CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Gamma ray - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"157a4e0c-ce76-4d67-b963-c4c0d2334fd6","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Gamma_ray","wgTitle":"Gamma ray","wgCurRevisionId":1252559001,"wgRevisionId":1252559001,"wgArticleId":18616290,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Articles needing additional references from January 2024","All articles needing additional references","Articles needing additional references from November 2022","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2009","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2016","Articles with hAudio microformats","Spoken articles", "Webarchive template wayback links","Articles containing video clips","Gamma rays","Electromagnetic spectrum","IARC Group 1 carcinogens","Nuclear physics","Radiation","Radioactivity"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Gamma_ray","wgRelevantArticleId":18616290,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[], "wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q11523","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready", "ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/1200px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="817"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/800px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="545"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/640px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="436"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Gamma ray - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Gamma_ray rootpage-Gamma_ray skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Gamma+ray" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Gamma+ray" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Gamma+ray" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Gamma+ray" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History of discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radioactive_decay_(gamma_decay)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioactive_decay_(gamma_decay)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Radioactive decay (gamma decay)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactive_decay_(gamma_decay)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decay_schemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_schemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Decay schemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decay_schemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particle_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Particle physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Laboratory_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laboratory_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Laboratory sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laboratory_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrestrial_thunderstorms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrestrial_thunderstorms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Terrestrial thunderstorms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrestrial_thunderstorms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_flares" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_flares"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Solar flares</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_flares-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_rays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_rays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Cosmic rays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_rays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pulsars_and_magnetars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pulsars_and_magnetars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Pulsars and magnetars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pulsars_and_magnetars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quasars_and_active_galaxies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quasars_and_active_galaxies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Quasars and active galaxies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quasars_and_active_galaxies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma-ray_bursts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma-ray_bursts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Gamma-ray bursts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma-ray_bursts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Penetration_of_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penetration_of_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Penetration of matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penetration_of_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Matter_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matter_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Matter interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matter_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Light interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma_spectroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma_spectroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Gamma spectroscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma_spectroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Health effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_and_body_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_and_body_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Effects and body response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_and_body_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Risk assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risk_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Units_of_measurement_and_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Units_of_measurement_and_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Units of measurement and exposure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Units_of_measurement_and_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_from_X-rays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_from_X-rays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Distinction from X-rays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_from_X-rays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamma ray</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 98 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-98" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">98 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastraling" title="Gammastraling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gammastraling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="أشعة غاما – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أشعة غاما" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_gamma" title="Radiación gamma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Radiación gamma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamma_%C5%9F%C3%BCalanma" title="Qamma şüalanma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qamma şüalanma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C" title="قاما ایشیقی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قاما ایشیقی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunar_gamma" title="Sunar gamma – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Sunar gamma" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="গামা রশ্মি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গামা রশ্মি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_si%C4%81-s%C3%B2a%E2%81%BF" title="Gamma siā-sòaⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gamma siā-sòaⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Гама-выпраменьванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гама-выпраменьванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Гама-выпраменьваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гама-выпраменьваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Гама-лъчи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гама-лъчи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama_zra%C4%8Denje" title="Gama zračenje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Gama zračenje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3_gamma" title="Radiació gamma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Radiació gamma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Гамма-пайăркалав – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гамма-пайăркалав" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1%C5%99en%C3%AD_gama" title="Záření gama – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Záření gama" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastr%C3%A5ling" title="Gammastråling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gammastråling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%DD%A3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="شعا د ݣاما – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="شعا د ݣاما" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastrahlung" title="Gammastrahlung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gammastrahlung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammakiirgus" title="Gammakiirgus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gammakiirgus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%B3" title="Ακτίνες γ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακτίνες γ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayos_gamma" title="Rayos gamma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rayos gamma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama-radiado" title="Gama-radiado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gama-radiado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_izpi" title="Gamma izpi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gamma izpi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="پرتو گاما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرتو گاما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Gamma ray" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon_gamma" title="Rayon gamma – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rayon gamma" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1marada%C3%ADocht" title="Gámaradaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gámaradaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_gamma" title="Radiación gamma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Radiación gamma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EB%A7%88%EC%84%A0" title="감마선 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감마선" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gamma ray" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B4%D5%A1_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գամմա ճառագայթներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գամմա ճառագայթներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="गामा किरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गामा किरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama-%C4%8Destica" title="Gama-čestica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gama-čestica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinar_gama" title="Sinar gama – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sinar gama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_gamma" title="Radiation gamma – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Radiation gamma" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammageisli" title="Gammageisli – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gammageisli" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raggi_gamma" title="Raggi gamma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Raggi gamma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%90" title="קרינת גמא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרינת גמא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90-%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გამა-გამოსხივება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გამა-გამოსხივება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D1%81%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Гамма-сәулелер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гамма-сәулелер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyon_gama" title="Reyon gama – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyon gama" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83" title="Гамма нурлануу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гамма нурлануу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%87%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B2" title="ແສງແກມມາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ແສງແກມມາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiatio_gamma" title="Radiatio gamma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Radiatio gamma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_stari" title="Gamma stari – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gamma stari" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama_spinduliai" title="Gama spinduliai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gama spinduliai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raggi_gamma" title="Raggi gamma – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Raggi gamma" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastraoling" title="Gammastraoling – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Gammastraoling" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-sug%C3%A1rz%C3%A1s" title="Gamma-sugárzás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gamma-sugárzás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Гама-зрачење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гама-зрачење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ഗാമാ കിരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗാമാ കിരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="गॅमा किरण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गॅमा किरण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinar_gama" title="Sinar gama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sinar gama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Гамма цацраг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гамма цацраг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA" title="ဂမ်မာရောင်ခြည် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂမ်မာရောင်ခြည်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastraling" title="Gammastraling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gammastraling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9E%E7%B7%9A" title="ガンマ線 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガンマ線" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastr%C3%A5ling" title="Gammastråling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammastråling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastr%C3%A5ling" title="Gammastråling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gammastråling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-nurlanish" title="Gamma-nurlanish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gamma-nurlanish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਗਾਮਾ ਕਿਰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਾਮਾ ਕਿਰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%B1%DB%92" title="گیما رے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گیما رے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%AB%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%88%DA%93%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%87" title="د ګاما وړانګه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ګاما وړانګه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_gama" title="Raj gama – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Raj gama" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastrahlen" title="Gammastrahlen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Gammastrahlen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promieniowanie_gamma" title="Promieniowanie gamma – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Promieniowanie gamma" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radia%C3%A7%C3%A3o_gama" title="Radiação gama – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Radiação gama" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_gama" title="Radiație gama – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Radiație gama" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wach%27i" title="Gamma wach'i – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Gamma wach'i" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Гамма-излучение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гамма-излучение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Gamma ray" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rrezet_gama" title="Rrezet gama – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rrezet gama" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB" title="ගැමා කිරණ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගැමා කිරණ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gamma ray" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDiarenie_gama" title="Žiarenie gama – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Žiarenie gama" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDarek_gama" title="Žarek gama – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Žarek gama" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="تیشکی گاما – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تیشکی گاما" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Гама зрачење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гама зрачење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama-%C4%8Destica" title="Gama-čestica – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gama-čestica" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinar_gamma" title="Sinar gamma – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Sinar gamma" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammas%C3%A4teily" title="Gammasäteily – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gammasäteily" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammastr%C3%A5lning" title="Gammastrålning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gammastrålning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinag_gamma" title="Sinag gamma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinag gamma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="காம்மா கதிர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="காம்மா கதிர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Гамма-нурланыш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гамма-нурланыш" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="గామా కిరణాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గామా కిరణాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2" title="รังสีแกมมา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รังสีแกมมา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%80" title="Гамма-нур – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гамма-нур" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama_%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1n%C4%B1" title="Gama ışını – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gama ışını" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Гамма-промені – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гамма-промені" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tia_gamma" title="Tia gamma – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tia gamma" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rais_gama" title="Rais gama – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Rais gama" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E9%A6%AC%E5%B0%84%E7%B7%9A" title="伽馬射線 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="伽馬射線" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayos_Gamma" title="Rayos Gamma – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rayos Gamma" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF" title="伽马射线 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伽马射线" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%99%E7%A8%AE%E5%B0%84%E7%B6%AB" title="丙種射綫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="丙種射綫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gama_sp%C4%97ndol%C4%93" title="Gama spėndolē – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Gama spėndolē" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF" title="伽马射线 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伽马射线" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11523#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Gamma_ray" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Gamma_ray" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Gamma_ray" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&oldid=1252559001" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Gamma_ray&id=1252559001&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGamma_ray"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGamma_ray"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Gamma_ray&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gamma_rays" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11523" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamma_ray.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the term's use in physics. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gamma ray (disambiguation)">Gamma ray (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gamma_ray" title="Special:EditPage/Gamma ray">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Gamma+ray%22">"Gamma ray"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Gamma+ray%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Gamma+ray%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Gamma+ray%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Gamma+ray%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Gamma+ray%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamma_Decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/240px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/360px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gamma_Decay.svg/480px-Gamma_Decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="160" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray (<i>γ</i>) from an atomic nucleus</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/240px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/360px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/480px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="969" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Gamma rays are emitted during <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> in nuclear explosions.</div></div></div></div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cont_emspec2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cont_emspec2.jpg/300px-Cont_emspec2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cont_emspec2.jpg/450px-Cont_emspec2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cont_emspec2.jpg/600px-Cont_emspec2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>NASA guide to electromagnetic spectrum showing overlap of frequency between X-rays and gamma rays</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/200px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/300px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/400px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number"><i>Z</i></a><br /></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number"><i>A</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number"><i>N</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess"><i>N</i> − <i>Z</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – <i>Z</i> ↔ <i>N</i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><small>Processes:</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_physics" title="Template talk:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>gamma ray</b>, also known as <b>gamma radiation</b> (symbol <span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>γ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span></span>), is a penetrating form of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> arising from the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>. It consists of the shortest <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>. With <a href="/wiki/Frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequencies">frequencies</a> above 30 exahertz (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7019300000000000000♠"></span>3<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>19</sup> Hz</span>) and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6989100000000000000♠"></span>1<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−11</sup> m</span>), gamma ray <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> have the highest <a href="/wiki/Photon_energy" title="Photon energy">photon energy</a> of any form of electromagnetic radiation. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Villard" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Villard">Paul Villard</a>, a French <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> emitted by <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>. In 1903, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> named this radiation <i>gamma rays</i> based on their relatively strong penetration of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>; in 1900, he had already named two less penetrating types of decay radiation (discovered by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>) <a href="/wiki/Alpha_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha rays">alpha rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta rays">beta rays</a> in ascending order of penetrating power. </p><p>Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few kilo<a href="/wiki/Electronvolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronvolts">electronvolts</a> (keV) to approximately 8 megaelectronvolts (MeV), corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. The energy spectrum of gamma rays can be used to identify the decaying <a href="/wiki/Radionuclides" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclides">radionuclides</a> using <a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">gamma spectroscopy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Very-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Very-high-energy gamma ray">Very-high-energy gamma rays</a> in the 100–1000 teraelectronvolt (TeV) range have been observed from astronomical sources such as the <a href="/wiki/Cygnus_X-3" title="Cygnus X-3">Cygnus X-3</a> <a href="/wiki/Microquasar" title="Microquasar">microquasar</a>. </p><p>Natural sources of gamma rays originating on Earth are mostly a result of radioactive decay and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic ray</a> particles. However, there are other rare natural sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash" title="Terrestrial gamma-ray flash">terrestrial gamma-ray flashes</a>, which produce gamma rays from electron action upon the nucleus. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a>, such as that which occurs in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/High_energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy physics">high energy physics</a> experiments, such as <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">neutral pion decay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>. </p><p>The energy ranges of gamma rays and X-rays overlap in the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, so the terminology for these electromagnetic waves varies between scientific disciplines. In some fields of physics, they are distinguished by their origin: gamma rays are created by nuclear decay while X-rays originate outside the nucleus. In <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, gamma rays are conventionally defined as having photon energies above 100 keV and are the subject of <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">gamma-ray astronomy</a>, while radiation below 100 keV is classified as X-rays and is the subject of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray astronomy</a>. </p><p>Gamma rays are <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and are thus hazardous to life. They can cause <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a>, and at high doses burns and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">radiation sickness</a>. Due to their high penetration power, they can damage bone marrow and internal organs. Unlike alpha and beta rays, they easily pass through the body and thus pose a formidable <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">radiation protection</a> challenge, requiring shielding made from dense materials such as lead or concrete. On <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">magnetosphere</a> protects life from most types of lethal cosmic radiation other than gamma rays. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_discovery">History of discovery</h2></div> <p>The first gamma ray source to be discovered was the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> process called <i>gamma decay</i>. In this type of decay, an <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited</a> nucleus emits a gamma ray almost immediately upon formation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Villard" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Villard">Paul Villard</a>, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>. Villard knew that his described radiation was more powerful than previously described types of rays from radium, which included beta rays, first noted as "radioactivity" by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> in 1896, and alpha rays, discovered as a less penetrating form of radiation by Rutherford, in 1899. However, Villard did not consider naming them as a different fundamental type.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in 1903, Villard's radiation was recognized as being of a type fundamentally different from previously named rays by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, who named Villard's rays "gamma rays" by analogy with the beta and alpha rays that Rutherford had differentiated in 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "rays" emitted by radioactive elements were named in order of their power to penetrate various materials, using the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha rays as the least penetrating, followed by beta rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating. Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deflected (or at least, not <em>easily</em> deflected) by a magnetic field, another property making them unlike alpha and beta rays. </p><p>Gamma rays were first thought to be particles with mass, like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their failure to be deflected by a magnetic field indicated that they had no charge.<sup id="cite_ref-RaP_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RaP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, gamma rays were observed to be reflected from crystal surfaces, proving that they were electromagnetic radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-RaP_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RaP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rutherford and his co-worker <a href="/wiki/Edward_Andrade" title="Edward Andrade">Edward Andrade</a> measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from radium, and found they were similar to <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, but with shorter wavelengths and thus, higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giving them more energy per <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>, as soon as the latter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was then understood to usually emit a gamma photon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/300px--NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="106" data-mwtitle="NASA's_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/15/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv/NASA%27s_Fermi_Explores_the_Early_Universe.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and time, from their emission in the jet of a distant <a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">blazar</a> to their arrival in <a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi's</a> Large Area Telescope (LAT).</figcaption></figure> <p>Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">potassium-40</a>, and also as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric interactions with <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic ray</a> particles. Natural terrestrial sources that produce gamma rays include <a href="/wiki/Lightning_strike" title="Lightning strike">lightning strikes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash" title="Terrestrial gamma-ray flash">terrestrial gamma-ray flashes</a>, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-energy voltages.