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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Dissidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Beginnings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beginnings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Beginnings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Luther_and_the_Ninety-five_Theses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luther_and_the_Ninety-five_Theses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Luther and the Ninety-five Theses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luther_and_the_Ninety-five_Theses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 New theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_and_oppression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_and_oppression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Resistance and oppression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_and_oppression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Alternatives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternatives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saxon_radicals_and_rebellious_knights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saxon_radicals_and_rebellious_knights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Saxon radicals and rebellious knights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saxon_radicals_and_rebellious_knights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zwingli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zwingli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Zwingli </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zwingli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swiss_Brethren" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swiss_Brethren"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Swiss Brethren </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swiss_Brethren-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peasants'_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peasants'_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Peasants' War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peasants'_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Consolidation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consolidation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Consolidation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Consolidation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Princely_Reformation_in_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Princely_Reformation_in_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Princely Reformation in Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Princely_Reformation_in_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stalemate_in_Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stalemate_in_Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Stalemate in Switzerland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stalemate_in_Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schleitheim_Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schleitheim_Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Schleitheim Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schleitheim_Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confessions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confessions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Confessions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confessions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_Reformation_in_Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Reformation_in_Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Royal Reformation in Scandinavia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Reformation_in_Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Catholic reform </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Catholic_reform-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Catholic reform subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Catholic_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginnings_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Beginnings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Orders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Orders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 New Orders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Orders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Trent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Trent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Council of Trent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Trent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 New waves </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-New_waves-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle New waves subsection </button> <ul id="toc-New_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_reformation_under_Henry_VIII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_reformation_under_Henry_VIII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 English reformation under Henry VIII </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_reformation_under_Henry_VIII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Münster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Münster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Münster </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Münster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calvin_and_the_Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calvin_and_the_Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Calvin and the Institutes of the Christian Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calvin_and_the_Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reformation_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformation_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Reformation in Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reformation_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Servetus_and_the_Restoration_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Servetus_and_the_Restoration_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Servetus and the Restoration of Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Servetus_and_the_Restoration_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_of_religion_and_tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_of_religion_and_tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Wars of religion and tolerance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wars_of_religion_and_tolerance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Wars of religion and tolerance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Wars_of_religion_and_tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schmalkaldic_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schmalkaldic_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Schmalkaldic Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schmalkaldic_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Wars_of_Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Wars_of_Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 French Wars of Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Wars_of_Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolt_in_the_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolt_in_the_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Revolt in the Netherlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolt_in_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edict_of_Torda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edict_of_Torda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Edict of Torda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edict_of_Torda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warsaw_Confederation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warsaw_Confederation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Warsaw Confederation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warsaw_Confederation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counter-Reformation_and_regional_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counter-Reformation_and_regional_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Counter-Reformation and regional conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counter-Reformation_and_regional_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reformation_outside_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformation_outside_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Reformation outside Germany </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reformation_outside_Germany-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reformation outside Germany subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reformation_outside_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nordic_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nordic_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Nordic countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nordic_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iceland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iceland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Iceland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iceland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Great Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 England </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English_North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1.1 English North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Wales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Scotland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Spain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slovenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slovenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Slovenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slovenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusion_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusion_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Conclusion and legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conclusion_and_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conclusion and legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conclusion_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War:_1618–1648" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thirty_Years'_War:_1618–1648"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War:_1618–1648-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_of_the_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_of_the_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Consequences of the Reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_of_the_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radical_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radical_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Radical Reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radical_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Literacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_capital_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_capital_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5.1 Human capital formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_capital_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_ethic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_ethic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5.2 Protestant ethic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_ethic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5.3 Economic development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5.4 Governance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5.5 Other outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music_and_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music_and_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.7 Music and art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music_and_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_in_translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_in_translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.3 Primary sources in translation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_in_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.4 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Reformation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" > 134 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantse_Hervorming" title="Protestantse Hervorming – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Protestantse Hervorming" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Reformation" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="धर्मसुधार आन्दोलन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="धर्मसुधार आन्दोलन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirice_Edniwung" title="Cirice Edniwung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Cirice Edniwung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="إصلاح بروتستانتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إصلاح بروتستانتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestant" title="Reforma protestant – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Reforma protestant" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestante" title="Reforma protestante – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91emyatyr%C3%B5_o%C3%B1emo%C4%A9va" title="Ñemyatyrõ oñemoĩva – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñemyatyrõ oñemoĩva" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasiya" title="Reformasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Reformasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের প্রতিবাদপন্থী সংস্কার আন্দোলন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের প্রতিবাদপন্থী সংস্কার আন্দোলন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chong-k%C3%A0u_K%C3%A1i-kek" title="Chong-kàu Kái-kek – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chong-kàu Kái-kek" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рэфармацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рэфармацыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рэфармацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disivoud_protestant" title="Disivoud protestant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Disivoud protestant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D1%88%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Протестант шэнэшлэл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Протестант шэнэшлэл" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_Protestant" title="Reforma Protestant – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reforma Protestant" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformace" title="Reformace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Reformace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Diwygiad_Protestannaidd" title="Y Diwygiad Protestannaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Diwygiad Protestannaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformationen" title="Reformationen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Reformationen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reformation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatsioon" title="Reformatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Reformatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%81%CF%8D%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7_(%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Μεταρρύθμιση (θρησκεία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταρρύθμιση (θρησκεία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestante" title="Reforma protestante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacio" title="Reformacio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reformacio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreforma_protestantea" title="Erreforma protestantea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erreforma protestantea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="اصلاحات پروتستانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اصلاحات پروتستانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Protestant Reformation" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9forme_protestante" title="Réforme protestante – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réforme protestante" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformaasje" title="Reformaasje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Reformaasje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforme_Protestante" title="Riforme Protestante – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Riforme Protestante" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Reifirm%C3%A9isean" title="An Reifirméisean – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Reifirméisean" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Ath-Leasachadh" title="An t-Ath-Leasachadh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Ath-Leasachadh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestante" title="Reforma protestante – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-kau_K%C3%B3i-kiet" title="Chûng-kau Kói-kiet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-kau Kói-kiet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A2%85%EA%B5%90_%EA%B0%9C%ED%98%81" title="종교 개혁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="종교 개혁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Protestant Reformation" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ռեֆորմացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռեֆորմացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="यूरोपीय धर्मसुधार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यूरोपीय धर्मसुधार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestanta_reformo" title="Protestanta reformo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Protestanta reformo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporma_ti_Protestante" title="Reporma ti Protestante – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Reporma ti Protestante" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasi_Protestan" title="Reformasi Protestan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reformasi Protestan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestante" title="Reforma protestante – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Reforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B0askiptin" title="Siðaskiptin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Siðaskiptin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_protestante" title="Riforma protestante – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הרפורמציה הפרוטסטנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרפורמציה הפרוטסטנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%A9%C9%A3y%C9%A9yaa_t%C9%9B_%C9%96an%CA%8A%CA%8A_c%C9%94l%CA%8A%CA%8A_yaa_l%C9%9B%C9%9Bz%C9%A9t%CA%8A_(R%C3%A9forme_protestante)" title="Pɩɣyɩyaa tɛ ɖanʊʊ cɔlʊʊ yaa lɛɛzɩtʊ (Réforme protestante) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pɩɣyɩyaa tɛ ɖanʊʊ cɔlʊʊ yaa lɛɛzɩtʊ (Réforme protestante)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პროტესტანტული რეფორმაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პროტესტანტული რეფორმაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasfurvyans_Protestant" title="Dasfurvyans Protestant – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Dasfurvyans Protestant" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matengenezo_ya_Kiprotestanti" title="Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9form_protestant" title="Réform protestant – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Réform protestant" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformaziun" title="Reformaziun – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Reformaziun" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_protestante" title="Reforma protestante – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Reforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatio" title="Reformatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Reformatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform%C4%81cija" title="Reformācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Reformācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatioun" title="Reformatioun – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Reformatioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_protestante" title="Riforma protestante – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Riforma protestante" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatie" title="Reformatie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Reformatie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformi_protestantiste" title="Reformi protestantiste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Reformi protestantiste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refurma_Prutestanta" title="Refurma Prutestanta – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Refurma Prutestanta" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Reformáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Reformáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Протестантска реформација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Протестантска реформација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanavaozana_pr%C3%B4testanta" title="Fanavaozana prôtestanta – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fanavaozana prôtestanta" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രൊട്ടസ്റ്റന്റ് നവീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രൊട്ടസ്റ്റന്റ് നവീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_Protestanta" title="Riforma Protestanta – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Riforma Protestanta" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE" title="प्रोटेस्टंट सुधारणा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रोटेस्टंट सुधारणा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პროტესტანტული რეფორმაცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პროტესტანტული რეფორმაცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%89" title="تعديل بروتيستانتى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تعديل بروتيستانتى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasi_Protestan" title="Reformasi Protestan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Reformasi Protestan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_Protestante" title="Reforma Protestante – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Reforma Protestante" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Реформациясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Реформациясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%87%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Протестант шинэчлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Протестант шинэчлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatie" title="Reformatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Reformatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasie" title="Reformasie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Reformasie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" title="宗教改革 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宗教改革" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Реформаци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Реформаци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasjonen" title="Reformasjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Reformasjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasjonen" title="Reformasjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Reformasjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9forme_des_r%C3%A9criaunts" title="Réforme des récriaunts – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Réforme des récriaunts" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma" title="Reforma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Reforma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatsiya" title="Reformatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Reformatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%A0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪ੍ਰੋਟੈਸਟੈਂਟ ਪੁਨਰਗਠਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰੋਟੈਸਟੈਂਟ ਪੁਨਰਗਠਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B3%D9%B9%D9%86%D9%B9_%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%86" title="پروٹسٹنٹ ریفارمیشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پروٹسٹنٹ ریفارمیشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratistant_Refamieshan" title="Pratistant Refamieshan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Pratistant Refamieshan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9forme_%C3%A0_ches_protestants" title="Réforme à ches protestants – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Réforme à ches protestants" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformatschoon" title="Reformatschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Reformatschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacja" title="Reformacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Reformacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_Protestante" title="Reforma Protestante – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reforma Protestante" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_Protestant%C4%83" title="Reforma Protestantă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reforma Protestantă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refurmaziun" title="Refurmaziun – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Refurmaziun" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Реформация – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Реформация" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Reformation" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Reformation" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformat_protestante" title="Reformat protestante – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Reformat protestante" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_prutistanti" title="Riforma prutistanti – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Riforma prutistanti" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රොතෙස්තන්ත ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රොතෙස්තන්ත ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" title="Protestant Reformation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Protestant Reformation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD" title="تحريڪ اصلاح – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تحريڪ اصلاح" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform%C3%A1cia" title="Reformácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Reformácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="چاکسازیی پرۆتیستانتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چاکسازیی پرۆتیستانتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Протестантска реформација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Протестантска реформација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformacija" title="Reformacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Reformacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uskonpuhdistus" title="Uskonpuhdistus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uskonpuhdistus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformationen" title="Reformationen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Reformationen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repormang_Protestante" title="Repormang Protestante – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Repormang Protestante" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கிறித்தவச் சீர்திருத்த இயக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிறித்தவச் சீர்திருத்த இயக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9D%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="การปฏิรูปศาสนาฝ่ายโปรเตสแตนต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิรูปศาสนาฝ่ายโปรเตสแตนต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Ислоҳот – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ислоҳот" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_(tarih)" title="Reform (tarih) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Reform (tarih)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasi%C3%BDa" title="Reformasiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Reformasiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Реформація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Реформація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B3%D9%B9%D9%86%D9%B9_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="پروٹسٹنٹ اصلاح کلیسیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پروٹسٹنٹ اصلاح کلیسیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_Protestante" title="Reforma Protestante – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Reforma Protestante" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%A3i_c%C3%A1ch_t%C3%B4n_gi%C3%A1o" title="Cải cách tôn giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cải cách tôn giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformats%27uun" title="Reformats'uun – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Reformats'uun" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ref%C3%B4me_protestante" title="Refôme protestante – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Refôme protestante" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporma_Protestantehanon" title="Reporma Protestantehanon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Reporma Protestantehanon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%93%E5%8F%8D%E8%A3%82%E6%95%99" title="誓反裂教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="誓反裂教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פראטעסטאנטישע רעפארמאציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פראטעסטאנטישע רעפארמאציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" title="宗教改革 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="宗教改革" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_(tarix)" title="Reform (tarix) – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Reform (tarix)" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refuormac%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Refuormacėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Refuormacėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9" title="宗教改革 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="line-height:1.4em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Protestant_Reformation" title="Category:Protestant Reformation">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/250px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/375px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png/500px-95Thesen_facsimile_colour.png 