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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Energy of the cosmos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_of_the_cosmos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_the_universe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_universe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of the universe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_the_universe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of the universe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_universe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Equations_of_motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equations_of_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Equations of motion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equations_of_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particle_physics_in_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_physics_in_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Particle physics in cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_physics_in_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Timeline of the Big Bang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Areas of study</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_of_study-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas of study subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Areas_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Very_early_universe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Very_early_universe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Very early universe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Very_early_universe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_Bang_Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Bang_Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Big Bang Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Bang_Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Standard_model_of_Big_Bang_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_model_of_Big_Bang_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Standard model of Big Bang cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_model_of_Big_Bang_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_microwave_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_microwave_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Cosmic microwave background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_microwave_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_and_evolution_of_large-scale_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_evolution_of_large-scale_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Formation and evolution of large-scale structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_evolution_of_large-scale_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dark_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dark_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Dark matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dark_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dark_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dark_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Dark energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dark_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravitational_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Gravitational waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_areas_of_inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_areas_of_inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Other areas of inquiry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_areas_of_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Popular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Popular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Textbooks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-From_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>From groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>From individuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical cosmology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiese_kosmologie" title="Fisiese kosmologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fisiese kosmologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="علم الكون الفيزيائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الكون الفيزيائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolox%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmoloxía física – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cosmoloxía física" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="ভৌত বিশ্বতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভৌত বিশ্বতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भौतिक ब्रह्मांड बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भौतिक ब्रह्मांड बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologia_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmologia física – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cosmologia física" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BC%C3%BCsikaline_kosmoloogia" title="Füüsikaline kosmoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Füüsikaline kosmoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φυσική κοσμολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική κοσμολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmología física – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cosmología física" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmologia_fisiko" title="Kosmologia fisiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kosmologia fisiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="کیهان‌شناسی فیزیکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کیهان‌شناسی فیزیکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolox%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmoloxía física – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cosmoloxía física" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC_%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC%EB%A1%A0" title="물리 우주론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="물리 우주론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cm%E1%BB%A5m%E1%BB%A5_mbara_igwe" title="Ọmụmụ mbara igwe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọmụmụ mbara igwe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9D" title="מבנה היקום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מבנה היקום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკური კოსმოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფიზიკური კოსმოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физикалық космология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Физикалық космология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmoloji_fyzik" title="Kosmoloji fyzik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kosmoloji fyzik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visatos_evoliucija" title="Visatos evoliucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Visatos evoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физичка космологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физичка космологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%9E%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൗതിക പ്രപഞ്ചശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൗതിക പ്രപഞ്ചശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკური კოსმოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფიზიკური კოსმოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%89" title="علم الكون الفيزيائى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم الكون الفيزيائى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik_kosmologi" title="Fizik kosmologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fizik kosmologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Физик космологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Физик космологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%A0%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရူပစကြဝဠာဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရူပစကြဝဠာဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysische_kosmologie" title="Fysische kosmologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fysische kosmologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E8%AB%96" title="現代宇宙論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="現代宇宙論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਭੌਤਿਕੀ ਬ੍ਰਹਿਮੰਡ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੌਤਿਕੀ ਬ੍ਰਹਿਮੰਡ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%D9%8A%DA%A9%D9%8A_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="فزيکي کیهان پېژندنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فزيکي کیهان پېژندنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizikal_kazmalaji" title="Fizikal kazmalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Fizikal kazmalaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmologia_fizyczna" title="Kosmologia fizyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kosmologia fizyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologia_f%C3%ADsica" title="Cosmologia física – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cosmologia física" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozmologjia_fizike" title="Kozmologjia fizike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kozmologjia fizike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Physical cosmology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="گەردوونناسان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەردوونناسان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizi%C4%8Dka_kosmologija" title="Fizička kosmologija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Fizička kosmologija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikalisk_kosmologi" title="Fysikalisk kosmologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fysikalisk kosmologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E" title="จักรวาลวิทยาเชิงกายภาพ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวาลวิทยาเชิงกายภาพ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziksel_kozmoloji" title="Fiziksel kozmoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fiziksel kozmoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізична космологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізична космологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="طبیعی کونیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="طبیعی کونیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C5%A9_tr%E1%BB%A5_h%E1%BB%8Dc_v%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%BD" title="Vũ trụ học vật lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vũ trụ học vật lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%A6" title="物理宇宙学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="物理宇宙学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%B8" title="物理宇宙學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="物理宇宙學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%A6" title="物理宇宙学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="物理宇宙学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the branch of physics and astronomy. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/350px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/525px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/700px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>Artist conception of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> cosmological model, the most widely accepted out of all in physical cosmology (neither time nor size to scale)</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physical cosmology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-sky image derived from nine years' WMAP data" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/220px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/330px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/440px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:0;font-weight:normal; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early universe</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Inflation</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Backgrounds</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave (GWB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Microwave (CMB)</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Neutrino (CNB)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Expansion <b>·</b> Future</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhomogeneous_cosmology" title="Inhomogeneous cosmology">Inhomogeneous cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Components <b>·</b> Structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Experiments</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_Initiative" title="Black Hole Initiative">Black Hole Initiative (BHI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Energy_Survey" title="Dark Energy Survey">Dark Energy Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck space observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy<br />Probe (WMAP)</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Aaronson" title="Marc Aaronson">Aaronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Alpher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Dicke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_B._Suntzeff" title="Nicholas B. Suntzeff">Suntzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev" title="Rashid Sunyaev">Sunyaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zeldovich" title="Yakov Zeldovich">Zeldovich</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" title="List of cosmologists">List of cosmologists</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Subject_history">Subject history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave<br />background radiation</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block;margin-top:0.4em; line-height:1.6em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_cosmology" title="Category:Physical cosmology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/24px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_cosmology" title="Template talk:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Physical cosmology</b> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> concerned with the study of cosmological models. A <b>cosmological model</b>, or simply <b>cosmology</b>, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and allows study of fundamental questions about its <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">origin</a>, structure, <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate fate">ultimate fate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GFR_Ellis_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GFR_Ellis-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cosmology as a <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> originated with the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_principle" title="Copernican principle">Copernican principle</a>, which implies that <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a> obey identical <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">physical laws</a> to those on Earth, and <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a>, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood. </p><p>Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began in 1915 with the development of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general theory of relativity</a>, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> beyond the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>; then, work by <a href="/wiki/Vesto_Slipher" title="Vesto Slipher">Vesto Slipher</a> and others showed that the universe is <a href="/wiki/Expanding_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Expanding universe">expanding</a>. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory, by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">alternative cosmologies</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations. </p><p>Dramatic advances in observational cosmology since the 1990s, including the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>, distant <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a> and galaxy <a href="/wiki/Redshift_survey" title="Redshift survey">redshift surveys</a>, have led to the development of a <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">standard model of cosmology</a>. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a> whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.<sup id="cite_ref-PDG_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PDG-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas of research in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">applied physics</a>. Areas relevant to cosmology include <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> experiments and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle physics phenomenology">theory</a>, theoretical and observational <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, general relativity, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma physics</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subject_history">Subject history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Subject history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Nature timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature_timeline" title="Template:Nature timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature_timeline" title="Template talk:Nature timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.15em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−13 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.33em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:43.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−12 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span 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style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#e5cc7f"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:49.503em;height:0.497em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.3em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.248em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe#Dark_Ages" title="Chronology of the universe"><span style="color:white;">Dark Ages</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#555555;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.421em;height:3.083em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.5em;left:0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.541em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization"><span style="color:white;">Reionization</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#666666;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.465em;height:29.956em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.7em;left:0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.978em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Scale_factor_(cosmology)#Matter-dominated_era" title="Scale factor (cosmology)"><span style="color:#99ffff;">Matter-dominated<br />era</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7aa3cc;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:15.957em;left:0.130em;width:12.870em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:10em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe"><span style="color:#99ffff;">Accelerated expansion</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7aa3cc;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:15.957em;left:0.520em;width:12.480em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:7.25em;left:1.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Water#On_Earth" title="Water"><span style="color:white;">Water on Earth</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:14.506em;left:0.520em;width:12.480em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:6.4em;left:0.75em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.253em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:12.693em;left:1.560em;width:11.440em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3.25em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.347em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffdb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:6.709em;left:2.210em;width:10.790em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.355em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular<br />life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#cc9900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.886em;left:2.860em;width:10.140em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.943em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate"><span style="color:white;">Vertebrates</span></a></div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.5em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Earliest Universe</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:49.322em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.05em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_population#Population_III_stars" title="Stellar population">Earliest stars</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.803em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/HD1_(galaxy)" class="mw-redirect" title="HD1 (galaxy)">Earliest galaxy</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.509em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span class="nowrap">Earliest <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">black hole</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:41.778em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Omega_Centauri" title="Omega Centauri">Omega Centauri</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:36.266em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.914em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Milky_Way#Formation" title="Milky Way">Milky Way spirals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.661em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/NGC_188" title="NGC 188">NGC 188 star cluster</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:23.573em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.566em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">Earth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Solar System</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.506em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.693em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.885em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.253em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.440em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:2.901em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#Colonization_of_land" title="Evolutionary history of plants">plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.962em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Earliest mammals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.091em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.627em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:1.25em;left:-16.4em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">L<br />i<br />f<br />e</a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float: left;">(<a href="/wiki/Billion_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Billion years">billion years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of cosmology">Timeline of cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" title="List of cosmologists">List of cosmologists</a></div> <p>Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, Einstein believed in a <a href="/wiki/Static_universe" title="Static universe">static universe</a>, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it.