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman-1994_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-1994-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of <i><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a></i>, inverse <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>. A large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a>, such as occurs in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/High_energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy physics">high energy physics</a> experiments, such as <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">neutral pion decay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>. </p><p>A sample of gamma ray-emitting material that is used for irradiating or imaging is known as a gamma source. It is also called a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">radioactive source</a>, isotope source, or radiation source, though these more general terms also apply to alpha and beta-emitting devices. Gamma sources are usually sealed to prevent <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>, and transported in heavy shielding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactive_decay_(gamma_decay)"><span id="Radioactive_decay_.28gamma_decay.29"></span>Radioactive decay (gamma decay)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Nuclear isomer</a></div> <p>Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay, which normally occurs after other forms of decay occur, such as <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta</a> decay. A radioactive nucleus can decay by the emission of an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>α<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> or <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>β<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></a> particle. The <a href="/wiki/Daughter_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughter nucleus">daughter nucleus</a> that results is usually left in an excited state. It can then decay to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray photon, in a process called gamma decay. </p><p>The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nucleus typically requires only 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds. Gamma decay may also follow <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, or nuclear fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of relaxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei following other types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, so long as these states possess the necessary component of nuclear <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>. When high-energy gamma rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms emit characteristic "secondary" gamma rays, which are products of the creation of excited nuclear states in the bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear gamma <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a>, form a topic in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> called <a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">gamma spectroscopy</a>. Formation of fluorescent gamma rays are a rapid subtype of radioactive gamma decay. </p><p>In certain cases, the excited nuclear state that follows the emission of a beta particle or other type of excitation, may be more stable than average, and is termed a <a href="/wiki/Metastability#Atomic_and_molecular_physics" title="Metastability">metastable</a> excited state, if its decay takes (at least) 100 to 1000 times longer than the average 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds. Such relatively long-lived excited nuclei are termed <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">nuclear isomers</a>, and their decays are termed <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">isomeric transitions</a>. Such nuclei have <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-lifes</a> that are more easily measurable, and rare nuclear isomers are able to stay in their excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before emitting a gamma ray. The process of isomeric transition is therefore similar to any gamma emission, but differs in that it involves the intermediate metastable excited state(s) of the nuclei. Metastable states are often characterized by high <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear spin">nuclear spin</a>, requiring a change in spin of several units or more with gamma decay, instead of a single unit transition that occurs in only 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds. The rate of gamma decay is also slowed when the energy of excitation of the nucleus is small.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to any <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, but most probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, causing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally termed the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> (external gamma rays and ultraviolet rays may also cause this effect). The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">internal conversion</a> process, in which a gamma ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a "virtual gamma ray" may be thought to mediate the process). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decay_schemes">Decay schemes</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg/220px-Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg/330px-Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg/440px-Cobalt-60_Decay_Scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Radioactive decay scheme of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg/220px-60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg/330px-60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg/440px-60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Gamma emission spectrum of cobalt-60</figcaption></figure> <p>One example of gamma ray production due to radionuclide decay is the decay scheme for cobalt-60, as illustrated in the accompanying diagram. First, <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> decays to <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited</a> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> by <a href="/wiki/Beta_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta rays">beta decay</a> emission of an electron of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6986496674710969999♠"></span>0.31 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a></span>. Then the excited <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> decays to the ground state (see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">nuclear shell model</a>) by emitting gamma rays in succession of 1.17 MeV followed by <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6987213089472771000♠"></span>1.33 MeV</span>. This path is followed 99.88% of the time: </p> <dl><dd><table border="0"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">27</sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">28</sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">*</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></a></span></span> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>γ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span></span> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6987187454648978999♠"></span>1.17 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">28</sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">*</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">28</sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>γ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span></span> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6987213089472771000♠"></span>1.33 MeV</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Another example is the alpha decay of <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">241</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Am<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> to form <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-237"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">237</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Np<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span>; which is followed by gamma emission. In some cases, the gamma emission spectrum of the daughter nucleus is quite simple, (e.g. <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>) while in other cases, such as with (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">241</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Am<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">237</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Np<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> and <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium-192" title="Iridium-192"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">192</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Ir<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span>/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">192</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>Pt<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>), the gamma emission spectrum is complex, revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_physics">Particle physics</h3></div> <p>Gamma rays are produced in many processes of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. Typically, gamma rays are the products of <a href="/wiki/Electrically_neutral" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrically neutral">neutral</a> systems which decay through <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic interaction">electromagnetic interactions</a> (rather than a <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak</a> or <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong</a> interaction). For example, in an <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">electron–positron annihilation</a>, the usual products are two gamma ray photons. If the annihilating electron and <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> are at rest, each of the resulting gamma rays has an energy of ~ 511 <a href="/wiki/Kiloelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</a> and frequency of ~ <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7020124000000000000♠"></span>1.24<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>20</sup> Hz</span>. Similarly, a neutral <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> most often decays into two photons. Many other <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a> and massive <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a> also decay electromagnetically. High energy physics experiments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, accordingly employ substantial radiation shielding.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a> mostly have far shorter wavelengths than atomic nuclei, particle physics gamma rays are generally several orders of magnitude more energetic than nuclear decay gamma rays. Since gamma rays are at the top of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of energy, all extremely high-energy photons are gamma rays; for example, a photon having the <a href="/wiki/Planck_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck energy">Planck energy</a> would be a gamma ray. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray astronomy</a></div> <p>A few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from gamma decay (see discussion of <a href="/wiki/SN1987A" class="mw-redirect" title="SN1987A">SN1987A</a>), but most do not. </p><p>Photons from astrophysical sources that carry energy in the gamma radiation range are often explicitly called gamma-radiation. In addition to nuclear emissions, they are often produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-photon interactions. Those include <a href="/wiki/Electron-positron_annihilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron-positron annihilation">electron-positron annihilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutral_pion_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral pion decay">neutral pion decay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>, inverse <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/200px--Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="30" data-mwtitle="Antimatter_Explosions.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Antimatter_Explosions.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="540" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2c/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv/Antimatter_Explosions.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes daily detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope through 2010. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laboratory_sources">Laboratory sources</h4></div> <p>In October 2017, scientists from various European universities proposed a means for sources of GeV photons using lasers as exciters through a controlled interplay between the cascade and anomalous <a href="/wiki/Radiation_trapping" title="Radiation trapping">radiative trapping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2017-10-07_PRX_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-10-07_PRX-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terrestrial_thunderstorms">Terrestrial thunderstorms</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorms</a> can produce a brief pulse of gamma radiation called a <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash" title="Terrestrial gamma-ray flash">terrestrial gamma-ray flash</a>. These gamma rays are thought to be produced by high intensity static electric fields accelerating electrons, which then produce gamma rays by <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> as they collide with and are slowed by atoms in the atmosphere. Gamma rays up to 100 MeV can be emitted by terrestrial thunderstorms, and were discovered by space-borne observatories. This raises the possibility of health risks to passengers and crew on aircraft flying in or near thunderclouds.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solar_flares">Solar flares</h4></div> <p>The most effusive <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a> emit across the entire EM spectrum, including γ-rays. The first confident observation occurred in <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_August_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of August 1972">1972</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosmic_rays">Cosmic rays</h4></div> <p>Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (either high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordinary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV. Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> are produced at energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray electrons interact with nuclei of sufficiently high atomic number (see gamma ray image of the Moon near the end of this article, for illustration). </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png/300px-Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png/450px-Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the <a href="/wiki/CGRO" class="mw-redirect" title="CGRO">CGRO</a> spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a> while those above and below the plane are thought to be <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pulsars_and_magnetars">Pulsars and magnetars</h4></div> <p>The gamma ray sky (see illustration at right) is dominated by the more common and longer-term production of gamma rays that emanate from <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a> within the Milky Way. Sources from the rest of the sky are mostly <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>. Pulsars are thought to be neutron stars with magnetic fields that produce focused beams of radiation, and are far less energetic, more common, and much nearer sources (typically seen only in our own galaxy) than are quasars or the rarer <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray burst</a> sources of gamma rays. Pulsars have relatively long-lived magnetic fields that produce focused beams of relativistic speed charged particles, which emit gamma rays (bremsstrahlung) when those strike gas or dust in their nearby medium, and are decelerated. This is a similar mechanism to the production of high-energy photons in <a href="/wiki/Megavoltage" class="mw-redirect" title="Megavoltage">megavoltage</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a> machines (see <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>). <a href="/wiki/Inverse_Compton_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse Compton scattering">Inverse Compton scattering</a>, in which charged particles (usually electrons) impart energy to low-energy photons boosting them to higher energy photons. Such impacts of photons on relativistic charged particle beams is another possible mechanism of gamma ray production. Neutron stars with a very high magnetic field (<a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">magnetars</a>), thought to produce astronomical <a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">soft gamma repeaters</a>, are another relatively long-lived star-powered source of gamma radiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quasars_and_active_galaxies">Quasars and active galaxies</h4></div> <p>More powerful gamma rays from very distant <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a> and closer active galaxies are thought to have a gamma ray production source similar to a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a>. High energy electrons produced by the quasar, and subjected to inverse Compton scattering, <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>, or bremsstrahlung, are the likely source of the gamma rays from those objects. It is thought that a <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a> at the center of such galaxies provides the power source that intermittently destroys stars and focuses the resulting charged particles into beams that emerge from their rotational poles. When those beams interact with gas, dust, and lower energy photons they produce X-rays and gamma rays. These sources are known to fluctuate with durations of a few weeks, suggesting their relatively small size (less than a few light-weeks across). Such sources of gamma and X-rays are the most commonly visible high intensity sources outside the Milky Way galaxy. They shine not in bursts (see illustration), but relatively continuously when viewed with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical quasar is about 10<sup>40</sup> watts, a small fraction of which is gamma radiation. Much of the rest is emitted as electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including radio waves. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamma_ray_burst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Gamma_ray_burst.jpg/300px-Gamma_ray_burst.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Gamma_ray_burst.jpg/450px-Gamma_ray_burst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Gamma_ray_burst.jpg/600px-Gamma_ray_burst.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1396" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">hypernova</a>. Artist's illustration showing the life of a <a href="/wiki/Massive_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive star">massive star</a> as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a long duration <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray burst</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gamma-ray_bursts">Gamma-ray bursts</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></div> <p>The most intense sources of gamma rays, are also the most intense sources of any type of electromagnetic radiation presently known. They are the "long duration burst" sources of gamma rays in astronomy ("long" in this context, meaning a few tens of seconds), and they are rare compared with the sources discussed above. By contrast, "short" <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray bursts</a> of two seconds or less, which are not associated with supernovae, are thought to produce gamma rays during the collision of pairs of neutron stars, or a neutron star and a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The so-called <i>long-duration</i> gamma-ray bursts produce a total energy output of about 10<sup>44</sup> joules (as much energy as the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> will produce in its entire life-time) but in a period of only 20 to 40 seconds. Gamma rays are approximately 50% of the total energy output. The leading hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these highest-known intensity beams of radiation, are inverse <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a> from high-energy charged particles. These processes occur as relativistic charged particles leave the region of the event horizon of a newly formed <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> created during supernova explosion. The beam of particles moving at relativistic speeds are focused for a few tens of seconds by the magnetic field of the exploding <a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">hypernova</a>. The fusion explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to be pointed toward the Earth, it shines at gamma ray frequencies with such intensity, that it can be detected even at distances of up to 10 billion light years, which is close to the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Visible_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible universe">visible universe</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penetration_of_matter">Penetration of matter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection#Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection § Electromagnetic radiation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/260px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/390px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/520px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha radiation</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. <a href="/wiki/Beta_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta radiation">Beta radiation</a>, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>, is stopped by an aluminium plate, but gamma radiation requires shielding by dense material such as lead or concrete.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gamma_ray" title="Special:EditPage/Gamma ray">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Due to their penetrating nature, gamma rays require large amounts of shielding mass to reduce them to levels which are not harmful to living cells, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, which can be stopped by paper or skin, and <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>, which can be shielded by thin aluminium. Gamma rays are best absorbed by materials with high <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic numbers</a> (<i>Z</i>) and high density, which contribute to the total stopping power. Because of this, a lead (high <i>Z</i>) shield is 20–30% better as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another low-<i>Z</i> shielding material, such as aluminium, concrete, water, or soil; lead's major advantage is not in lower weight, but rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protective clothing, goggles and respirators can protect from internal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting particles, but provide no protection from gamma radiation from external sources. </p><p>The higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding made from the same shielding material is required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically measured by the thickness required to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the <a href="/wiki/Half-value_layer" title="Half-value layer">half-value layer</a> or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1 cm (0.4 inch) of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by <span class="nowrap">4.1 cm</span> of <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> rock, 6 cm (2.5 inches) of <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, or 9 cm (3.5 inches) of packed <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>. However, the mass of this much concrete or soil is only 20–30% greater than that of lead with the same absorption capability. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a> is sometimes used for shielding in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_radiography#Sources" title="Industrial radiography">portable gamma ray sources</a>, due to the smaller half-value layer when compared to lead (around 0.6 times the thickness for common gamma ray sources, i.e. Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cheaper cost compared to <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a nuclear power plant, shielding can be provided by steel and concrete in the pressure and particle containment vessel, while water provides a radiation shielding of fuel rods during storage or transport into the reactor core. The loss of water or removal of a "hot" fuel assembly into the air would result in much higher radiation levels than when kept under water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matter_interaction">Matter interaction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray_cross_section" title="Gamma ray cross section">Gamma ray cross section</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-gamma-xs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Al-gamma-xs.svg/300px-Al-gamma-xs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Al-gamma-xs.svg/450px-Al-gamma-xs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Al-gamma-xs.svg/600px-Al-gamma-xs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>The total absorption coefficient of aluminium (atomic number 13) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. As is usual, the photoelectric effect is largest at low energies, Compton scattering dominates at intermediate energies, and pair production dominates at high energies.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pb-gamma-xs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/300px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/450px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Pb-gamma-xs.svg/600px-Pb-gamma-xs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to dominate.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gamma_ray" title="Special:EditPage/Gamma ray">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When a gamma ray passes through matter, the probability for absorption is proportional to the thickness of the layer, the density of the material, and the absorption cross section of the material. The total absorption shows an <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponential decrease</a> of intensity with distance from the incident surface: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-\mu x}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-\mu x}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/82ad0f260919775a78468d6680db0a35cfded856" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.691ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-\mu x}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where x is the thickness of the material from the incident surface, μ= <i>n</i>σ is the absorption coefficient, measured in cm<sup>−1</sup>, <i>n</i> the number of atoms per cm<sup>3</sup> of the material (atomic density) and σ the absorption <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a> in cm<sup>2</sup>. </p><p>As it passes through matter, gamma radiation ionizes via three processes: </p> <ul><li><b>The <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a></b>: This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers its energy to an atomic electron, causing the ejection of that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the resulting <a href="/wiki/Photoelectron" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectron">photoelectron</a> is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the energy that originally bound the electron to the atom (binding energy). The photoelectric effect is the dominant energy transfer mechanism for X-ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand electronvolts), but it is much less important at higher energies.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a></b>: This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an atomic electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy emitted as a new, lower energy gamma photon whose emission direction is different from that of the incident gamma photon, hence the term "scattering". The probability of Compton scattering decreases with increasing photon energy. It is thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10 MeV. It is relatively independent of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> of the absorbing material, which is why very dense materials like lead are only modestly better shields, on a <i>per weight</i> basis, than are less dense materials.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">Pair production</a></b>: This becomes possible with gamma energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, and becomes important as an absorption mechanism at energies over 5 MeV (see illustration at right, for lead). By interaction with the <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> of a nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. Any gamma energy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (totaling at least 1.02 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair and in the recoil of the emitting nucleus. At the end of the positron's <a href="/wiki/Range_(particle_radiation)" title="Range (particle radiation)">range</a>, it combines with a free electron, and the two annihilate, and the entire mass of these two is then converted into two gamma photons of at least 0.51 MeV energy each (or higher according to the kinetic energy of the annihilated particles).</li></ul> <p>The secondary electrons (and/or positrons) produced in any of these three processes frequently have enough energy to produce much <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> themselves. </p><p>Additionally, gamma rays, particularly high energy ones, can interact with atomic nuclei resulting in ejection of particles in <a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">photodisintegration</a>, or in some cases, even nuclear fission (<a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">photofission</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_interaction">Light interaction</h3></div> <p>High-energy (from 80 GeV to ~10 <a href="/wiki/TeV" class="mw-redirect" title="TeV">TeV</a>) gamma rays arriving from far-distant quasars are used to estimate the <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_background_light" title="Extragalactic background light">extragalactic background light</a> in the universe: The highest-energy rays interact more readily with the background light photons and thus the density of the background light may be estimated by analyzing the incoming gamma ray spectra.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gamma_spectroscopy">Gamma spectroscopy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">Gamma spectroscopy</a></div> <p>Gamma spectroscopy is the study of the energetic transitions in atomic nuclei, which are generally associated with the absorption or emission of gamma rays. As in optical <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Franck%E2%80%93Condon" class="mw-redirect" title="Franck–Condon">Franck–Condon</a> effect) the absorption of gamma rays by a nucleus is especially likely (i.e., peaks in a "resonance") when the energy of the gamma ray is the same as that of an energy transition in the nucleus. In the case of gamma rays, such a resonance is seen in the technique of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_effect" title="Mössbauer effect">Mössbauer effect</a> the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma absorption can be successfully attained by physically immobilizing atomic nuclei in a crystal. The immobilization of nuclei at both ends of a gamma resonance interaction is required so that no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic energy of recoiling nuclei at either the emitting or absorbing end of a gamma transition. Such loss of energy causes gamma ray resonance absorption to fail. However, when emitted gamma rays carry essentially all of the energy of the atomic nuclear de-excitation that produces them, this energy is also sufficient to excite the same energy state in a second immobilized nucleus of the same type. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF/290px-VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF" decoding="async" width="290" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF/435px-VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF/580px-VACIS_Gamma-ray_Image_with_stowaways.GIF 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with a <a href="/wiki/Cargo_scanning" title="Cargo scanning">VACIS</a> (vehicle and container imaging system)</figcaption></figure> <p>Gamma rays provide information about some of the most energetic phenomena in the universe; however, they are largely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Instruments aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a>, provide our only view of the universe in gamma rays. </p><p>Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of <a href="/wiki/Semi-precious_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-precious stone">semi-precious stones</a>, and is often used to change white <a href="/wiki/Topaz" title="Topaz">topaz</a> into <a href="/wiki/Blue_topaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue topaz">blue topaz</a>. </p><p>Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of gamma radiation in refining, mining, chemicals, food, soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gamma-ray sensors are also used for measuring the fluid levels in water and oil industries.