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="488" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> in 1517</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Precursors</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Waldo" title="Peter Waldo">Peter Waldo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Girolamo Savonarola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piagnoni" title="Piagnoni">Piagnoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_of_Brescia" title="Arnold of Brescia">Arnold of Brescia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arnoldists" title="Arnoldists">Arnoldists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottschalk_of_Orbais" title="Gottschalk of Orbais">Gottschalk of Orbais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratramnus" title="Ratramnus">Ratramnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_of_Turin" title="Claudius of Turin">Claudius of Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengar_of_Tours" title="Berengar of Tours">Berengar of Tours</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berengarians" title="Berengarians">Berengarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessel_Gansfort" title="Wessel Gansfort">Wessel Gansfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Ruchrat_von_Wesel" title="Johann Ruchrat von Wesel">Johann Ruchrat von Wesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_von_Goch" title="Johannes von Goch">Johannes von Goch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_God" title="Friends of God">Friends of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pataria" title="Pataria">Pataria</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther#The_start_of_the_Reformation" title="Martin Luther">Beginning</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radicals</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Contributing factors</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_mysticism" class="mw-redirect" title="German mysticism">German mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin" title="Johann Reuchlin">Johann Reuchlin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theologies of seminal figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology of Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Theology of Huldrych Zwingli">Theology of Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_John_Calvin" title="Theology of John Calvin">Theology of John Calvin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Protestant Reformers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Karlstadt" title="Andreas Karlstadt">Andreas Karlstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Buchanan" title="George Buchanan">George Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermigli" title="Peter Martyr Vermigli">Peter Martyr Vermigli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman" title="François Hotman">François Hotman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Languet" title="Hubert Languet">Hubert Languet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Thomas Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Hubmaier" title="Balthasar Hubmaier">Balthasar Hubmaier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hooker" title="Richard Hooker">Richard Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius" title="Jacobus Arminius">Jacobus Arminius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_Reformers" title="List of Protestant Reformers">Many others</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By location</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Geneva#Reformation" title="History of Geneva">Geneva</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Z%C3%BCrich" title="Reformation in Zürich">Zürich</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands#The_Reformation" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Czech Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_the_Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Romania#Reformation" title="History of Christianity in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia#Early_modern_period" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein" title="Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein">Denmark–Norway and Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Sweden and Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Reformation" title="Icelandic Reformation">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia#The_Reformation" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia#German_period,_1185–1561" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria#Austria_in_the_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation_(1517–1564)" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Italy" title="Reformation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformation in Poland">Poland-Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Ireland" title="Reformation in Ireland">Ireland</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major political leaders</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny" title="Gaspard II de Coligny">Gaspard II de Coligny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Albret" title="Jeanne d'Albret">Jeanne d'Albret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bocskai" title="Stephen Bocskai">Stephen Bocskai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bethlen" title="Gabriel Bethlen">Gabriel Bethlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden">Gustav II Adolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_V_of_the_Palatinate" title="Frederick V of the Palatinate">Frederick V, Elector Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I,_Landgrave_of_Hesse" title="Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse">Philip I of Hesse</a></li></ul> Electors of Saxony <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_I,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony">John Frederick I</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Counter-Reformation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation § Politics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_the_Bible#16th_century" title="Censorship of the Bible">Censorship of the Bible § 16th century</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Anti-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism</a></li></ul></div> Holy Roman Emperors <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Political and religious conflicts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">War of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Kappel" title="Wars of Kappel">Wars of Kappel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Art and literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Painting and sculpture <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism#Northern_Mannerism,_politics_and_religion" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art#Reformation_era" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance#Art" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_art#Renaissance_and_Baroque_art" title="Swedish art">Swedish art</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_art#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="English art">English art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_master_print#The_North_after_Dürer" title="Old master print">Woodcuts</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">Beeldenstorm</a></li></ul></div> Building <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture#The_Reformation_and_its_influence_on_church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Influence on church architecture</a></li></ul> Literature <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Propaganda</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature#Early_modern_era" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature#The_manuscript_tradition" title="Irish literature">Anglo-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature#German_Renaissance_and_Reformation" title="German literature">German</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature#Reformation" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature#Emergence_of_vernacular_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature#1500-1650" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature#Beginnings" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohori%C4%8D_alphabet" title="Bohorič alphabet">Bohorič alphabet</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature#Reformation_era" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature#"Four_Hundred_Years_of_Darkness"" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature#Reformation_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature#Pre-Nineteenth_century" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature#Middle_Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_Low_Countries#In_folk_tales" title="Folklore of the Low Countries">Folklore of the Low Countries</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond" title="Renaissance humanism">16th century Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_poetry" title="16th century in poetry">16th century in poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th century in literature</a></li></ul></div> Theater <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral#Pastoral_plays" title="Pastoral">Pastoral</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)#Early_Modern_Origins" title="History (theatrical genre)">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy#Britain" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Music</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Forms <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe#Reformation" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_music_of_the_British_Isles#Reformation" title="Early music of the British Isles">Music of the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn_tune#The_Reformation" title="Hymn tune">Hymn tune</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_chorale" title="Lutheran chorale">Lutheran chorale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_hymn" title="Lutheran hymn">Lutheran hymn</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music#History" title="Anglican church music">Anglican