<sup id="cite_ref-Liddle,_A._51_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddle,_A._51-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this <i><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a></i> to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Einstein model describes a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small perturbations—it will eventually start to <a href="/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric expansion of space">expand</a> or contract.<sup id="cite_ref-Liddle,_A._51_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddle,_A._51-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Alexander Friedmann</a> in the early 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His equations describe the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker">Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker</a> universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_the_Universe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/History_of_the_Universe.svg/420px-History_of_the_Universe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="420" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/History_of_the_Universe.svg/630px-History_of_the_Universe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/History_of_the_Universe.svg/840px-History_of_the_Universe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>History of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> – <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a> are hypothesized to arise from <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a>, a rapidly accelerated expansion just after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a><sup id="cite_ref-BICEP2-2014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BICEP2-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140317_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140317-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140317_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140317-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1910s, <a href="/wiki/Vesto_Melvin_Slipher" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesto Melvin Slipher">Vesto Slipher</a> (and later <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Wirtz" title="Carl Wilhelm Wirtz">Carl Wilhelm Wirtz</a>) interpreted the <a href="/wiki/Red_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Red shift">red shift</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">spiral nebulae</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shift</a> that indicated they were receding from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its <a href="/wiki/Angular_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Angular size">angular size</a>, but a physical size must be assumed in order to do this. Another method is to measure the <a href="/wiki/Brightness" title="Brightness">brightness</a> of an object and assume an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a>, from which the distance may be determined using the <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inverse-square law</a>. Due to the difficulty of using these methods, they did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1927, the <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a> independently derived the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—which was later called the Big Bang. In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variable</a> stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fact is now known as <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>, though the numerical factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of ten, due to not knowing about the types of Cepheid variables. </p><p>Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow.</a> The other explanation was <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady state model">steady state model</a> in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aip_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aip-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a number of years, support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model,<sup id="cite_ref-aip_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aip-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and since the precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer</a> in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard general relativity, the universe began with a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">singularity</a>, as demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Earman1999_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earman1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.<sup id="cite_ref-LS-20150226_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-20150226-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PL-20150204_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PL-20150204-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AR-20141118_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AR-20141118-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2023, astrophysicists questioned the overall current view of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model_of_Cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Model of Cosmology">Standard Model of Cosmology</a>, based on the latest <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> studies.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230902_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230902-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_of_the_cosmos">Energy of the cosmos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Energy of the cosmos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The lightest <a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical elements">chemical elements</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, were created during the Big Bang through the process of <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burles2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burles2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> reactions, smaller atomic nuclei are then combined into larger atomic nuclei, ultimately forming stable <a href="/wiki/Iron_group" title="Iron group">iron group</a> elements such as <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, which have the highest nuclear <a href="/wiki/Binding_energies" class="mw-redirect" title="Binding energies">binding energies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-B2FH_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B2FH-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The net process results in a <i>later energy release</i>, meaning subsequent to the Big Bang.<sup id="cite_ref-Frautschi1982_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frautschi1982-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such reactions of nuclear particles can lead to <i>sudden energy releases</i> from <a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_variable_star" title="Cataclysmic variable star">cataclysmic variable stars</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">novae</a>. Gravitational collapse of matter into <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> also powers the most energetic processes, generally seen in the nuclear regions of galaxies, forming <i><a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Active_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galaxies">active galaxies</a></i>. </p><p>Cosmologists cannot explain all cosmic phenomena exactly, such as those related to the <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerating universe">accelerating expansion of the universe</a>, using conventional <a href="/wiki/Energy_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy forms">forms of energy</a>. Instead, cosmologists propose a new form of energy called <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a> that permeates all space.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One hypothesis is that dark energy is just the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">vacuum energy</a>, a component of empty space that is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual particles</a> that exist due to the <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frieman2008_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frieman2008-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshift</a> effect. This energy is not transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different forms of energy may dominate the cosmos—<a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">relativistic particles</a> which are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>, or non-relativistic particles referred to as matter. Relativistic particles are particles whose <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest mass</a> is zero or negligible compared to their <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>, and so move at the speed of light or very close to it; non-relativistic particles have much higher rest mass than their energy and so move much slower than the speed of light. </p><p>As the universe expands, both matter and radiation become diluted. However, the <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy densities</a> of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass-energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy per photon becomes roughly 10 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a> and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well <a href="/wiki/Analytic_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic solution">analytically</a>. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_universe">History of the universe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of the universe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">Timeline of the Big Bang</a></div> <p>The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology. The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs, according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard cosmological model is known as the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equations_of_motion">Equations of motion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Equations of motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric</a></div> <p>Within the <a href="/wiki/Standard_cosmological_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cosmological model">standard cosmological model</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Equations_of_motion" title="Equations of motion">equations of motion</a> governing the universe as a whole are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological constant.