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation source. </p><p>In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the <a href="/wiki/Container_Security_Initiative" title="Container Security Initiative">Container Security Initiative</a> (CSI). These machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers per hour. </p><p>Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called <a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">irradiation</a>. Applications of this include the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Autoclave" title="Autoclave">autoclaves</a> or chemical means), the removal of decay-causing <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> from many foods and the prevention of the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor. </p><p>Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure called <a href="/wiki/Gamma_knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma knife">gamma-knife</a> surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues. </p><p>Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> in imaging techniques. A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in a <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scan</a> a radiolabeled sugar called <a href="/wiki/Fluorodeoxyglucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorodeoxyglucose">fluorodeoxyglucose</a> emits <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> that are annihilated by electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter used in medical applications is the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">nuclear isomer</a> <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">technetium-99m</a> which emits gamma rays in the same energy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a <a href="/wiki/Gamma_camera" title="Gamma camera">gamma camera</a> can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also <a href="/wiki/SPECT" class="mw-redirect" title="SPECT">SPECT</a>). Depending on which molecule has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via <a href="/wiki/Bone_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone scan">bone scan</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a></div> <p>Gamma rays cause damage at a cellular level and are penetrating, causing diffuse damage throughout the body. However, they are less ionising than alpha or beta particles, which are less penetrating. </p><p>Low levels of gamma rays cause a <a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastic</a> health risk, which for radiation dose assessment is defined as the <i>probability</i> of cancer induction and genetic damage. The <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> says "In the low dose range, below about 100 mSv, it is scientifically plausible to assume that the incidence of cancer or heritable effects will rise in direct proportion to an increase in the equivalent dose in the relevant organs and tissues"<sup id="cite_ref-ICRP_103_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICRP_103-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> High doses produce <a href="/wiki/Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> effects, which is the <i>severity</i> of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen. These effects are compared to the physical quantity <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a> measured by the unit <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (Gy).<sup id="cite_ref-ICRP_103_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICRP_103-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 61">: 61 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_and_body_response">Effects and body response</h3></div> <p>When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell may be able to <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair#DNA_repair_mechanisms" title="DNA repair">repair the damaged</a> genetic material, within limits. However, a study of Rothkamm and Lobrich has shown that this repair process works well after high-dose exposure but is much slower in the case of a low-dose exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-mcuaqz_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcuaqz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies have shown low-dose gamma radiation may be enough to cause cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Graupner-2016_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graupner-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study of mice, they were given human-relevant low-dose gamma radiation, with genotoxic effects 45 days after continuous low-dose gamma radiation, with significant increases of chromosomal damage, DNA lesions and phenotypic mutations in blood cells of irradiated animals, covering the three types of genotoxic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Graupner-2016_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graupner-2016-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study studied the effects of acute ionizing gamma radiation in rats, up to 10 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a>, and who ended up showing acute oxidative protein damage, DNA damage, cardiac troponin T carbonylation, and long-term <a href="/wiki/Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Risk_assessment">Risk assessment</h3></div> <p>The natural outdoor exposure in the United Kingdom ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 μSv/h with significant increase around known nuclear and contaminated sites.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural exposure to gamma rays is about 1 to 2 mSv per year, and the average total amount of radiation received in one year per inhabitant in the USA is 3.6 mSv.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a small increase in the dose, due to naturally occurring gamma radiation, around small particles of high atomic number materials in the human body caused by the photoelectric effect.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By comparison, the radiation dose from chest <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a> (about 0.06 mSv) is a fraction of the annual naturally occurring background radiation dose.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A chest CT delivers 5 to 8 mSv. A whole-body <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a>/CT scan can deliver 14 to 32 mSv depending on the protocol.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dose from <a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a> of the stomach is much higher, approximately 50 mSv (14 times the annual background). </p><p>An acute full-body equivalent single exposure dose of 1 Sv (1000 mSv), or 1 Gy, will cause mild symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute radiation sickness">acute radiation sickness</a>, such as nausea and vomiting; and a dose of 2.0–3.5 Sv (2.0–3.5 Gy) causes more severe symptoms (i.e. nausea, diarrhea, hair loss, <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhaging">hemorrhaging</a>, and inability to fight infections), and will cause death in a sizable number of cases—about 10% to 35% without medical treatment. A dose of 3–5 Sv (3–5 Gy) is considered approximately the <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD<sub>50</sub></a> (or the lethal dose for 50% of exposed population) for an acute exposure to radiation even with standard medical treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dose higher than 5 Sv (5 Gy) brings an increasing chance of death above 50%. Above 7.5–10 Sv (7.5–10 Gy) to the entire body, even extraordinary treatment, such as bone-marrow transplants, will not prevent the death of the individual exposed (see <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Rodgerson-2012_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodgerson-2012-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Doses much larger than this may, however, be delivered to selected parts of the body in the course of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>.) </p><p>For low-dose exposure, for example among nuclear workers, who receive an average yearly radiation dose of 19 mSv,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2009)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the risk of dying from cancer (excluding <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>) increases by 2 percent. For a dose of 100 mSv, the risk increase is 10 percent. By comparison, risk of dying from cancer was increased by 32 percent for the survivors of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Units_of_measurement_and_exposure">Units of measurement and exposure</h2></div> <p>The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Ionizing radiation related quantities <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Template:Radiation related quantities"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Template talk:Radiation related quantities"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_related_quantities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation related quantities"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Quantity </th> <th>Unit </th> <th>Symbol </th> <th>Derivation </th> <th>Year </th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">SI</a> equivalent </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Specific_activity" title="Specific activity">Activity</a> (<i>A</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a> </td> <td>Bq </td> <td>s<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a> </td> <td>Ci </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7010370000000000000♠"></span>3.7<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>10</sup> s<sup>−1</sup></span> </td> <td>1953 </td> <td>3.7<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>10</sup> Bq </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_(unit)" title="Rutherford (unit)">rutherford</a> </td> <td>Rd </td> <td>10<sup>6</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1946 </td> <td><span style="white-space: nowrap">1<span style="margin-left: 0.25em">000</span><span style="margin-left: 0.25em">000</span></span> Bq </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Exposure</a> (<i>X</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> per <a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kilogram</a> </td> <td>C/kg </td> <td>C⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> of air </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">röntgen</a> </td> <td>R </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">esu</a> / <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6994129300000000000♠"></span>0.001<span style="margin-left:.25em;">293</span> g</span> of air </td> <td>1928 </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996258000000000000♠"></span>2.58<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> C/kg</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a> (<i>D</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> </td> <td>Gy </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a>⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1974 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Erg" title="Erg">erg</a> per gram </td> <td>erg/g </td> <td>erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1950 </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996100000000000000♠"></span>1.0<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> Gy</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a> </td> <td>rad </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> </td> <td>1953 </td> <td>0.010 Gy </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a> (<i>H</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> </td> <td>Sv </td> <td>J⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1977 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">röntgen equivalent man</a> </td> <td>rem </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1971 </td> <td>0.010 Sv </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a> (<i>E</i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> </td> <td>Sv </td> <td>J⋅kg<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> × <i>W</i><sub><i>T</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1977 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">SI unit </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">röntgen equivalent man</a> </td> <td>rem </td> <td>100 erg⋅g<sup>−1</sup> × <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Calculating_protection_dose_quantities" title="Sievert"><i>W</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> × <i>W</i><sub><i>T</i></sub></a> </td> <td>1971 </td> <td>0.010 Sv </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The measure of the <a href="/wiki/Ionizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionizing">ionizing</a> effect of gamma and X-rays in dry air is called the exposure, for which a legacy unit, the <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">röntgen</a>, was used from 1928. This has been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Kerma_(physics)" title="Kerma (physics)">kerma</a>, now mainly used for instrument calibration purposes but not for received dose effect. The effect of gamma and other ionizing radiation on living tissue is more closely related to the amount of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> deposited in tissue rather than the ionisation of air, and replacement radiometric units and quantities for <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">radiation protection</a> have been defined and developed from 1953 onwards. These are: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (Gy), is the SI unit of <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a>, which is the amount of radiation energy deposited in the irradiated material. For gamma radiation this is numerically equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">equivalent dose</a> measured by the <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>, which indicates the stochastic biological effect of low levels of radiation on human tissue. The radiation weighting conversion factor from absorbed dose to equivalent dose is 1 for gamma, whereas alpha particles have a factor of 20, reflecting their greater ionising effect on tissue.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a> is the deprecated <a href="/wiki/CGS" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS">CGS</a> unit for absorbed dose and the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Röntgen equivalent man">rem</a> is the deprecated <a href="/wiki/CGS" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS">CGS</a> unit of equivalent dose, used mainly in the USA.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinction_from_X-rays">Distinction from X-rays</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moon_egret.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Moon_egret.jpg/170px-Moon_egret.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Moon_egret.jpg/255px-Moon_egret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Moon_egret.jpg/340px-Moon_egret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="362" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> as seen by the <a href="/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory" title="Compton Gamma Ray Observatory">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a>, in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic ray</a> bombardment of its surface. The Sun, which has no similar surface of high <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> to act as target for cosmic rays, cannot usually be seen at all at these energies, which are too high to emerge from primary nuclear reactions, such as solar nuclear fusion (though occasionally the Sun produces gamma rays by <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>-type mechanisms, during <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>). Gamma rays typically have higher energy than X-rays.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The conventional distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed over time. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tubes</a> almost invariably had a longer <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> than the radiation (gamma rays) emitted by <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dendy_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dendy-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10<sup>−11</sup> m, defined as gamma rays.