church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_psalmody" title="Exclusive psalmody">Exclusive psalmody</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_music_in_Scotland#Impact_of_the_Reformation" title="Church music in Scotland">Scottish church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_principle_of_worship" title="Normative principle of worship">Normative principle</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_chant" title="Anglican chant">Anglican chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">Homophony</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Polyphony#European_polyphony" title="Polyphony">Polyphony</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falsobordone" title="Falsobordone">Falsobordone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_anthem" title="Verse anthem">Verse anthem</a></li></ul> </div> Liturgies <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_worship#General_principles_and_historical_overview" title="Reformed worship">Reformed worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship#John_Calvin's_Liturgy" title="Regulative principle of worship">Calvin's liturgy</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formula_missae" title="Formula missae">Formula missae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Messe" title="Deutsche Messe">Deutsche Messe</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_struggle" title="Liturgical struggle">Liturgical Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(music)#Renaissance" title="Mass (music)">Lutheran and Anglican Mass</a> in music</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_mass" title="Cyclic mass">Cyclic mass</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Paraphrase_mass" title="Paraphrase mass">Paraphrase mass</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Tridentine_Mass" title="Pre-Tridentine Mass">Roman</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Use_of_Sarum" title="Use of Sarum">Sarum</a> Rites</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_(musical_form)" title="Sequence (musical form)">Sequence</a> (retained by Lutherans, mostly banned by Trent)</li></ul></div> Hymnals <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Lutheran_hymnal" title="First Lutheran hymnal">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Enchiridion" title="Erfurt Enchiridion">Second</a> Lutheran hymnals</li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyn_geystlich_Gesangk_Buchleyn" title="Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn">First Wittenberg hymnal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swenske_songer_eller_wisor_1536" title="Swenske songer eller wisor 1536">Swenske songer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomiss%C3%B8n%27s_hymnal" title="Thomissøn's hymnal">Thomissøn's hymnal</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Order" title="Book of Common Order">Book of Common Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souterliedekens" title="Souterliedekens">Souterliedekens</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genevan_Psalter" title="Genevan Psalter">Genevan Psalter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnbooks_of_the_Church_of_Scotland#Scottish_Psalter_(1564)" title="Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland">Scottish Psalter</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whole_Book_of_Psalms" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole Book of Psalms">Whole Book of Psalms</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Conclusion and commemorations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Conclusion <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creed#Christian_confessions_of_faith" title="Creed">Confessionalization</a> with subsequent <a href="/wiki/Template:17th_Century_Scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:17th Century Scholasticism">Protestant orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li>Simultaneous rise of <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism#Classical_rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li></ul> Monuments <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" title="Reformation Wall">Reformation Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument" title="Luther Monument">Luther Monuments</a></li></ul></div> Calendrical commemoration <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_Day" title="Reformation Day">Reformation Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_(Lutheran)" title="Calendar of saints (Lutheran)">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglican_Church_calendars" title="List of Anglican Church calendars">Anglican</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation" title="Template:Reformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reformation" title="Template talk:Reformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="color: black;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Protestantism" title="Category:Protestantism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;;padding:0.2em; background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Golden_Christian_Cross.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Latin version of the Christian cross which is used by virtually all Protestant denominations"><img alt="Latin version of the Christian cross which is used by virtually all Protestant denominations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Golden_Christian_Cross.svg/85px-Golden_Christian_Cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Golden_Christian_Cross.svg/128px-Golden_Christian_Cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Golden_Christian_Cross.svg/170px-Golden_Christian_Cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Protestantism" title="Outline of Protestantism">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Anti-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Bible" title="Protestant Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_by_country" title="Protestantism by country">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_ecclesiology" title="Protestant ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic%E2%80%93Protestant_relations" title="Catholic–Protestant relations">Relations with Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_theologies" title="Protestant theologies">Theologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Solas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Solas">Five Solas</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestantism" title="Crypto-Protestantism">Crypto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Dissenters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings in America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revival_meeting" title="Revival meeting">Revival meetings</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations#Protestant" title="List of Christian denominations">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Protestants">Proto-Protestants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Reformed church">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational">Congregational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement" title="Continuing Anglican movement">Continuing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Pietism" title="Radical Pietism">Radical Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakers" title="Shakers">Shakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone-Campbell" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone-Campbell">Stone-Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventist" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventist">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_Life_movement" title="Higher Life movement">Keswickians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Protestant_Christianity" title="Eastern Protestant Christianity">Eastern Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostals">Pentecostals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United and uniting churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Catholic" title="Evangelical Catholic">Augsburg Catholics</a></li> <li><a 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/75px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/100px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li><li>Foundations</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Father (Christianity)">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">(full list)</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedevacantism" title="Sedevacantism">Sedevacantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Free Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian [Hussite]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingians</a></li> <li><a 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mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template talk:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation and the European Reformation,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> was a major <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> movement or period or series of events in <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> in 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Europe" title="Northwestern Europe">Northwestern Europe</a> that posed a religious and political challenge to the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a> and the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the Reformation marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> and in turn resulted in a major <a href="/wiki/Schism_in_Christianity" title="Schism in Christianity">schism</a> within Western Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> It is considered one of the events that signified the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-3">[3]</a> When the Reformation era ended is disputed among modern scholars. Prior to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Protestant Reformers</a>, there were <a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">earlier reform movements</a> within Western Christianity. The Protestant Reformation, however, is usually considered to have started on 31 October 1517 with the publication of the <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a>, authored by Martin Luther. Over