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion, the radiation and matter in the universe cool and become diluted. At first, the expansion is slowed down by <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a> attracting the radiation and matter in the universe. However, as these become diluted, the cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this happened billions of years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Springel2006_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springel2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_physics_in_cosmology">Particle physics in cosmology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Particle physics in cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics_in_cosmology" title="Particle physics in cosmology">Particle physics in cosmology</a></div> <p>During the earliest moments of the universe, the average energy density was very high, making knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> critical to understanding this environment. Hence, <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a> processes and <a href="/wiki/Particle_decay" title="Particle decay">decay</a> of unstable <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary particles">elementary particles</a> are important for cosmological models of this period. </p><p>As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is cosmologically important in a certain epoch if the time scale describing that process is smaller than, or comparable to, the time scale of the expansion of the universe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Isn't the opposite true – departures from equilibrium occur only when the process takes longer than the time scale? (April 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The time scale that describes the expansion of the universe is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1/H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1/H}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2376a7cc16c82d6d771762914d9ff5981a942c87" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.389ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1/H}"></span> with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a9edddcca2f782014371f75dca39d7e13a9c1b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H}"></span> being the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble parameter">Hubble parameter</a>, which varies with time. The expansion timescale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1/H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1/H}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2376a7cc16c82d6d771762914d9ff5981a942c87" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.389ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1/H}"></span> is roughly equal to the age of the universe at each point in time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang">Timeline of the Big Bang</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Timeline of the Big Bang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">Timeline of the Big Bang</a></div> <p>Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">particles</a> had energies higher than those currently accessible in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> on Earth. Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses. </p><p>Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known <a href="/wiki/High_energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy physics">high energy physics</a>. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>, and ultimately galaxies, <a href="/wiki/Clusters_of_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Clusters of galaxies">clusters of galaxies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a> formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the <a href="/wiki/%CE%9BCDM" class="mw-redirect" title="ΛCDM">ΛCDM</a> model it will continue expanding forever. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_study">Areas of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Areas of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in <i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">Timeline of the Big Bang</a>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Very_early_universe">Very early universe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Very early universe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png/260px-Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png/390px-Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png/520px-Big_bang_inflation_vs_standard_genericchart.png 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>The inflationary theory as an augmentation to the Big Bang theory was first proposed by Alan Guth of MIT. Inflation solves the 'horizon problem' by making the early universe much more compact than was assumed in the standard model. Given such smaller size, causal contact (i.e., thermal communication) would have been possible among all regions of the early universe. The image was an adaptation from various generic charts depicting the growth of the size of the observable universe, for both the standard model and inflationary model respectively, of the Big Bang theory.</figcaption></figure> <p>The early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the Big Bang from roughly 10<sup>−33</sup> seconds onwards, but there are several <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang#Problems" title="Big Bang">problems</a>. One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, for the universe to be <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">flat</a>, homogeneous, and <a href="/wiki/Isotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotropic">isotropic</a> <i>(see the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>)</i>. Moreover, <a href="/wiki/Grand_unified_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unified theory">grand unified theories</a> of particle physics suggest that there should be <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">magnetic monopoles</a> in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, which drives the universe to <a href="/wiki/Flatness_(cosmology)" title="Flatness (cosmology)">flatness</a>, smooths out <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropies</a> and inhomogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the monopoles.<sup id="cite_ref-Guth1981_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guth1981-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, but it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (April 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> Some cosmologists think that <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brane_cosmology" title="Brane cosmology">brane cosmology</a> will provide an alternative to inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-Pogosian2003_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pogosian2003-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the universe to contain far more matter than <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>. Cosmologists can observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter. If it were, there would be <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> produced as a result of <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilation</a>, but this is not observed. Therefore, some process in the early universe must have created a small excess of matter over antimatter, and this (currently not understood) process is called <i><a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">baryogenesis</a></i>. Three required conditions for baryogenesis were derived by <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a> in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics <a href="/wiki/Symmetry#In_physics" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>, called <a href="/wiki/CP-symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="CP-symmetry">CP-symmetry</a>, between matter and antimatter.<sup id="cite_ref-Canetti2012_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canetti2012-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, particle accelerators measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists look for additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">baryon asymmetry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pandolfi2017_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pandolfi2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">experiment</a>, rather than through observations of the universe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#CRYSTAL" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title="Material appears to be speculative in nature. (April 2018)">speculation?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_Bang_Theory">Big Bang Theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Big Bang Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a></div> <p>Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> dropped below that at which <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>), it principally produced <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium-4</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Asher_Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Asher Alpher">Ralph Asher Alpher</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Peebles2014_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peebles2014-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Burles2001_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burles2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, it can be used to test the <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">equivalence principle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Boucher2004_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boucher2004-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to probe <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, and test <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Cyburt2016_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyburt2016-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucente2018_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucente2018-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standard_model_of_Big_Bang_cosmology">Standard model of Big Bang cosmology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Standard model of Big Bang cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>ΛCDM</b> (<b>Lambda cold dark matter</b>) or <b><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambda-CDM">Lambda-CDM</a></b> model is a <a href="/wiki/Parametric_equation" title="Parametric equation">parametrization</a> of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by <a href="/wiki/Lambda" title="Lambda">Lambda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> <b>Λ</b>), associated with dark energy, and <a href="/wiki/Cold_dark_matter" title="Cold dark matter">cold dark matter</a> (abbreviated <b>CDM</b>). It is frequently referred to as the <b>standard model</b> of Big Bang cosmology.<sup id="cite_ref-Planck2015_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Planck2015-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carlisle_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlisle-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_microwave_background">Cosmic microwave background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cosmic microwave background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background</a></div> <p>The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from <a href="/wiki/Decoupling_(cosmology)" title="Decoupling (cosmology)">decoupling</a> after the epoch of <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a> when neutral atoms first formed. At this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a> from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Woodrow Wilson</a>, has a perfect thermal <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black-body</a> spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a> today and is isotropic to one part in 10<sup>5</sup>. <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_perturbation_theory" title="Cosmological perturbation theory">Cosmological perturbation theory</a>, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular <a href="/wiki/Power_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Power spectrum">power spectrum</a> of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a> and <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Lamarre2010_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamarre2010-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">Cosmic Background Imager</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">Boomerang</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Sievers2003_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sievers2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The results of measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinshaw2013_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinshaw2013-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newer experiments, such as <a href="/wiki/QUIET" title="QUIET">QUIET</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope" title="Atacama Cosmology Telescope">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</a>, are trying to measure the <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a> of the cosmic microwave background.