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/Photon_energy" title="Photon energy">energy of photons</a> is proportional to their frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength, this past distinction between X-rays and gamma rays can also be thought of in terms of its energy, with gamma rays considered to be higher energy electromagnetic radiation than are X-rays. </p><p>However, since current artificial sources are now able to duplicate any electromagnetic radiation that originates in the nucleus, as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths characteristic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other types now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by definition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-Dendy_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dendy-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exceptions to this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma decay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but radiation from high energy processes known to involve other radiation sources than radioactive decay is still classed as gamma radiation. </p><p>For example, modern high-energy X-rays produced by <a href="/wiki/Linear_accelerators" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear accelerators">linear accelerators</a> for <a href="/wiki/Megavoltage" class="mw-redirect" title="Megavoltage">megavoltage</a> treatment in cancer often have higher energy (4 to 25 MeV) than do most classical gamma rays produced by nuclear <a href="/wiki/Gamma_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma decay">gamma decay</a>. One of the most common gamma ray emitting isotopes used in diagnostic <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">technetium-99m</a>, produces gamma radiation of the same energy (140 keV) as that produced by diagnostic X-ray machines, but of significantly lower energy than therapeutic photons from linear particle accelerators. In the medical community today, the convention that radiation produced by nuclear decay is the only type referred to as "gamma" radiation is still respected. </p><p>Due to this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being accelerated to produce <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>-type radiation),<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by means of other <a href="/wiki/Particle_decay" title="Particle decay">particle decays</a> or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined as "gamma rays" (indeed, this happens for the isomeric transition of the extremely low-energy isomer <a href="/wiki/Thorium-229m" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium-229m"><sup>229m</sup>Th</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is <i>always</i> referred to as "gamma rays", and never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated. </p><p>In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes that produce them may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-energy photons occur in nature that are known to be produced by processes other than nuclear decay but are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is "gamma rays" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mechanism. </p><p>Another example is gamma-ray bursts, now known to be produced from processes too powerful to involve simple collections of atoms undergoing radioactive decay. This is part and parcel of the general realization that many gamma rays produced in astronomical processes result not from radioactive decay or particle annihilation, but rather in non-radioactive processes similar to X-rays.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This is confusing. There is not just one manner of production. Electron jumps in atoms, bremstrahlung, or all other mechanisms? (July 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Although the gamma rays of astronomy often come from non-radioactive events, a few gamma rays in astronomy are specifically known to originate from gamma decay of nuclei (as demonstrated by their spectra and emission half life). A classic example is that of supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a>, which emits an "afterglow" of gamma-ray photons from the decay of newly made radioactive <a href="/wiki/Nickel-56" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-56">nickel-56</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-56" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobalt-56">cobalt-56</a>. Most gamma rays in astronomy, however, arise by other mechanisms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg/370px-EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg/555px-EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg/740px-EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>In practice, gamma ray energies overlap with the range of X-rays, especially in the higher-frequency region referred to as "hard" X-rays. This depiction follows the older convention of distinguishing by wavelength.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">Annihilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center_GeV_excess" title="Galactic Center GeV excess">Galactic Center GeV excess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_ionization_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaseous ionization detectors">Gaseous ionization detectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Very-high-energy gamma ray">Very-high-energy gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy gamma ray">Ultra-high-energy gamma ray</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is now understood that a nuclear <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">isomeric transition</a>, however, can produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and much longer half-life.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVillard1900" class="citation journal cs1">Villard, P. (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W1oDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1010">"Sur la réflexion et la réfraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons déviables du radium"</a>. <i>Comptes rendus</i>. <b>130</b>: 1010–1012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+rendus&rft.atitle=Sur+la+r%C3%A9flexion+et+la+r%C3%A9fraction+des+rayons+cathodiques+et+des+rayons+d%C3%A9viables+du+radium&rft.volume=130&rft.pages=1010-1012&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Villard&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW1oDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA1010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillard1900" class="citation journal cs1">Villard, P. (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W1oDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1179">"Sur le rayonnement du radium"</a>. <i>Comptes rendus</i>. <b>130</b>: 1178–1179.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+rendus&rft.atitle=Sur+le+rayonnement+du+radium&rft.volume=130&rft.pages=1178-1179&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Villard&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW1oDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA1179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL'Annunziata2007" class="citation book cs1">L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint00lann"><i>Radioactivity: introduction and history</i></a></span>. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier BV. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint00lann/page/n77">55</a>–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52715-8"><bdi>978-0-444-52715-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radioactivity%3A+introduction+and+history&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=55-58&rft.pub=Elsevier+BV&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-444-52715-8&rft.aulast=L%27Annunziata&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fradioactivityint00lann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford named γ rays on page 177 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford1903" class="citation journal cs1">Rutherford, E. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=otXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA177">"The magnetic and electric deviation of the easily absorbed rays from radium"</a>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. 6. <b>5</b> (26): 177–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440309462912">10.1080/14786440309462912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+magnetic+and+electric+deviation+of+the+easily+absorbed+rays+from+radium&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=177-187&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440309462912&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DotXPAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RaP-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RaP_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RaP_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/rays_and_particles.html">"Rays and Particles"</a>. Galileo.phys.virginia.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rays+and+Particles&rft.pub=Galileo.phys.virginia.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.phys.virginia.edu%2Fclasses%2F252%2Frays_and_particles.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fishman-1994-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fishman-1994_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishmanBhatMallozziHorack1994" class="citation journal cs1">Fishman, G. J.; Bhat, P. N.; Mallozzi, R.; Horack, J. M.; Koshut, T.; Kouveliotou, C.; Pendleton, G. N.; Meegan, C. A.; Wilson, R. B.; Paciesas, W. S.; Goodman, S. J.; Christian, H. J. (May 27, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120310172124/http://nova.stanford.edu/~vlf/IHY_Test/Tutorials/TGFs/Papers/Fishman1994.pdf">"Discovery of Intense Gamma-Ray Flashes of Atmospheric Origin"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Science</i>. <b>264</b> (5163): 1313–1316. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994STIN...9611316F">1994STIN...9611316F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.264.5163.1313">10.1126/science.264.5163.1313</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2060%2F19960001309">2060/19960001309</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17780850">17780850</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20848006">20848006</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nova.stanford.edu/~vlf/IHY_Test/Tutorials/TGFs/Papers/Fishman1994.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 10, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+Intense+Gamma-Ray+Flashes+of+Atmospheric+Origin&rft.volume=264&rft.issue=5163&rft.pages=1313-1316&rft.date=1994-05-27&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2060%2F19960001309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20848006%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994STIN...9611316F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17780850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.264.5163.1313&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft.au=Bhat%2C+P.+N.&rft.au=Mallozzi%2C+R.&rft.au=Horack%2C+J.+M.&rft.au=Koshut%2C+T.&rft.au=Kouveliotou%2C+C.&rft.au=Pendleton%2C+G.+N.&rft.au=Meegan%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+R.+B.&rft.au=Paciesas%2C+W.+S.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Christian%2C+H.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnova.stanford.edu%2F~vlf%2FIHY_Test%2FTutorials%2FTGFs%2FPapers%2FFishman1994.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Dommelen" class="citation web cs1">van Dommelen, Leon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web1.eng.famu.fsu.edu/~dommelen/quantum/style_a/ntgd.html">"14.20 Draft: Gamma Decay"</a>. <i>Quantum Mechanics for Engineers</i>. FAMU-FSU College of Engineering<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quantum+Mechanics+for+Engineers&rft.atitle=14.20+Draft%3A+Gamma+Decay&rft.aulast=van+Dommelen&rft.aufirst=Leon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb1.eng.famu.fsu.edu%2F~dommelen%2Fquantum%2Fstyle_a%2Fntgd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHöfertHuhtinenMoritz1996" class="citation conference cs1">Höfert, Manfred; Huhtinen, M; et al. (17 Oct 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/313585?ln=en"><i>Radiation protection considerations in the design of the LHC, CERN's Large Hadron Collider</i></a>. American Health Physics Society Topical Meeting on the Health Physics of Radiation Generating Machines, San José, CA, USA, 5 - 8 Jan 1997. pp. 343–352. CERN-TIS-96-014-RP-CF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Radiation+protection+considerations+in+the+design+of+the+LHC%2C+CERN%27s+Large+Hadron+Collider&rft.pages=343-352&rft.date=1996-10-17&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6fert&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=Huhtinen%2C+M&rft.au=Moritz%2C+L+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F313585%3Fln%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2017-10-07_PRX-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2017-10-07_PRX_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonoskovBashinovBastrakovEfimenko2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gonoskov, A.; Bashinov, A.; Bastrakov, S.; Efimenko, E.; Ilderton, A.; Kim, A.; Marklund, M.; Meyerov, I.; Muraviev, A.; Sergeev, A. (2017). "Ultrabright GeV Photon Source via Controlled Electromagnetic Cascades in Laser-Dipole Waves". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_X" title="Physical Review X">Physical Review X</a></i>. <b>7</b> (4): 041003. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.06404">1610.06404</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PhRvX...7d1003G">2017PhRvX...7d1003G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevX.7.041003">10.1103/PhysRevX.7.041003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55569348">55569348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+X&rft.atitle=Ultrabright+GeV+Photon+Source+via+Controlled+Electromagnetic+Cascades+in+Laser-Dipole+Waves&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=041003&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1610.06404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55569348%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevX.7.041003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PhRvX...7d1003G&rft.aulast=Gonoskov&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Bashinov%2C+A.&rft.au=Bastrakov%2C+S.&rft.au=Efimenko%2C+E.&rft.au=Ilderton%2C+A.&rft.au=Kim%2C+A.&rft.au=Marklund%2C+M.&rft.au=Meyerov%2C+I.&rft.au=Muraviev%2C+A.&rft.au=Sergeev%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithDavid_M._Smith2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Smith, Joseph; David M. Smith (August 2012). "Deadly Rays From Clouds". <i>Scientific American</i>. Vol. 307, no. 2. pp. 55–59. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012SciAm.307b..54D">2012SciAm.307b..54D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0812-54">10.1038/scientificamerican0812-54</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Deadly+Rays+From+Clouds&rft.volume=307&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=55-59&rft.date=2012-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0812-54&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012SciAm.307b..54D&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=David+M.+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChuppForrestHigbieSuri1973" class="citation journal cs1">Chupp, E. L.; Forrest, D. J.; Higbie, P. R.; Suri, A. N.; Tsai, C.; Dunphy, P. P. (1973). "Solar Gamma Ray Lines observed during the Solar Activity of August 2 to August 11, 1972". <i>Nature</i>. <b>241</b> (5388): 333–335. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.241..333C">1973Natur.241..333C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F241333a0">10.1038/241333a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4172523">4172523</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Solar+Gamma+Ray+Lines+observed+during+the+Solar+Activity+of+August+2+to+August+11%2C+1972&rft.volume=241&rft.issue=5388&rft.pages=333-335&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4172523%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F241333a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973Natur.241..333C&rft.aulast=Chupp&rft.aufirst=E.+L.&rft.au=Forrest%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Higbie%2C+P.+R.&rft.au=Suri%2C+A.+N.&rft.au=Tsai%2C+C.&rft.au=Dunphy%2C+P.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/short_burst_oct5.html">"NASA - In a Flash NASA Helps Solve 35-year-old Cosmic Mystery"</a>. <i>www.nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=NASA+-+In+a+Flash+NASA+Helps+Solve+35-year-old+Cosmic+Mystery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fswift%2Fbursts%2Fshort_burst_oct5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/X-Ray/HalfValueLayer.xhtml">"Half-Value Layer"</a>. <i>Iowa State University Center for Nondestructive Evaluation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iowa+State+University+Center+for+Nondestructive+Evaluation&rft.atitle=Half-Value+Layer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nde-ed.org%2FPhysics%2FX-Ray%2FHalfValueLayer.xhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q8929.html">"Answer to Question #8929 Submitted to "Ask the Experts"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Health Physics Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Health+Physics+Society&rft.atitle=Answer+to+Question+%238929+Submitted+to+%22Ask+the+Experts%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhps.org%2Fpublicinformation%2Fate%2Fq8929.