three years later, on 3 January 1521, Luther was <a href="/wiki/Excommunicated" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunicated">excommunicated</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a>. On 25 May 1521, at the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a>, Luther was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, which officially banned citizens from defending or propagating Luther's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-ENC3-4">[4]</a> Luther survived after being declared an outlaw due to the protection of Elector <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick the Wise</a>. The spread of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg's</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The initial movement in Germany diversified, and nearby other reformers such as <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> with different theologies arose. In general, the Reformers argued that <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">salvation in Christianity</a> was a completed status <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">based on faith in Jesus alone</a> and not a process that could involve <a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">good works</a>, as in the Catholic view. Protestantism also introduced new <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">ecclesiology</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> was the Catholic reform efforts initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation and its causes.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ginevra1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stone wall with the sculptures of four bearded men" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ginevra1.JPG/220px-Ginevra1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ginevra1.JPG/330px-Ginevra1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ginevra1.JPG/440px-Ginevra1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" title="Reformation Wall">International Monument to the Reformation</a>, a statue erected in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in 1909 depicting <a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a>, four leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed tradition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></figcaption></figure> In the 16th-century context, the term mainly covers four major movements: <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Bossy" title="John Bossy">John Bossy</a> criticized the term Reformation<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> for "wrongly implying that bad religion was giving way to good," but also because it has "little application to actual social behaviour and little or no sensitivity to thought, feeling or culture."<a href="#cite_note-7">[note 1]</a> Some historians have also suggested a persisting <a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_evaluations_of_Erasmus#Erasmian_reformation" title="Legacy and evaluations of Erasmus">Erasmian Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[note 2]</a> Anglican theologian <a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">Alister McGrath</a> explains the term "Reformation" as "an interpretative category—a way of mapping out a slice of history in which certain ideas, attitudes, and values were developed, explored, and applied". <ul><li>"Protestant Reformation" excludes the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Times">early modern</a> Catholic reform movements.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial Reformation</a>" has a narrower sense, as it refers only to mainstream <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>, primarily Lutheranism and Calvinism, contrasting it with more radical ideas such as the <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath20212–3-10">[8]</a></li> <li>"Catholic Reformation" is distinguished by the historian Massimo Firpo from <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>. In his view, Catholic Reformation was "centered on the care of souls ..., episcopal residence, the renewal of the clergy, together with the charitable and educational roles of the new religious orders", whereas Counter-Reformation was "founded upon the defence of orthodoxy, the repression of dissent, the reassertion of ecclesiastical authority".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirpo2016295-11">[9]</a></li> <li>"Reformations": from the late 20th century, historians often use the plural of the term to emphasize that the Reformation was not a uniform and coherent historical phenomenon but the result of parallel movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron20121-12">[10]</a></li> <li>Several aspects of the Reformation, such as changes in the arts, music, rituals, and communities are frequently presented in specialised studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201210–11-13">[11]</a></li></ul> The historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Marshall_(historian)" title="Peter Marshall (historian)">Peter Marshall</a> emphasizes that the "call for 'reform' within Christianity is about as old as the religion itself, and in every age there have been urgent attempts to bring it about". <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> employed a "rhetoric of reform".<a href="#cite_note-15">[note 3]</a> Medieval examples include the <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluniac Reform">Cluniac Reform</a> in the 10th–11th centuries, and the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20093–4-16">[13]</a> both striving against <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">lay</a> influence over church affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200345-17">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200514-18">[15]</a> When demanding a church reform, medieval authors mainly adopted a conservative and utopian approach, expressing their admiration for a previous "golden age" or "apostolic age" when the Church had allegedly been perfect and free of abuses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201252-19">[16]</a> Both the starting and ending date of the Reformation have always been debated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20095-20">[17]</a> The most commonly used starting date is 31 October 1517—the day when the German theologian <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> (d. 1546) allegedly nailed up a copy of his <a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">disputation</a> paper on <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a> and papal power known as the <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> to the door of the <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Wittenberg" title="All Saints' Church, Wittenberg">castle church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Electoral Saxony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[note 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201215-24">[20]</a> Calvinist historians often propose that the Reformation started when the Swiss priest <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> (d. 1531) first preached against abuses in the Church in 1516.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201210-25">[21]</a> The end date of the Reformation is even more disputed, with 25 September 1555 (when the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> was accepted), 23 May 1618, and 24 October 1648 (when the Thirty Years' War began and ended, respectively) being the most commonly mentioned terminuses. The Reformation has always been presented as one of the most crucial episodes of the early modern period, or even regarded as the event separating the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201214–15-26">[22]</a> The term Protestant, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church that subscribed to the main Reformation (or <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">anti-Catholic</a>) <a href="/wiki/Five_solae#The_three_solae" title="Five solae">principles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-etymonline.com-27">[23]</a> Six princes of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and rulers of fourteen <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Free City">Imperial Free Cities</a>, who issued <a href="/wiki/Protestation_at_Speyer" title="Protestation at Speyer">a protest</a> (or dissent) against the edict of the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Speyer_(1529)" title="Diet of Speyer (1529)">Diet of Speyer (1529)</a>, were the first individuals to be called Protestants.<a href="#cite_note-etymonline.com-27">[23]</a> The edict reversed concessions made to the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a> with the approval of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Speyer_(1526)" title="Diet of Speyer (1526)">three years earlier</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calamities">Calamities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Calamities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Medieval demography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sweating_Sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating Sickness">Sweating Sickness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willem_Vrelant_(Flemish,_died_1481,_active_1454_-_1481)_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/200px-Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/400px-Willem_Vrelant_%28Flemish%2C_died_1481%2C_active_1454_-_1481%29_-_Mass_for_the_Dead_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2960" data-file-height="4726" /></a><figcaption>Funeral Mass with priest, choristers, bearers or mourners, and begger receiving alms (c. 1460–80)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> experienced a period of dreadful calamities from the early 14th century. These culminated in a devastating <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> which hit Europe, killing about one third of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202121–24-28">[24]</a> Around 1500, the population of Europe was about 60–85 million people—no more than 75 percent of the mid-14th-century demographic maximum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron20124-29">[25]</a> Due to a shortage of workforce, the landlords began to restrict the