<sup id="cite_ref-Naess2014_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naess2014-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies,<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson2009_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev-Zel%27dovich_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect">Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sachs-Wolfe_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sachs-Wolfe effect">Sachs-Wolfe effect</a>, which are caused by interaction between <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">clusters</a> with the cosmic microwave background.<sup id="cite_ref-Scranton2003_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scranton2003-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Refregier1999_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Refregier1999-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 March 2014, astronomers of the <a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array#BICEP2" title="BICEP and Keck Array">BICEP2 Collaboration</a> announced the apparent detection of <a href="/wiki/B-modes" class="mw-redirect" title="B-modes"><i>B</i>-mode</a> polarization of the CMB, considered to be evidence of <a href="/wiki/Primordial_gravitational_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Primordial gravitational wave">primordial gravitational waves</a> that are predicted by the theory of <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">inflation</a> to occur during the earliest phase of the Big Bang.<sup id="cite_ref-BICEP2-2014_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BICEP2-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140317_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140317-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140317_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140317-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140324_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140324-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, later that year the <a href="/wiki/Planck_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck spacecraft">Planck</a> collaboration provided a more accurate measurement of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">cosmic dust</a>, concluding that the B-mode signal from dust is the same strength as that reported from BICEP2.<sup id="cite_ref-AXV-20140919_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AXV-20140919-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140922_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140922-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 30 January 2015, a joint analysis of BICEP2 and <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> data was published and the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to interstellar dust in the Milky Way.<sup id="cite_ref-nature-20150130_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature-20150130-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_and_evolution_of_large-scale_structure">Formation and evolution of large-scale structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Formation and evolution of large-scale structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">Large-scale structure of the cosmos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a></div> <p>Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">clusters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a>) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of <b>hierarchical structure formation</b> in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling.<sup id="cite_ref-Hess2013_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess2013-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter <a href="/wiki/Power_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Power spectrum">power spectrum</a>. This is the approach of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole2005_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole2005-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nichol2007_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichol2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another tool for understanding structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">filaments</a>, superclusters and <a href="/wiki/Void_(astronomy)" title="Void (astronomy)">voids</a>. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic <a href="/wiki/Cold_dark_matter" title="Cold dark matter">cold dark matter</a>, which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhlen2012_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhlen2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_(noirlab2104c).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg/260px-Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg/390px-Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg/520px-Gravitational_lens_found_in_the_DESI_Legacy_Surveys_data_%28noirlab2104c%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>An example of a gravitational lens found in the DESI Legacy Surveys data. There are four sets of lensed images in DESI-090.9854-35.9683, corresponding to four distinct background galaxies—from the outermost giant red arc to the innermost bright blue arc, arranged in four concentric circles. All of them are gravitationally warped—or lensed—by the orange galaxy at the very center. Dark matter is expected to produce gravitational lensing also.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other, complementary observations to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe <a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">reionization</a> include: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Lyman-alpha_forest" title="Lyman-alpha forest">Lyman-alpha forest</a>, which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Weinberg2003_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg2003-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_line" title="Hydrogen line">21-centimeter</a> <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorption</a> line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology.<sup id="cite_ref-Furlanetto2006_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furlanetto2006-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_lensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak lensing">Weak lensing</a>, the distortion of a distant image by <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational lensing">gravitational lensing</a> due to dark matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Munshi2008_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munshi2008-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These will help cosmologists settle the question of when and how structure formed in the universe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_matter">Dark matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dark matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></div> <p>Evidence from <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>, structure formation, and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve" title="Galaxy rotation curve">galaxy rotation curves</a> suggests that about 23% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible, <a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">baryonic matter</a>. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like a cold, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">non-radiative</a> fluid that forms <a href="/wiki/Galactic_halo" title="Galactic halo">haloes</a> around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetric</a> particle, a <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particle" title="Weakly interacting massive particle">weakly interacting massive particle</a>, a gravitationally-interacting massive particle, an <a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">axion</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Massive_compact_halo_object" title="Massive compact halo object">massive compact halo object</a>. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include a modification of gravity at small accelerations (<a href="/wiki/MOND" class="mw-redirect" title="MOND">MOND</a>) or an effect from brane cosmology. <a href="/wiki/TeVeS" class="mw-redirect" title="TeVeS">TeVeS</a> is a version of MOND that can explain gravitational lensing.<sup id="cite_ref-Klasen2015_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klasen2015-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_energy">Dark energy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dark energy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></div> <p>If the universe is <a href="/wiki/Flatness_(cosmology)" title="Flatness (cosmology)">flat</a>, there must be an additional component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually accelerate.<sup id="cite_ref-Perlmutter1999_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perlmutter1999-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy. <i><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></i> predicts a cosmological constant (CC) much like dark energy, but 120 <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of magnitude">orders of magnitude</a> larger than that observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Adler1995_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adler1995-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a> and a number of string theorists <i>(see <a href="/wiki/String_landscape" class="mw-redirect" title="String landscape">string landscape</a>)</i> have invoked the 'weak <a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">anthropic principle</a>': i.e. the reason that physicists observe a universe with such a small cosmological constant is that no physicists (or any life) could exist in a universe with a larger cosmological constant. Many cosmologists find this an unsatisfying explanation: perhaps because while the weak anthropic principle is self-evident (given that living observers exist, there must be at least one universe with a cosmological constant (CC) which allows for life to exist) it does not attempt to explain the context of that universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Siegfried2006_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siegfried2006-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the weak anthropic principle alone does not distinguish between: </p> <ul><li>Only one universe will ever exist and there is some underlying principle that constrains the CC to the value we observe.</li> <li>Only one universe will ever exist and although there is no underlying principle fixing the CC, we got lucky.</li> <li>Lots of universes exist (simultaneously or serially) with a range of CC values, and of course ours is one of the life-supporting ones.</li></ul> <p>Other possible explanations for dark energy include <a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">quintessence</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sahni2002_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahni2002-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a modification of gravity on the largest scales.<sup id="cite_ref-Nojiri2007_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nojiri2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state_(cosmology)" title="Equation of state (cosmology)">equation of state</a>, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology. </p><p>A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">ultimate fate of the universe</a>. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a> from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a <a href="/wiki/Big_rip" class="mw-redirect" title="Big rip">big rip</a>, or whether it will eventually reverse, lead to a <a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Big Freeze</a>, or follow some other scenario.