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBock2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bock, R. K.; et al. (2008-06-27). "Very-High-Energy Gamma Rays from a Distant Quasar: How Transparent Is the Universe?". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>320</b> (5884): 1752–1754. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0807.2822">0807.2822</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...320.1752M">2008Sci...320.1752M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1157087">10.1126/science.1157087</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18583607">18583607</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16886668">16886668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Very-High-Energy+Gamma+Rays+from+a+Distant+Quasar%3A+How+Transparent+Is+the+Universe%3F&rft.volume=320&rft.issue=5884&rft.pages=1752-1754&rft.date=2008-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16886668%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...320.1752M&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0807.2822&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1157087&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18583607&rft.aulast=Bock&rft.aufirst=R.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomínguez2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Domínguez, Alberto; et al. (2015-06-01). "All the Light There Ever Was". <i>Scientific American</i>. Vol. 312, no. 6. pp. 38–43. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=All+the+Light+There+Ever+Was&rft.volume=312&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=38-43&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft.aulast=Dom%C3%ADnguez&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeigzadeh2019" class="citation journal cs1">Beigzadeh, A.M. (2019). "Design and improvement of a simple and easy-to-use gamma-ray densitometer for application in wood industry". <i>Measurement</i>. <b>138</b>: 157–161. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Meas..138..157B">2019Meas..138..157B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.measurement.2019.02.017">10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115945689">115945689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Measurement&rft.atitle=Design+and+improvement+of+a+simple+and+easy-to-use+gamma-ray+densitometer+for+application+in+wood+industry&rft.volume=138&rft.pages=157-161&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A115945689%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.measurement.2019.02.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Meas..138..157B&rft.aulast=Beigzadeh&rft.aufirst=A.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalahati2018" class="citation journal cs1">Falahati, M. (2018). "Design, modelling and construction of a continuous nuclear gauge for measuring the fluid levels". <i>Journal of Instrumentation</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 02028. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JInst..13P2028F">2018JInst..13P2028F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-0221%2F13%2F02%2FP02028">10.1088/1748-0221/13/02/P02028</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125779702">125779702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Instrumentation&rft.atitle=Design%2C+modelling+and+construction+of+a+continuous+nuclear+gauge+for+measuring+the+fluid+levels&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=02028&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125779702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-0221%2F13%2F02%2FP02028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018JInst..13P2028F&rft.aulast=Falahati&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICRP_103-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICRP_103_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICRP_103_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValentinInternational_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection2007" class="citation book cs1">Valentin, J.; International Commission on Radiological Protection, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103%20(Users%20Edition)"><i>The 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection</i></a>. ICRP publication. Oxford: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3048-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3048-2"><bdi>978-0-7020-3048-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+2007+recommendations+of+the+International+Commission+on+Radiological+Protection&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=ICRP+publication&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-3048-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrp.org%2Fpublication.asp%3Fid%3DICRP%2520Publication%2520103%2520%28Users%2520Edition%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcuaqz-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mcuaqz_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothkammLöbrich2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rothkamm, K; Löbrich, M (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC154297">"Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>100</b> (9): 5057–62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.5057R">2003PNAS..100.5057R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0830918100">10.1073/pnas.0830918100</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC154297">154297</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12679524">12679524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+a+lack+of+DNA+double-strand+break+repair+in+human+cells+exposed+to+very+low+x-ray+doses&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=5057-62&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC154297%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12679524&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0830918100&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PNAS..100.5057R&rft.aulast=Rothkamm&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=L%C3%B6brich%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC154297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graupner-2016-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graupner-2016_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graupner-2016_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraupnerEideInstanesAndersen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Graupner, Anne; Eide, Dag M.; Instanes, Christine; Andersen, Jill M.; Brede, Dag A.; Dertinger, Stephen D.; Lind, Ole C.; Brandt-Kjelsen, Anicke; Bjerke, Hans; Salbu, Brit; Oughton, Deborah; Brunborg, Gunnar; Olsen, Ann K. (2016-09-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5011728">"Gamma radiation at a human relevant low dose rate is genotoxic in mice"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 32977. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...632977G">2016NatSR...632977G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep32977">10.1038/srep32977</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5011728">5011728</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27596356">27596356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Gamma+radiation+at+a+human+relevant+low+dose+rate+is+genotoxic+in+mice&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32977&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5011728%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...632977G&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27596356&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep32977&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Graupner&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Eide%2C+Dag+M.&rft.au=Instanes%2C+Christine&rft.au=Andersen%2C+Jill+M.&rft.au=Brede%2C+Dag+A.&rft.au=Dertinger%2C+Stephen+D.&rft.au=Lind%2C+Ole+C.&rft.au=Brandt-Kjelsen%2C+Anicke&rft.au=Bjerke%2C+Hans&rft.au=Salbu%2C+Brit&rft.au=Oughton%2C+Deborah&rft.au=Brunborg%2C+Gunnar&rft.au=Olsen%2C+Ann+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5011728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenKryndushkinAryalGonzalez2020" class="citation journal cs1">Rosen, Elliot; Kryndushkin, Dmitry; Aryal, Baikuntha; Gonzalez, Yanira; Chehab, Leena; Dickey, Jennifer; Rao, V. Ashutosh (2020-06-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7272027">"Acute total body ionizing gamma radiation induces long-term adverse effects and immediate changes in cardiac protein oxidative carbonylation in the rat"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>15</b> (6): e0233967. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PLoSO..1533967R">2020PLoSO..1533967R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0233967">10.1371/journal.pone.0233967</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7272027">7272027</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32497067">32497067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Acute+total+body+ionizing+gamma+radiation+induces+long-term+adverse+effects+and+immediate+changes+in+cardiac+protein+oxidative+carbonylation+in+the+rat&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e0233967&rft.date=2020-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7272027%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PLoSO..1533967R&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32497067&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0233967&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft.au=Kryndushkin%2C+Dmitry&rft.au=Aryal%2C+Baikuntha&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+Yanira&rft.au=Chehab%2C+Leena&rft.au=Dickey%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Rao%2C+V.+Ashutosh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7272027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/radioactivity-in-food-and-the-environment-rife-reports">"Radioactivity in food and the environment (RIFE) reports"</a>. <i>GOV.UK</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Radioactivity+in+food+and+the+environment+%28RIFE%29+reports&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fpublications%2Fradioactivity-in-food-and-the-environment-rife-reports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation Annex E: Medical radiation exposures – Sources and Effects of Ionizing – 1993, p. 249, New York, UN</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattisonHugtenburgGreen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842777">"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body"</a>. <i>Journal of the Royal Society Interface</i>. <b>7</b> (45): 603–611. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsif.2009.0300">10.1098/rsif.2009.0300</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842777">2842777</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19776147">19776147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+Interface&rft.atitle=Enhancement+of+natural+background+gamma-radiation+dose+around+uranium+microparticles+in+the+human+body&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=603-611&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2842777%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19776147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsif.2009.0300&rft.aulast=Pattison&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Hugtenburg%2C+R.+P.&rft.au=Green%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2842777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements – NCRP Report No. 93 – pp 53–55, 1987. Bethesda, Maryland, USA, NCRP</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123140458/http://radiology.rsna.org/content/251/1/166.full.pdf">"PET/CT total radiation dose calculations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://radiology.rsna.org/content/251/1/166.full.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PET%2FCT+total+radiation+dose+calculations.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fradiology.rsna.org%2Fcontent%2F251%2F1%2F166.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ryan JL (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3779131">"Ionizing radiation: the good, the bad, and the ugly"</a>. <i>The Journal of Investigative Dermatology</i>. <b>132</b> (3 Pt 2): 985–993. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fjid.2011.411">10.1038/jid.2011.411</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3779131">3779131</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22217743">22217743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Investigative+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Ionizing+radiation%3A+the+good%2C+the+bad%2C+and+the+ugly&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=3+Pt+2&rft.pages=985-993&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3779131%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22217743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fjid.2011.411&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3779131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ionactive.co.uk/resource-hub/guidance/radiation-exposure-dose-and-dose-rate-the-gray-sievert">"Radiation Exposure - Dose and Dose Rate (the Gray & Sievert)"</a>. <i>Ionactive</i>. 2022-12-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ionactive&rft.atitle=Radiation+Exposure+-+Dose+and+Dose+Rate+%28the+Gray+%26+Sievert%29&rft.date=2022-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fionactive.co.uk%2Fresource-hub%2Fguidance%2Fradiation-exposure-dose-and-dose-rate-the-gray-sievert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodgerson-2012-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rodgerson-2012_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgersonReidenbergHarrisPecora2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rodgerson, D.O.; Reidenberg, B.E.; Harris, A.g.; Pecora, A.L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905584">"Potential for a pluripotent adult stem cell treatment for acute radiation sickness"</a>. <i>World Journal of Experimental Medicine</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 37–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5493%2Fwjem.v2.i3.37">10.5493/wjem.v2.i3.37</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905584">3905584</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24520532">24520532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Potential+for+a+pluripotent+adult+stem+cell+treatment+for+acute+radiation+sickness&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=37-44&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3905584%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24520532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5493%2Fwjem.v2.i3.37&rft.aulast=Rodgerson&rft.aufirst=D.O.&rft.au=Reidenberg%2C+B.E.&rft.au=Harris%2C+A.g.&rft.au=Pecora%2C+A.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3905584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Cardis, E (9 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC558612">"Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: retrospective cohort study in 15 countries"</a>. <i>BMJ</i>. <b>331</b> (7508): 77–0. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.38499.599861.E0">10.1136/bmj.38499.599861.E0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC558612">558612</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15987704">15987704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Risk+of+cancer+after+low+doses+of+ionising+radiation%3A+retrospective+cohort+study+in+15+countries&rft.volume=331&rft.issue=7508&rft.pages=77-0&rft.date=2005-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC558612%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15987704&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.38499.599861.E0&rft.aulast=Cardis&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC558612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/epo/news/gammoon.html">"CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon"</a>. Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2005-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CGRO+SSC+%3E%3E+EGRET+Detection+of+Gamma+Rays+from+the+Moon&rft.pub=Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Fcgro%2Fepo%2Fnews%2Fgammoon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dendy-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dendy_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dendy_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDendyB._Heaton1999" class="citation book cs1">Dendy, P. P.; B. Heaton (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1BTQvsQIs4wC&pg=PA12"><i>Physics for Diagnostic Radiology</i></a>. US: CRC Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0591-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7503-0591-6"><bdi>0-7503-0591-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+for+Diagnostic+Radiology&rft.place=US&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7503-0591-6&rft.aulast=Dendy&rft.aufirst=P.+P.&rft.au=B.