1">Coupland, G.; Mackie, Q.; Matson, R. G. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l7eTjkeOyLcC&dq=Ozette+Iron&pg=PA213"><i>Emerging from the Mist: Studies in Northwest Coast culture history</i></a>. Vancouver, British Columbia: UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780774809825" title="Special:BookSources/9780774809825"><bdi>9780774809825</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emerging+from+the+Mist%3A+Studies+in+Northwest+Coast+culture+history&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+British+Columbia&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780774809825&rft.au=Coupland%2C+G.&rft.au=Mackie%2C+Q.&rft.au=Matson%2C+R.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl7eTjkeOyLcC%26dq%3DOzette%2BIron%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuimby,_G._I.1985" class="citation journal cs1">Quimby, G. I. (1985). "Japanese wrecks, iron tools, and prehistoric Indians of the Northwest Coast". <i>Arctic Anthropology</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 7–15. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40316086">40316086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arctic+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Japanese+wrecks%2C+iron+tools%2C+and+prehistoric+Indians+of+the+Northwest+Coast&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-15&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40316086%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Quimby%2C+G.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibsohnMundy2015" class="citation report cs1">Leibsohn, Dana; Mundy, Barbara E. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vistas.ace.fordham.edu/themes/art-world-surveying/">"The Mechanics of the Art World"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/vistas">Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820</a> (Report). New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Vistas%3A+Visual+Culture+in+Spanish+America%2C+1520%E2%80%931820&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Fordham+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Leibsohn&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft.au=Mundy%2C+Barbara+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvistas.ace.fordham.edu%2Fthemes%2Fart-world-surveying%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy+in+pre-Columbian+America" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">Periods</a></i></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_(North_America)" title="Archaic period (North America)">Archaic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Archaeological<br /> cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alachua_culture" title="Alachua culture">Alachua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avonlea_culture" title="Avonlea culture">Avonlea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baytown_culture" title="Baytown culture">Baytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Glade_culture" title="Belle Glade culture">Belle Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buttermilk_Creek_complex" title="Buttermilk Creek complex">Buttermilk Creek complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caborn-Welborn_culture" title="Caborn-Welborn culture">Caborn-Welborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cades_Pond_culture" title="Cades Pond culture">Cades Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calf_Creek_culture" title="Calf Creek culture">Calf Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_culture" title="Caloosahatchee culture">Caloosahatchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coles_Creek_culture" title="Coles Creek culture">Coles Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comond%C3%BA_complex" title="Comondú complex">Comondú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deptford_culture" title="Deptford culture">Deptford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_tradition" title="Folsom tradition">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient" title="Fort Ancient">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Walton_culture" title="Fort Walton culture">Fort Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_Kame_culture" title="Glacial Kame culture">Glacial Kame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hopewell_sites" title="List of Hopewell sites">List of Hopewell sites</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_complex" title="La Jolla complex">La Jolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Palmas_complex" title="Las Palmas complex">Las Palmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Archaic" title="Maritime Archaic">Maritime Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mississippian_sites" title="List of Mississippian sites">List of Mississippian sites</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monongahela_culture" title="Monongahela culture">Monongahela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Cordilleran_culture" title="Old Cordilleran culture">Old Cordilleran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneota" title="Oneota">Oneota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arctic_tradition" title="Paleo-Arctic tradition">Paleo-Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaquemine_culture" title="Plaquemine culture">Plaquemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Ocher_people" title="Red Ocher people">Red Ocher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_Harbor_culture" title="Safety Harbor culture">Safety Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa-Swift_Creek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture">Santa Rosa-Swift Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steed-Kisker_culture" title="Steed-Kisker culture">Steed-Kisker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwannee_Valley_culture" title="Suwannee Valley culture">Suwannee Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tchefuncte_site#Tchefuncte_culture" title="Tchefuncte site">Tchefuncte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troyville_culture" title="Troyville culture">Troyville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeden_Island_culture" title="Weeden Island culture">Weeden Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Archaeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel_Mounds" title="Angel Mounds">Angel Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anzick_site" title="Anzick site">Anzick site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandelier_National_Monument" title="Bandelier National Monument">Bandelier National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastian_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastian Site">Bastian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Archeological_Site_(13WD50)" title="Benson Archeological Site (13WD50)">Benson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Spring_Heritage_Center" title="Blue Spring Heritage Center">Blue Spring Shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluefish_Caves" title="Bluefish Caves">Bluefish Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bluff_Point_Stoneworks" title="The Bluff Point Stoneworks">The Bluff Point Stoneworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewster_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewster Site">Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahokia" title="Cahokia">Cahokia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candelaria_Cave" title="Candelaria Cave">Candelaria Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Grande_Ruins_National_Monument" title="Casa Grande Ruins National Monument">Casa Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Chaco Culture National Historical Park">Chaco Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coso_Rock_Art_District" title="Coso Rock Art District">Coso Rock Art District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_River_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Crystal River Archaeological State Park">Crystal River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuarenta_Casas" title="Cuarenta Casas">Cuarenta Casas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cueva_de_la_Olla_(archaeological_site)" title="Cueva de la Olla (archaeological site)">Cueva de la Olla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutler_Fossil_Site" title="Cutler Fossil Site">Cutler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaker_site" title="Eaker site">Eaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Fin_del_Mundo" title="El Fin del Mundo">El Fin del Mundo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Vallecito" title="El Vallecito">El Vallecito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_Mounds_National_Monument" title="Effigy Mounds National Monument">Effigy Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds" title="Etowah Indian Mounds">Etowah Indian Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Eva Site">Eva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_site" title="Folsom site">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient_(Lebanon,_Ohio)" title="Fort Ancient (Lebanon, Ohio)">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Center" title="Fort Center">Fort Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Juelson" title="Fort Juelson">Fort Juelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mounds_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Mounds Site">Four Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gila_Cliff_Dwellings_National_Monument" title="Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument">Gila