<sup id="cite_ref-Jambrina2014_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jambrina2014-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravitational_waves">Gravitational waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Gravitational waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational waves</a> are ripples in the <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> that propagate as <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a> at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a> is an emerging branch of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable gravitational waves such as <a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">binary star</a> systems composed of <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarfs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>; and events such as <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a>, and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">early universe</a> shortly after the Big Bang.<sup id="cite_ref-Colpi2017_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colpi2017-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> Scientific Collaboration and <a href="/wiki/Virgo_interferometer" title="Virgo interferometer">Virgo</a> Collaboration teams announced that they had made the <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">first observation of gravitational waves</a>, originating from a <a href="/wiki/Binary_black_hole" title="Binary black hole">pair</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">merging</a> black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Discovery_2016_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Discovery_2016-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abbot_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbot-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NSF_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSF-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 15 June 2016, a <a href="/wiki/GW151226" title="GW151226">second detection</a> of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160615_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160615-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides LIGO, many other <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">gravitational-wave observatories (detectors)</a> are under construction.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_areas_of_inquiry">Other areas of inquiry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other areas of inquiry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cosmologists also study: </p> <ul><li>Whether <a href="/wiki/Primordial_black_hole" title="Primordial black hole">primordial black holes</a> were formed in our universe, and what happened to them.<sup id="cite_ref-Kovetz2017_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kovetz2017-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Detection of cosmic rays with energies above the <a href="/wiki/GZK_cutoff" class="mw-redirect" title="GZK cutoff">GZK cutoff</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Takeda1998_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takeda1998-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and whether it signals a failure of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> at high energies.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">equivalence principle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Boucher2004_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boucher2004-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whether or not Einstein's general theory of relativity is the correct theory of <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Turyshev2008_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turyshev2008-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and if the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of physics">laws of physics</a> are the same everywhere in the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Uzan2011_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uzan2011-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Biophysical_cosmology"></span><b>Biophysical cosmology</b>: a type of physical cosmology that studies and understands <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> as part or an inherent part of physical cosmology. It stresses that <a href="/wiki/Universe#Habitability" title="Universe">life is inherent to the universe</a> and therefore <a href="/wiki/Life#In_the_universe" title="Life">frequent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-v237_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-v237-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustris_project" title="Illustris project">Illustris project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" title="List of cosmologists">List of cosmologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical ontology">Physical ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_cosmology" title="String cosmology">String cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Rotation_Curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Rotation Curve">Universal Rotation Curve</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-GFR_Ellis-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GFR_Ellis_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an overview, see <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_FR_Ellis2006" class="citation book cs1">George FR Ellis (2006). "Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology". In Jeremy Butterfield & John Earman (ed.). <i>Philosophy of Physics (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science) 3 volume set</i>. North Holland. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602280">astro-ph/0602280</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006astro.ph..2280E">2006astro.ph..2280E</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51560-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51560-5"><bdi>978-0-444-51560-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Issues+in+the+Philosophy+of+Cosmology&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Physics+%28Handbook+of+the+Philosophy+of+Science%29+3+volume+set&rft.pub=North+Holland&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0602280&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006astro.ph..2280E&rft.isbn=978-0-444-51560-5&rft.au=George+FR+Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140401081546/http://cosmologystatement.org/">"An Open Letter to the Scientific Community as published in New Scientist, May 22, 2004"</a>. <i>cosmologystatement.org</i>. 1 April 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cosmologystatement.org/">the original</a> on 1 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cosmologystatement.org&rft.atitle=An+Open+Letter+to+the+Scientific+Community+as+published+in+New+Scientist%2C+May+22%2C+2004&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcosmologystatement.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PDG-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PDG_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeringer,_J.et_al._(Particle_Data_Group)2012" class="citation journal cs1">Beringer, J.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.ge.infn.it/2011/reviews/rpp2011-rev-cosmological-parameters.pdf">"2013 Review of Particle Physics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Phys. Rev. D</i>. <b>86</b> (1): 010001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PhRvD..86a0001B">2012PhRvD..86a0001B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.86.010001">10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://pdg.ge.infn.it/2011/reviews/rpp2011-rev-cosmological-parameters.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+D&rft.atitle=2013+Review+of+Particle+Physics&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=010001&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.86.010001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PhRvD..86a0001B&rft.au=Beringer%2C+J.&rft.au=et+al.+%28Particle+Data+Group%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.ge.infn.it%2F2011%2Freviews%2Frpp2011-rev-cosmological-parameters.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html">"Nobel Prize Biography"</a>. Nobel Prize<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prize+Biography&rft.pub=Nobel+Prize&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1921%2Feinstein-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liddle,_A._51-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liddle,_A._51_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liddle,_A._51_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddle,_A.2003" class="citation book cs1">Liddle, A. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo00lidd_717"><i>An Introduction to Modern Cosmology</i></a></span>. Wiley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontomo00lidd_717/page/n67">51</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84835-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84835-7"><bdi>978-0-470-84835-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Modern+Cosmology&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84835-7&rft.au=Liddle%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontomo00lidd_717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilenkin2007" class="citation book cs1">Vilenkin, Alex (2007). <i>Many worlds in one: the search for other universes</i>. New York: Hill and Wang, A division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-6722-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-6722-0"><bdi>978-0-8090-6722-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+worlds+in+one%3A+the+search+for+other+universes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang%2C+A+division+of+Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-6722-0&rft.aulast=Vilenkin&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesLambourne2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Mark; Lambourne, Robert (2004). <i>An introduction to galaxies and cosmology</i>. 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href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.15.3.168">10.1073/pnas.15.3.168</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC522427">522427</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16577160">16577160</a>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=A+New+Model+for+the+Expanding+Universe&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=372-382&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F108.5.372&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948MNRAS.108..372H&rft.aulast=Hoyle&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252F108.5.372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aip-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aip_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aip_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+Our+Universe+May+Be+Starting+to+Unravel&rft.date=2023-09-02&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft.au=Gleiser%2C+Marcelo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F09%2F02%2Fopinion%2Fcosmology-crisis-webb-telescope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burles2001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burles2001_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burles2001_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurlesNollettTurner2001" class="citation journal cs1">Burles, Scott; Nollett, Kenneth M.; Turner, Michael S. (May 2001). 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(2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839">"Experimental Tests of General Relativity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Nuclear_and_Particle_Science" title="Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science">Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science</a></i>. <b>58</b> (1): 207–248. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0806.1731">0806.1731</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ARNPS..58..207T">2008ARNPS..58..207T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839">10.1146/annurev.nucl.58.020807.111839</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119199160">119199160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Nuclear+and+Particle+Science&rft.atitle=Experimental+Tests+of+General+Relativity&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=207-248&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0806.1731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119199160%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ARNPS..58..207T&rft.aulast=Turyshev&rft.aufirst=Slava+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev.nucl.58.020807.111839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Uzan2011-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Uzan2011_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUzan2011" class="citation journal cs1">Uzan, Jean-Philippe (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256069">"Varying Constants, Gravitation and Cosmology"</a>. <i>Living Reviews in Relativity</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 2. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1009.5514">1009.5514</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011LRR....14....2U">2011LRR....14....2U</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12942%2Flrr-2011-2">10.12942/lrr-2011-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256069">5256069</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28179829">28179829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Living+Reviews+in+Relativity&rft.atitle=Varying+Constants%2C+Gravitation+and+Cosmology&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5256069%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011LRR....14....2U&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1009.5514&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28179829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12942%2Flrr-2011-2&rft.aulast=Uzan&rft.aufirst=Jean-Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5256069&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-v237-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-v237_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDick2020" class="citation book cs1">Dick, Steven J. (2020). "The Biophysical Cosmology: The Place of Bioastronomy in the History of Science". <i>Space, Time, and Aliens</i>. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 53–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-41614-0_4">10.1007/978-3-030-41614-0_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-41613-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-41613-3"><bdi>978-3-030-41613-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Biophysical+Cosmology%3A+The+Place+of+Bioastronomy+in+the+History+of+Science&rft.btitle=Space%2C+Time%2C+and+Aliens&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=53-58&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-41614-0_4&rft.isbn=978-3-030-41613-3&rft.aulast=Dick&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular">Popular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Popular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Greene" title="Brian Greene">Greene, Brian</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/The_Fabric_of_the_Cosmos" title="The Fabric of the Cosmos"><i>The Fabric of the Cosmos</i></a>. Penguin Books Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101111-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101111-0"><bdi>978-0-14-101111-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fabric+of+the+Cosmos&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-14-101111-0&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuth1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth, Alan</a> (1997). <i>The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-224-04448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-224-04448-6"><bdi>978-0-224-04448-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inflationary+Universe%3A+The+Quest+for+a+New+Theory+of+Cosmic+Origins&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-224-04448-6&rft.aulast=Guth&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawking1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a> (1988). <a href="/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Time" title="A Brief History of Time"><i>A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes</i></a>. Bantam Books, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38016-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38016-3"><bdi>978-0-553-38016-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Time%3A+From+the+Big+Bang+to+Black+Holes&rft.pub=Bantam+Books%2C+Inc&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-553-38016-3&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawking2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen W.</a> (2001). <a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell"><i>The Universe in a Nutshell</i></a>. Bantam Books, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-80202-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-80202-3"><bdi>978-0-553-80202-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universe+in+a+Nutshell&rft.pub=Bantam+Books%2C+Inc&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-553-80202-3&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrikerMitton2013" class="citation book cs1">Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Mitton, Simon (2013). <i>Heart of Darkness: Unraveling the mysteries of the invisible Universe</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13430-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13430-7"><bdi>978-0-691-13430-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heart+of+Darkness%3A+Unraveling+the+mysteries+of+the+invisible+Universe&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13430-7&rft.aulast=Ostriker&rft.aufirst=Jeremiah+P.&rft.au=Mitton%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Singh" title="Simon Singh">Singh, Simon</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang:_The_Origin_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe"><i>Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe</i></a>. Fourth Estate. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004biba.book.....S">2004biba.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-716221-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-716221-5"><bdi>978-0-00-716221-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Bang%3A+The+Origin+of+the+Universe&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004biba.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-0-00-716221-5&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1993) [1978]. <i>The First Three Minutes</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02437-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02437-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Three+Minutes&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02437-7&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textbooks">Textbooks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Textbooks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng2005" class="citation book cs1">Cheng, Ta-Pei (2005). <i>Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology: a Basic Introduction</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852957-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852957-6"><bdi>978-0-19-852957-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%2C+Gravitation+and+Cosmology%3A+a+Basic+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852957-6&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Ta-Pei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> Introductory cosmology and general relativity without the full tensor apparatus, deferred until the last part of the book.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumann2022" class="citation book cs1">Baumann, Daniel (2022). <i>Cosmology</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852957-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852957-6"><bdi>978-0-19-852957-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852957-6&rft.aulast=Baumann&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> Modern introduction to cosmology covering the homogeneous and inhomogeneous universe as well as inflation and the CMB.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodelson2003" class="citation book cs1">Dodelson, Scott (2003). <i>Modern Cosmology</i>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-219141-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-219141-1"><bdi>978-0-12-219141-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Cosmology&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-219141-1&rft.aulast=Dodelson&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> An introductory text, released slightly before the <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a> results.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGal-Or1987" class="citation book cs1">Gal-Or, Benjamin (1987) [1981]. <i>Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy</i>. Springer Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-90581-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-90581-2"><bdi>0-387-90581-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology%2C+Physics+and+Philosophy&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-387-90581-2&rft.aulast=Gal-Or&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrønHervik,_Sigbjørn2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/%C3%98yvind_Gr%C3%B8n" title="Øyvind Grøn">Grøn, Øyvind</a>; Hervik, Sigbjørn (2007). <i>Einstein's General Theory of Relativity with Modern Applications in Cosmology</i>. New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69199-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69199-2"><bdi>978-0-387-69199-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einstein%27s+General+Theory+of+Relativity+with+Modern+Applications+in+Cosmology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-69199-2&rft.aulast=Gr%C3%B8n&rft.aufirst=%C3%98yvind&rft.au=Hervik%2C+Sigbj%C3%B8rn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Robert_Harrison" title="Edward Robert Harrison">Harrison, Edward</a> (2000). <i>Cosmology: the science of the universe</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66148-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66148-5"><bdi>978-0-521-66148-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology%3A+the+science+of+the+universe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-66148-5&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> For undergraduates; mathematically gentle with a strong historical focus.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKutner2003" class="citation book cs1">Kutner, Marc (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astronomyphysica00kutn"><i>Astronomy: A Physical Perspective</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52927-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52927-3"><bdi>978-0-521-52927-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy%3A+A+Physical+Perspective&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52927-3&rft.aulast=Kutner&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fastronomyphysica00kutn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> An introductory astronomy text.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbMichael_Turner1988" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Edward; Michael Turner (1988). <i>The Early Universe</i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11604-5"><bdi>978-0-201-11604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Universe&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-201-11604-5&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Michael+Turner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> The classic reference for researchers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddle2003" class="citation book cs1">Liddle, Andrew (2003). <i>An Introduction to Modern Cosmology</i>. John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84835-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84835-7"><bdi>978-0-470-84835-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Modern+Cosmology&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84835-7&rft.aulast=Liddle&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> Cosmology without general relativity.