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<span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Astroparticle physics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_d%27astropart%C3%ADcules" title="Física d'astropartícules – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Física d'astropartícules" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroteilchenphysik" title="Astroteilchenphysik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Astroteilchenphysik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroosakestef%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Astroosakestefüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Astroosakestefüüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_de_astropart%C3%ADculas" title="Física de astropartículas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física de astropartículas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="اخترفیزیک ذره‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخترفیزیک ذره‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique_des_astroparticules" title="Physique des astroparticules – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physique des astroparticules" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95_%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פיזיקה אסטרו חלקיקית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיקה אסטרו חלקיקית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрочестична физика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Астрочестична физика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrodeeltjesfysica" title="Astrodeeltjesfysica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Astrodeeltjesfysica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%B4%A0%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="宇宙素粒子物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宇宙素粒子物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astropartikkelfysikk" title="Astropartikkelfysikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Astropartikkelfysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica_de_part%C3%ADculas" title="Astrofísica de partículas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astrofísica de partículas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Космомикрофизика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Космомикрофизика" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of particle physics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_Physics_(journal)" title="Astroparticle Physics (journal)"><i>Astroparticle Physics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <p><b>Astroparticle physics</b>, also called <b>particle astrophysics</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Branch" title="Branch">branch</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> that studies elementary particles of <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysical</a> origin and their relation to <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. It is a relatively new field of research emerging at the intersection of particle physics, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, astrophysics, <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">detector physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. Partly motivated by the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillation</a>, the field has undergone rapid development, both theoretically and experimentally, since the early 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of astroparticle physics is evolved out of optical astronomy. With the growth of detector technology came the more mature astrophysics, which involved multiple physics subtopics, such as <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, relativity, and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. Particle physicists found astrophysics necessary due to difficulty in producing particles with comparable energy to those found in space. For example, the cosmic ray spectrum contains particles with energies as high as 10<sup>20</sup> <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>, where a proton–proton collision at the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> occurs at an energy of ~10<sup>12</sup> eV. </p><p>The field can be said to have begun in <a href="/wiki/1910" title="1910">1910</a>, when a <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> physicist named <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Wulf" title="Theodor Wulf">Theodor Wulf</a> measured the <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> in the air, an indicator of gamma radiation, at the bottom and top of the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>. He found that there was far more ionization at the top than what was expected if only terrestrial sources were attributed for this radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lon1981_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lon1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrian physicist <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Victor Francis Hess</a> hypothesized that some of the ionization was caused by radiation from the sky. In order to defend this hypothesis, Hess designed instruments capable of operating at high altitudes and performed observations on ionization up to an altitude of 5.3 km. From 1911 to 1913, Hess made ten flights to meticulously measure ionization levels. Through prior calculations, he did not expect there to be any ionization above an altitude of 500 m if terrestrial sources were the sole cause of radiation. His measurements however, revealed that although the ionization levels initially decreased with altitude, they began to sharply rise at some point. At the peaks of his flights, he found that the ionization levels were much greater than at the surface. Hess was then able to conclude that "a radiation of very high penetrating power enters our atmosphere from above". Furthermore, one of Hess's flights was during a near-total eclipse of the Sun. Since he did not observe a dip in ionization levels, Hess reasoned that the source had to be further away in space. For this discovery, Hess was one of the people awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1936. In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a> confirmed Hess's findings and subsequently coined the term '<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many physicists knowledgeable about the origins of the field of astroparticle physics prefer to attribute this 'discovery' of cosmic rays by Hess as the starting point for the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cirkel-Bartelt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_of_research">Topics of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Topics of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While it may be difficult to decide on a standard 'textbook' description of the field of astroparticle physics, the field can be characterized by the topics of research that are actively being pursued. The journal <i><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_Physics_(journal)" title="Astroparticle Physics (journal)">Astroparticle Physics</a></i> accepts papers that are focused on new developments in the following areas:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>High-energy cosmic-ray physics and <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>;</li> <li>Particle cosmology;</li> <li>Particle astrophysics;</li> <li>Related astrophysics: <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galactic nuclei">active galactic nuclei</a>, cosmic abundances, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> etc.;</li> <li>High-energy, VHE and UHE gamma-ray astronomy;</li> <li>High- and low-energy neutrino astronomy;</li> <li>Instrumentation and detector developments related to the above-mentioned fields.