rights of their tenants which led to rural revolts that often ended with a compromise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012204–205-30">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A mural depicting a cardinal, a bishop, a monk and a peasant dancing with skeletons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG/300px-Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG/450px-Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG/600px-Hrastovlje_Dreifaltigkeitskirche_Innen_Totentanzzyklus_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="2161" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the <a href="/wiki/Danse_macabre" class="mw-redirect" title="Danse macabre">danse macabre</a> (1490) by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Kastav" title="John of Kastav">John of Kastav</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church_(Hrastovlje)" title="Holy Trinity Church (Hrastovlje)">Holy Trinity Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hrastovlje" title="Hrastovlje">Hrastovlje</a>, Slovenia</figcaption></figure> The constant fear of unexpected death was mirrored by popular artistic motifs, such as the allegory of <a href="/wiki/Danse_macabre" class="mw-redirect" title="Danse macabre">danse macabre</a> ('dance of death'). The fear also contributed to the growing popularity of <a href="/wiki/Requiem" title="Requiem">Masses for the dead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202124-31">[27]</a> Already detectable among <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christians</a>, these ceremonies indicated a widespread belief in <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">purgatory</a>—a transitory state for souls that needed purification before entering <a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity" title="Heaven in Christianity">heaven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200397-32">[28]</a> Fear of malevolent magical practice was also growing, and <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunts</a> intensified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon202241,_48-33">[29]</a> From the end of the 15th century, a new, <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">sexually transmitted infection</a> spread in Europe. This was <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> that destroyed its victims' looks with <a href="/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)" title="Ulcer (dermatology)">ulcers</a> and scabs before killing them. Along with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1494%E2%80%931495" title="Italian War of 1494–1495">French invasion of Italy</a>, the syphilis gave the background to the success of the charismatic preacher <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Girolamo Savonarola</a> (d. 1498) who called for a moral renewal in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. He was arrested and executed for <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a>, but his <a href="/wiki/Christian_meditation" title="Christian meditation">meditations</a> remained a popular reading.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200390–92-34">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Medieval_Christianity">Late Medieval Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late Medieval Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">Christianity in the 13th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">Christianity in the 14th century</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">Christianity in the 15th century</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop,_The_Nativity,_probably_c._1445,_NGA_422.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A baby with a halo around his head lying on hay with a kneeling woman and man on his both sides" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg/300px-Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg/450px-Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg/600px-Fra_Filippo_Lippi_and_Workshop%2C_The_Nativity%2C_probably_c._1445%2C_NGA_422.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The Nativity (1445) by <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Lippi" title="Filippo Lippi">Filippo Lippi</a>. When painting <a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus_in_art" title="Nativity of Jesus in art">Nativity scenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> artists mainly portrayed maternal love instead of depicting an abstract interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">Incarnation</a> as <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> artists had done.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200384-35">[31]</a></figcaption></figure> Historian John Bossy (as summarized by Eamon Duffy) emphasized that "medieval Christianity had been fundamentally concerned with the creation and maintenance of peace in a violent world. “Christianity” in medieval Europe denoted neither an ideology nor an institution, but a community of believers whose religious ideal—constantly aspired to if seldom attained—was peace and mutual love."<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> The Catholic Church taught that entry into <a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">heaven</a> required dying in a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/state_of_grace" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:state of grace">state of grace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200397-32">[28]</a> Based on <a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Christ's parable on</a> the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Last Judgement</a>, the Church considered the performance of <a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">good works</a> by the faithful, such as feeding the hungry and visiting the sick, as an important condition of salvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200368-37">[33]</a> Villagers and urban laypeople were frequently members of <a href="/wiki/Confraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="Confraternities">confraternities</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Lucia_del_Gonfalone#Archconfraternity_of_the_Gonfalone" title="Santa Lucia del Gonfalone">Archconfraternity of the Gonfalone</a>,)<a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[note 5]</a> mutual-support <a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">guilds</a> associated with a saint, or religious <a href="/wiki/Fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="Fraternities">fraternities</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Order_of_Saint_Francis" title="Third Order of Saint Francis">Third Order of Saint Francis</a>.) The faithful made <a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">pilgrimages</a> to saints' <a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">shrines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201214-42">[37]</a> but the proliferation in the saints' number undermined their reputation.<a href="#cite_note-44">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013213–214-45">[39]</a> Church buildings were richly decorated with paintings, sculptures, and <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> windows. While <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a> made a clear distinction between the supernatural and the human, Renaissance artists depicted <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> and the saints in a more human way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200383-46">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Institutions">Institutions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Institutions">edit</a>]</div> The institutional church was the reliable religious authority, through its bishops and priests, transmitting without error both <a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">apostolic tradition</a> and the Bible, as interpreted by the decisions of <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical councils">ecumenical councils</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Papal_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal authority">papal authority</a>, through the mechanism of the <a href="/wiki/Sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments">sacraments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Western and Eastern Christians believed that the <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_bread" title="Sacramental bread">sacramental bread</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_wine" title="Sacramental wine">wine</a> of the Eucharist changed into the <a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_of_Christ" title="Blood of Christ">Blood of Christ</a>, though not in outward appearance.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This belief, formulated as "<a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a>", was declared a Catholic dogma in 1215. From the 12th and 13th centuries, laypeople only received the bread during the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200351–53,_93-47">[41]</a> The ecumenical councils' decisions were binding to all Catholics. The crucial elements of mainstream Christianity had been first summarised in the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> in 325. Its Western text contained a <a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">unilateral addition</a> which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">schism between</a> Catholicism and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200324–31,_140-48">[42]</a> The Creed contained the dogma of <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> about one God uniting three equal persons: <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/God_the_Holy_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003180-49">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200315-50">[44]</a> Church authorities acknowledged that an individual might exceptionally receive direct <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelations</a> from God but maintained that a genuine revelation could not challenge traditional religious principles.