Cliff Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenwood_Archeological_District" title="Glenwood Archeological District">Glenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimes_Point" title="Grimes Point">Grimes Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Blazes_archaeological_site" title="Helen Blazes archaeological site">Helen Blazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holly_Bluff_site" title="Holly Bluff site">Holly Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Hopewell Culture National Historical Park">Hopewell Culture National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horr%27s_Island" title="Horr's Island">Horr's Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1poca" title="Huápoca">Huápoca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_Marco" title="Key Marco">Key Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimball_Village" title="Kimball Village">Kimball Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kincaid_Mounds_State_Historic_Site" title="Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site">Kincaid Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolomoki_Mounds" title="Kolomoki Mounds">Kolomoki Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Jackson_Mounds_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park">Lake Jackson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehner_Mammoth-Kill_Site" title="Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site">Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynch_Quarry_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynch Quarry Site">Lynch Quarry Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marksville_culture" title="Marksville culture">Marksville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmes_Rockshelter" title="Marmes Rockshelter">Marmes Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadowcroft_Rockshelter" title="Meadowcroft Rockshelter">Meadowcroft Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park" title="Mesa Verde National Park">Mesa Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moaning_Cavern" title="Moaning Cavern">Moaning Cavern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorehead_Circle" title="Moorehead Circle">Moorehead Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Mounds" title="Morrison Mounds">Morrison Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Moundville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy_Cave" title="Mummy Cave">Mummy Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nodena_site" title="Nodena site">Nodena site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park" title="Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park">Ocmulgee Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_(Tennessee)" title="Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)">Old Stone Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orwell_Site_(Fergus_Falls,_Minnesota)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orwell Site (Fergus Falls, Minnesota)">Orwell site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casas_Grandes" title="Casas Grandes">Paquime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Bluff" title="Painted Bluff">Painted Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkin_Archeological_State_Park" title="Parkin Archeological State Park">Parkin Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinson_Mounds" title="Pinson Mounds">Pinson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Bayou_Mounds_Archeological_State_Park" title="Plum Bayou Mounds Archeological State Park">Plum Bayou Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Earthworks" title="Portsmouth Earthworks">Portsmouth Earthworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point" title="Poverty Point">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Bonito" title="Pueblo Bonito">Pueblo Bonito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassawek" title="Rassawek">Rassawek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_Canyon" title="Recapture Canyon">Recapture Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Styx_archaeological_site" title="River Styx archaeological site">River Styx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Island_complex" title="Roberts Island complex">Roberts Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Eagle" title="Rock Eagle">Rock Eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Hawk" title="Rock Hawk">Rock Hawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenstock_Village_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenstock Village Site">Rosenstock Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Cave_National_Monument" title="Russell Cave National Monument">Russell Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_Ruins" title="Salmon Ruins">Salmon Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpent_Mound" title="Serpent Mound">Serpent Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Paintings_of_Sierra_de_San_Francisco" title="Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco">Sierra de San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shell_ring_sites" title="List of shell ring sites">Shell ring sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stallings_Island" title="Stallings Island">Stallings Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SunWatch_Indian_Village" title="SunWatch Indian Village">SunWatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_Pueblo" title="Taos Pueblo">Taos Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Creek_Indian_Mound" title="Town Creek Indian Mound">Town Creek Indian Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_River_Mounds_State_Preserve" title="Turkey River Mounds State Preserve">Turkey River Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upward_Sun_River_site" title="Upward Sun River site">Upward Sun River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velda_Mound" title="Velda Mound">Velda Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Oak_Forest_Earthlodge_Site" title="West Oak Forest Earthlodge Site">West Oak Forest Earthlodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickiup_Hill" title="Wickiup Hill">Wickiup Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windover_Archeological_Site" title="Windover Archeological Site">Windover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winterville_site" title="Winterville site">Winterville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wupatki_National_Monument" title="Wupatki National Monument">Wupatki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Human<br />remains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anzick-1" title="Anzick-1">Anzick-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlington_Springs_Man" title="Arlington Springs Man">Arlington Springs Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhl_Woman" title="Buhl Woman">Buhl Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennewick_Man" title="Kennewick Man">Kennewick Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Woman" title="La Brea Woman">La Brea Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanderthal_Lady" title="Leanderthal Lady">Leanderthal Lady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Bone_Bed#Melbourne_Man" title="Melbourne Bone Bed">Melbourne Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Woman" title="Minnesota Woman">Minnesota Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1on_woman" title="Peñon woman">Peñon woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Cave_mummy" title="Spirit Cave mummy">Spirit Cave mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vero_man" title="Vero man">Vero man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">Ballgame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pipe" title="Ceremonial pipe">Ceremonial pipe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chanunpa" title="Chanunpa">Chanunpa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunkey" title="Chunkey">Chunkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_Revolution_(pottery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Container Revolution (pottery)">Container Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_mound" title="Effigy mound">Effigy mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex#Birdman" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Falcon dancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#North_America">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing">Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">N.A.G.P.R.A.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasisamerica" title="Oasisamerica">Oasisamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piasa" title="Piasa">Piasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Southeastern Ceremonial Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_North_American_stickball" title="Indigenous North American stickball">Stickball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">Thunderbird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Transoceanic contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_panther" title="Underwater panther">Underwater panther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_glyphs" title="Water glyphs">Water glyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#E8E6B4"><div> <dl><dt>Related</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&oldid=1254934907">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America&oldid=1254934907</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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