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_questions">Open questions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Open questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One main task for the future of the field is simply to thoroughly define itself beyond working definitions and clearly differentiate itself from astrophysics and other related topics.<sup id="cite_ref-Cirkel-Bartelt_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cirkel-Bartelt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current unsolved problems for the field of astroparticle physics include characterization of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>. Observations of the orbital velocities of stars in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> and other galaxies starting with <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Walter Baade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a> in the 1930s, along with observed velocities of galaxies in galactic clusters, found motion far exceeding the energy density of the visible matter needed to account for their dynamics. Since the early nineties some candidates have been found to partially explain some of the missing dark matter, but they are nowhere near sufficient to offer a full explanation. The finding of an accelerating universe suggests that a large part of the missing dark matter is stored as dark energy in a dynamical vacuum.<sup id="cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astroparticle_Physics-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another question for astroparticle physicists is why is there so much more matter than antimatter in the universe today. <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</a> is the term for the hypothetical processes that produced the unequal numbers of baryons and antibaryons in the early universe, which is why the universe is made of matter today, and not antimatter.<sup id="cite_ref-Astroparticle_Physics_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astroparticle_Physics-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_facilities">Experimental facilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Experimental facilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rapid development of this field has led to the design of new types of infrastructure. In underground laboratories or with specially designed telescopes, antennas and satellite experiments, astroparticle physicists employ new detection methods to observe a wide range of cosmic particles including neutrinos, gamma rays and cosmic rays at the highest energies. They are also searching for <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a>. Experimental particle physicists are limited by the technology of their terrestrial accelerators, which are only able to produce a small fraction of the energies found in nature. </p><p>The following is an incomplete list of laboratories and experiments in astroparticle physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underground_laboratories">Underground laboratories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Underground laboratories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These facilities are located deep underground, to shield very sensitive experiments from <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> that would otherwise preclude the observation of very rare phenomena. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Jinping_Underground_Laboratory" title="China Jinping Underground Laboratory">China Jinping Underground Laboratory</a> is a deep underground laboratory in the <a href="/wiki/Jinping_Mountains" title="Jinping Mountains">Jinping Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, China.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamioka_Observatory" title="Kamioka Observatory">Kamioka Observatory</a> is a neutrino and gravitational waves laboratory located underground in the Mozumi Mine near the <a href="/wiki/Kamioka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamioka">Kamioka</a> section of the city of Hida in Gifu Prefecture, Japan. It is the site of the <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> experiment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sasso" title="Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso">Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso</a> (LNGS) is a laboratory that hosts experiments requiring a low-background environment. Its experimental halls are located within the <a href="/wiki/Gran_Sasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Gran Sasso">Gran Sasso</a> mountain, near <a href="/wiki/L%27Aquila" title="L'Aquila">L'Aquila</a> (Italy).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNOLAB" title="SNOLAB">SNOLAB</a> is located 2 km underground in an active mine, in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Sudbury" title="Greater Sudbury">Greater Sudbury</a> (Canada). Expanded from the original <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a>, the entire underground laboratory is operated as a <a href="/wiki/Cleanroom" title="Cleanroom">cleanroom</a>, hosting experiments in neutrino physics and dark matter searches.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_Underground_Research_Facility" title="Sanford Underground Research Facility">Sanford Underground Research Facility</a> (SURF) located in <a href="/wiki/Lead,_South_Dakota" title="Lead, South Dakota">Lead, South Dakota</a> hosts multiple experiments and is funded in part by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrino_detectors">Neutrino detectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Neutrino detectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Very large <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino detectors">neutrino detectors</a> are required to record the extremely rare interactions of neutrinos with atomic matter. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IceCube" class="mw-redirect" title="IceCube">IceCube</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>). The largest particle detector in the world, was completed in December 2010. The purpose of the detector is to investigate high energy neutrinos, search for dark matter, observe supernovae explosions, and search for exotic particles such as magnetic monopoles.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANTARES_(telescope)" title="ANTARES (telescope)">ANTARES</a> (<a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>). A Neutrino detector 2.5 km under the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Toulon, France. Designed to locate and observe neutrino flux in the direction of the southern hemisphere.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NESTOR_Project" title="NESTOR Project">NESTOR Project</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>). The target of the international collaboration is the deployment of a neutrino telescope on the sea floor off of Pylos, Greece.