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddleDavid_Lyth2000" class="citation book cs1">Liddle, Andrew; David Lyth (2000). <i>Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure</i>. Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57598-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57598-0"><bdi>978-0-521-57598-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmological+Inflation+and+Large-Scale+Structure&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57598-0&rft.aulast=Liddle&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=David+Lyth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> An introduction to cosmology with a thorough discussion of <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">inflation</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukhanov2005" class="citation book cs1">Mukhanov, Viatcheslav (2005). <i>Physical Foundations of Cosmology</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56398-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56398-7"><bdi>978-0-521-56398-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Foundations+of+Cosmology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56398-7&rft.aulast=Mukhanov&rft.aufirst=Viatcheslav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadmanabhan1993" class="citation book cs1">Padmanabhan, T. (1993). <i>Structure formation in the universe</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42486-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42486-8"><bdi>978-0-521-42486-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+formation+in+the+universe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42486-8&rft.aulast=Padmanabhan&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> Discusses the formation of large-scale structures in detail.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock1998" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, John (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologicalphys0000peac"><i>Cosmological Physics</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42270-3"><bdi>978-0-521-42270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmological+Physics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42270-3&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmologicalphys0000peac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> An introduction including more on general relativity and quantum field theory than most.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeebles1993" class="citation book cs1">Peebles, P. J. E. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesofphys00pjep"><i>Principles of Physical Cosmology</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01933-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01933-8"><bdi>978-0-691-01933-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Physical+Cosmology&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01933-8&rft.aulast=Peebles&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofphys00pjep&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> Strong historical focus.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeebles1980" class="citation book cs1">Peebles, P. J. E. (1980). <i>The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08240-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08240-0"><bdi>978-0-691-08240-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Large-Scale+Structure+of+the+Universe&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08240-0&rft.aulast=Peebles&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> The classic work on <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the Universe">large-scale structure</a> and correlation functions.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRees2002" class="citation book cs1">Rees, Martin (2002). <i>New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64544-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64544-7"><bdi>978-0-521-64544-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+in+Astrophysical+Cosmology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64544-7&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1971" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Steven (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0"><i>Gravitation and Cosmology</i></a>. John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92567-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92567-5"><bdi>978-0-471-92567-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation+and+Cosmology&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92567-5&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgravitationcosmo00stev_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span> A standard reference for the mathematical formalism.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2008" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Steven (2008). <i>Cosmology</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852682-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852682-7"><bdi>978-0-19-852682-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852682-7&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div id="google_translate_element"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_cosmology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_groups">From groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: From groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/cos_home.html">Cambridge Cosmology</a> – from Cambridge University (public home page)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni.html">Cosmology 101</a> – from the NASA <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> group</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cfcp.uchicago.edu/">Center for Cosmological Physics</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, Chicago, Illinois</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/">Origins, Nova Online</a> – Provided by <i><a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_individuals">From individuals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_cosmology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: From individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gale, George, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology-30s/">Cosmology: Methodological Debates in the 1930s and 1940s</a>", <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</li> <li>Madore, Barry F., "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/">Level 5</a> : A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology</i>". Caltech and Carnegie. Pasadena, California.</li> <li>Tyler, Pat, and Newman, Phil, "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://universe.gsfc.nasa.gov/">Beyond Einstein</a></i>". Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics (LHEA) NASA <a href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Wright" title="Edward L. Wright">Wright, Ned</a>. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm">Cosmology tutorial and FAQ</a></i>". Division of Astronomy & Astrophysics, UCLA.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusser2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Musser" title="George Musser">Musser, George</a> (February 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/four-keys-to-cosmology/">"Four Keys to Cosmology"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Four+Keys+to+Cosmology&rft.date=2004-02&rft.aulast=Musser&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Ffour-keys-to-cosmology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgessQuevedo2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cliff_Burgess&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cliff Burgess (page does not exist)">Burgess, Cliff</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Quevedo" title="Fernando Quevedo">Quevedo, Fernando</a> (November 2007). "The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride". <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> (print). pp. 52–59. <q>(subtitle) Could cosmic inflation be a sign that our universe is embedded in a far vaster realm?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Great+Cosmic+Roller-Coaster+Ride&rft.pages=52-59&rft.date=2007-11&rft.aulast=Burgess&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft.au=Quevedo%2C+Fernando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+cosmology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cosmology_topics" title="Template:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cosmology_topics" title="Template talk:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cosmology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">Observable universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History of<br />cosmological theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory">Religious interpretations of the Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Past universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Cosmic neutrino background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">Inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Present universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">Accelerating expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Future universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_fluid" title="Dark fluid">Dark fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Structure formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6dF_Galaxy_Survey" title="6dF Galaxy Survey">6dF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustris_project" title="Illustris project">Illustris project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Observational cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">SDSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_subfields" title="Template:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_subfields" title="Template talk:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_subfields" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_subfields_of_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major subfields of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Orbital mechanics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy#Stellar_astronomy" title="Astronomy">Stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Big_History" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Time scales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldilocks_principle" title="Goldilocks principle">Goldilocks principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Eight thresholds</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1: <b>Creation</b> - <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogony</a></li> <li>2: <b>Stars</b> - <a href="/wiki/Star#Formation_and_evolution" title="Star">creation of stars</a></li> <li>3: <b>Elements</b> - <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">creation of chemical elements</a> inside <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">dying stars</a></li> <li>4: <b>Planets</b> - <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">formation of planets</a></li> <li>5: <b>Life</b> - <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution of life</a></li> <li>6: <b>Humans</b> - development of <i><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Homo sapiens</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li>7: <b>Agriculture</b> - <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li>8: <b>Modernity</b> - <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Web-based education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> 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