+Heaton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1BTQvsQIs4wC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Hodgman,_Ed.1961" class="citation book cs1">Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). <i>CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed</i>. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics%2C+44th+Ed.&rft.place=US&rft.pages=2850&rft.pub=Chemical+Rubber+Co.&rft.date=1961&rft.au=Charles+Hodgman%2C+Ed.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynmanRobert_LeightonMatthew_Sands1963" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmanlectureso01feyn"><i>The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1</i></a></span>. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feynmanlectureso01feyn/page/2">2</a>–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-02116-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-02116-1"><bdi>0-201-02116-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Feynman+Lectures+on+Physics%2C+Vol.1&rft.place=US&rft.pages=2-5&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0-201-02116-1&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Robert+Leighton&rft.au=Matthew+Sands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeynmanlectureso01feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL'AnnunziataMohammad_Baradei2003" class="citation book cs1">L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b519e10OPT0C&pg=PA58"><i>Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis</i></a>. Academic Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-436603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-436603-1"><bdi>0-12-436603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Radioactivity+Analysis&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-12-436603-1&rft.aulast=L%27Annunziata&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Mohammad+Baradei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db519e10OPT0C%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrupenG._CowanS._D._EidelmanT._Stroh2005" class="citation book cs1">Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astroparticlephy00grup"><i>Astroparticle Physics</i></a></span>. Springer. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astroparticlephy00grup/page/n123">109</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-25312-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-25312-2"><bdi>3-540-25312-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astroparticle+Physics&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-540-25312-2&rft.aulast=Grupen&rft.aufirst=Claus&rft.au=G.+Cowan&rft.au=S.+D.+Eidelman&rft.au=T.+Stroh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fastroparticlephy00grup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Bremsstrahlung radiation" is "braking radiation", but "acceleration" is being used here in the specific sense of the <i>deflection</i> of an electron from its course: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerway2009" class="citation book cs1">Serway, Raymond A; et al. (2009). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/collegephysics00serw_139"><i>College Physics</i></a></span>. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/collegephysics00serw_139/page/n907">876</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-023798-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-023798-0"><bdi>978-0-03-023798-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=College+Physics&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=876&rft.pub=Brooks+Cole&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-03-023798-0&rft.aulast=Serway&rft.aufirst=Raymond+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcollegephysics00serw_139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw,_R._W.Young,_J._P.Cooper,_S._P.Webb,_O._F.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, R. W.; Young, J. P.; Cooper, S. P.; Webb, O. F. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1233913">"Spontaneous Ultraviolet Emission from <sup>233</sup>Uranium/<sup>229</sup>Thorium Samples"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>82</b> (6): 1109–1111. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhRvL..82.1109S">1999PhRvL..82.1109S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.82.1109">10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.1109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Spontaneous+Ultraviolet+Emission+from+%3Csup%3E233%3C%2Fsup%3EUranium%2F%3Csup%3E229%3C%2Fsup%3EThorium+Samples&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1109-1111&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.82.1109&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PhRvL..82.1109S&rft.au=Shaw%2C+R.+W.&rft.au=Young%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Webb%2C+O.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1233913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l2/gamma_detectors.html">"Gamma-Ray Telescopes & Detectors"</a>. NASA GSFC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gamma-Ray+Telescopes+%26+Detectors&rft.pub=NASA+GSFC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Fscience%2Fhow_l2%2Fgamma_detectors.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGamma+ray" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header"><span class="spoken-wikipedia-listen-to">Listen to this article</span> (<span class="duration"><span class="min">31</span> minutes</span>)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="1853" data-mwtitle="Gamma_ray.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Gamma_ray.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Gamma_ray.ogg/Gamma_ray.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Spoken Wikipedia"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></span></span></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamma_ray.ogg" title="File:Gamma ray.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 16 August 2019<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">2019-08-16</span>)</span>, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rerf.or.jp/general/whatis_e/index.html">Basic reference on several types of radiation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180425024814/http://www.rerf.or.jp/general/whatis_e/index.html">Archived</a> 2018-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/radiation">Radiation Q & A</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gcsechemistry.com/pwav46.htm">GCSE information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf">Radiation information</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100611175635/http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/">Archived</a> 2010-06-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050414173513/http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~ejb/faq.html">Gamma-ray bursts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000815222730/http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/nucleardata/toi/">The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search</a> – Contains information on gamma-ray energies from isotopes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grapevine.com.au/~pbeirwirth/gamma.html">Mapping soils with airborne detectors</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101111083656/http://grapevine.com.au/~pbeirwirth/gamma.html">Archived</a> 2010-11-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart">The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA</a> with filter on gamma-ray energy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radiationanswers.org/">Health Physics Society Public Education Website</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electromagnetic_spectrum" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Template:Electromagnetic spectrum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Template talk:Electromagnetic spectrum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetic spectrum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electromagnetic_spectrum" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamma rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio</a><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/500px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/750px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg/1000px-Frequency_vs._wave_length.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="104" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><span class="nobold"><i><span style="font-size:120%">←</span> higher <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequencies</a><span class="nowrap">       </span>longer <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamma rays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Very-high-energy gamma ray">Very-high-energy gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_gamma_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy gamma ray">Ultra-high-energy gamma ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soft_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft X-ray">Soft X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard X-ray">Hard X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet" title="Extreme ultraviolet">Extreme ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum ultraviolet">Vacuum ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman-alpha" title="Lyman-alpha">Lyman-alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Far ultraviolet">FUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle ultraviolet">MUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Near ultraviolet">NUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet C">UVC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet B">UVB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet A">UVA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible (optical)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">Violet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyan" title="Cyan">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-infrared">NIR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Photometric_system" title="Photometric system">Bands</a>: <a href="/wiki/J_band_(infrared)" title="J band (infrared)">J</a>, <a href="/wiki/K_band_(infrared)" title="K band (infrared)">K</a>, <a href="/wiki/H_band_(infrared)" title="H band (infrared)">H</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared#Regions" title="Infrared">SWIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared#Regions" title="Infrared">MWIR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Photometric_system" title="Photometric system">Bands</a>: <a href="/wiki/L_band_(infrared)" title="L band (infrared)">L</a>, <a href="/wiki/M_band_(infrared)" title="M band (infrared)">M</a>, <a href="/wiki/N_band" title="N band">N</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared#Regions" title="Infrared">LWIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_infrared" title="Far infrared">FIR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W_band" title="W band">W band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V_band" title="V band">V band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_band" title="Q band">Q band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">K<sub>a</sub> band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K_band_(IEEE)" title="K band (IEEE)">K band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_band" title="X band">X band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Radio</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">THF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">EHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_low_frequency" title="Very low frequency">VLF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_frequency" title="Ultra low frequency">ULF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_low_frequency" title="Super low frequency">SLF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremely_low_frequency" title="Extremely low frequency">ELF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">Wavelength</a> types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_radio" title="Shortwave radio">Shortwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">Medium wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">Longwave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_processes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_processes" title="Template talk:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_processes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear processes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamma radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">Electron capture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">Double</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Li burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">α process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process"><i>r</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process"><i>s</i>-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp-process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Capture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Neutron capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">Proton capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exchange</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/(n-p)_reaction" title="(n-p) reaction">(n-p) reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11523#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4019205-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85052990">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562232">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="gama záření"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph216326&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007557918205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&oldid=1252559001">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&oldid=1252559001</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gamma_rays" title="Category:Gamma rays">Gamma rays</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Category:Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:IARC_Group_1_carcinogens" title="Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens">IARC Group 1 carcinogens</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation" title="Category:Radiation">Radiation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_January_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2024">Articles needing additional references from January 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2022">Articles needing additional references from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_February_2009" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2009">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2016" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2016">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hAudio_microformats" title="Category:Articles with hAudio microformats">Articles with hAudio microformats</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spoken_articles" title="Category:Spoken articles">Spoken articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 October 2024, at 22:06<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma_ray&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-d8f47","wgBackendResponseTime":149,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.592","walltime":"1.940","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11289,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":262956,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7443,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":17,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":200676,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1574.023 1 -total"," 30.48% 479.731 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.77% 263.888 17 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.69% 183.958 1 Template:Nuclear_physics"," 11.42% 179.730 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.17% 97.042 5 Template:Navbox"," 5.26% 82.831 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.14% 80.958 3 Template:Ambox"," 5.10% 80.332 1 Template:More_citations_needed"," 5.05% 79.432 12 Template:SimpleNuclide"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.943","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":12667549,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-fvkzk","timestamp":"20241122143510","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Gamma ray","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gamma_ray","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11523","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11523","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-10T06:45:47Z","dateModified":"2024-10-21T22:06:04Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c2\/Gamma_Decay.svg","headline":"electromagnetic radiation of high frequency and therefore high energy"}</script> </body> </html>