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOREXINO" class="mw-redirect" title="BOREXINO">BOREXINO</a>, a real-time detector, installed at <a href="/wiki/LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>, designed to detect neutrinos from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> with an organic liquid <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</a> target.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dark_matter_detectors">Dark matter detectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dark matter detectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Experiments are dedicated to the direct detection of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> interactions with the detector target material. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LZ_experiment" title="LZ experiment">LZ experiment</a> is a dark matter direct detection experiment hoping to observe <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly interacting massive particles">weakly interacting massive particles</a> (WIMPs) scatters on xenon nuclei. The experiment is located at the <a href="/wiki/Sanford_Underground_Research_Facility" title="Sanford Underground Research Facility">Sanford Underground Research Facility</a> (SURF) in South Dakota, and is managed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Lab">Lawrence Berkeley National Lab</a>.</li> <li>XENONnT, the upgrade of <a href="/wiki/XENON1T" class="mw-redirect" title="XENON1T">XENON1T</a>, is a dark matter direct search experiment located at <a href="/wiki/LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a> and is expected to be sensitive to <a href="/wiki/WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> with spin-independent cross section of 10<sup>−48</sup> cm<sup>2</sup>.</li> <li>The Global Argon Dark Matter Collaboration operates a series of liquid argon experiments: <a href="/wiki/DarkSide_(dark_matter_experiment)" title="DarkSide (dark matter experiment)">DarkSide-50</a> at <a href="/wiki/LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>, <a href="/wiki/DEAP-3600" class="mw-redirect" title="DEAP-3600">DEAP-3600</a> at <a href="/wiki/SNOLAB" title="SNOLAB">SNOLAB</a>, and the upcoming <a href="/wiki/DarkSide_(dark_matter_experiment)" title="DarkSide (dark matter experiment)">DarkSide-20k</a> detector at <a href="/wiki/LNGS" class="mw-redirect" title="LNGS">LNGS</a>. These experiments look for <a href="/wiki/WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> and heavier dark matter particle candidates.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_Dark_Matter_Search" title="Cryogenic Dark Matter Search">Cryogenic Dark Matter Search</a> (CDMS) is a series of experiments searching for <a href="/wiki/WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a> interactions with semiconductor detectors at <a href="/wiki/Millikelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Millikelvin">millikelvin</a> temperatures.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/CERN_Axion_Solar_Telescope" title="CERN Axion Solar Telescope">CERN Axion Solar Telescope</a> (CERN, Switzerland) searches for axions originating from the Sun.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_ray_observatories">Cosmic ray observatories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cosmic ray observatories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interested in high-energy cosmic ray detection are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Auger_Observatory" title="Pierre Auger Observatory">Pierre Auger Observatory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malarg%C3%BCe" title="Malargüe">Malargüe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>) detects and investigates high energy cosmic rays using two techniques. One is to study the particles interactions with water placed in surface detector tanks. The other technique is to track the development of air showers through observation of ultraviolet light emitted high in the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope_Array_Project" title="Telescope Array Project">Telescope Array Project</a> (<a href="/wiki/Delta,_Utah" title="Delta, Utah">Delta, Utah</a>), an experiment for the detection of ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) using a ground array and fluorescence techniques in the desert of west Utah.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Astroparticle Physics">Astroparticle Physics</a></i> (journal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsolved problems in physics">Unsolved problems in physics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDe_AngelisPimenta2018" class="citation book cs1">De Angelis, Alessandro; Pimenta, Mario (2018). <i>Introduction to particle and astroparticle physics (multimessenger astronomy and its particle physics foundations)</i>. 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-25312-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-25312-9"><bdi>978-3-540-25312-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astroparticle+Physics&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-25312-9&rft.aulast=Grupen&rft.aufirst=Claus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstroparticle+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123133442/http://www.desy.de/research/facilities/icecube/index_eng.html">"IceCube - Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desy.de/research/facilities/icecube/index_eng.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IceCube+-+Deutsches+Elektronen-Synchrotron+DESY&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.desy.de%2Fresearch%2Ffacilities%2Ficecube%2Findex_eng.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstroparticle+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://borex.lngs.infn.it">http://borex.lngs.infn.it</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120723055338/http://borex.lngs.infn.it/">Archived</a> 2012-07-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130506032005/http://www.auger.org/observatory/">"Home"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auger.org/observatory/">the original</a> on 2013-05-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.auger.org%2Fobservatory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstroparticle+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, D.H. (2009). <i>Particle Astrophysics</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954546-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954546-9"><bdi>978-0-19-954546-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particle+Astrophysics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954546-9&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=D.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstroparticle+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astroparticle_physics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template talk:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IAU_designated_constellations" title="IAU designated constellations">IAU</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Astronomy" title="Category:Astronomy">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_physics" title="Template talk:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" 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