<a href="#cite_note-52">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200331–32-53">[46]</a> Apostolic tradition verified religious practices that some Protestant groups say had no explicit Biblical foundations, such as <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">infant baptism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Latin</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">language of public worship</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[note 8]</a> in most dioceses<a href="#cite_note-56">[note 9]</a> of Catholic Europe although few laypeople understood Latin.<a href="#cite_note-57">[note 10]</a> The Eucharist, the central element of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">liturgy</a>, was also celebrated in Latin. Catholics regarded the <a href="/wiki/Vulgata" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulgata">Vulgate</a> as the Bible's authentic Latin translation. Commentators applied several methods of interpretations to resolve contradictions between Bible texts.<a href="#cite_note-59">[note 11]</a> In the universities, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> theology held sway. Legitimate debates among scholastic theologians were not uncommon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200327,_124–126-60">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">Predestination</a>—God's decision about an individual's fate in afterlife—was frequently discussed. <a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Ockhamist</a> theologians taught that God destined to salvation those about whom foreknew that they would accept the divine offer of grace (by acquiring <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Christianity)" title="Merit (Christianity)">merit</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-61">[50]</a>: 164–167  In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> (d. 1308) and <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Rimini" title="Gregory of Rimini">Gregory of Rimini</a> (d. 1358) argued that an individual's choice could not influence God's decision; Rimini also asserted that God predestined the fate of both the saved and the damned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012156-62">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">Justification before God</a> and the timing of <a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity#Sanctifying_and_actual_grace" title="Grace in Christianity">grace</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201289-63">[52]</a> was also the subject of controversy. Many theologians such as Scotus, Ockham, and <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Biel" title="Gabriel Biel">Gabriel Biel</a> (d. 1495)<a href="#cite_note-64">[note 12]</a>: 470  taught that God established rules how the faithful could gain divine grace. Other theologians such as Rimini, and <a href="/wiki/Hugolino_of_Orvieto" title="Hugolino of Orvieto">Hugolino of Orvieto</a> (d. 1374) proposed that no one could deserve divine favour without God's direct intercession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201289–91-65">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clergy">Clergy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Clergy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> displayed a remarkable unity. This was the outcome of the Gregorian Reform that established <a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy" title="Papal supremacy">papal supremacy</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, and achieved the legal separation of the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Catholic clergy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">laity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200326–27-66">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[note 13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clerical_celibacy" title="Clerical celibacy">Clerical celibacy</a> was reinforced through the prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" title="Clerical marriage">clerical marriage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">ecclesiastical courts</a> were granted exclusive jurisdiction over clerics, and also over matrimonial causes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200334–38-70">[57]</a> Priests were <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">ordained</a> by bishops in accordance with the principle of <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a>—a claim to the uninterrupted transmission of their consecrating power from Christ's <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a> through generations of bishops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200333-71">[58]</a> Bishops, <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbesses</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Prelate" title="Prelate">prelates</a> might possess remarkable wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon20222-72">[59]</a> Some of the ecclesiastic leaders also functioned as local secular princes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Prince-bishop" title="Prince-bishop">prince-bishops</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a> and the English <a href="/wiki/County_Palatine_of_Durham" title="County Palatine of Durham">County Palatine of Durham</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Masters_of_the_Teutonic_Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights">Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ordensstaat" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordensstaat">Ordensstaat</a>. Other prelates might be regents or the power behind the throne.<a href="#cite_note-74">[note 14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201229-73">[60]</a> Believers were expected to pay the <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithe</a> (one tenth of their income) to the Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200335-75">[61]</a> Pluralism—the practice of holding multiple Church offices (or <a href="/wiki/Benefice" title="Benefice">benefices</a>)—was not unusual. This led to non-residence, and the absent priests' deputies were often poorly educated and underpaid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200339-76">[62]</a> The clergy consisted of two major groups, the <a href="/wiki/Regular_clergy" title="Regular clergy">regular clergy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Secular_clergy" title="Secular clergy">secular clergy</a>. Regular clerics lived under a <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monastic</a> rule within the framework of a <a href="/wiki/Religious_order_(Catholic)" title="Religious order (Catholic)">religious order</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200333,_42-77">[63]</a> secular clerics were responsible for pastoral care. The Church was a hierarchical organisation. The pope was elected by high-ranking clergymen, the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholic_Church)" title="Cardinal (Catholic Church)">cardinals</a>, and assisted by the professional staff of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a>. Secular clerics were organised into territorial units known as <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">dioceses</a>, each ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Bishops_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Bishops in the Catholic Church">bishop</a> or <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishop</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[note 15]</a> Each diocese was divided into <a href="/wiki/Parish_(Catholic_Church)" title="Parish (Catholic Church)">parishes</a> headed by parish priests who administered most <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a> to the faithful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200326–30-79">[64]</a> These were sacred rites thought to transfer <a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity" title="Grace in Christianity">divine grace</a> to humankind. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Florence" title="Council of Florence">Council of Florence</a> declared <a href="/wiki/Baptism#Catholicism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Confirmation in the Catholic Church">confirmation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marriage in the Catholic Church">marriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church">extreme unction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacrament_of_Penance" title="Sacrament of Penance">penance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Eucharist in the Catholic Church">Eucharist</a>, and priestly ordination as the seven <a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">sacraments of the Catholic Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201212-80">[65]</a> Women were not ordained priests but could live as <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a> in <a href="/wiki/Convent" title="Convent">convents</a> after taking the three monastic vows of <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_counsels" title="Evangelical counsels">poverty, chastity, and obedience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200341,_48–49,_88,_97-81">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Papacy">Papacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Papacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A pope and about a dozen bishops sitting in a large room." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg/300px-Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg/450px-Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg/600px-Richental_Konzilssitzung_Muenster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3590" data-file-height="2508" /></a><figcaption>Meeting of cardinals, bishops and theologians with <a href="/wiki/Antipope_John_XXIII" title="Antipope John XXIII">Antipope John XXIII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1410–1415) at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> (from the Chronicle of the Council of Constance by <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_of_Richenthal" title="Ulrich of Richenthal">Ulrich of Richenthal</a>)</figcaption></figure> The authority of the papacy was based on a well-organised system of communication and bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham2016148–149-82">[67]</a> The popes claimed the power of <a href="/wiki/Binding_and_loosing" title="Binding and loosing">binding and loosing</a> that Christ <a href="/wiki/Matthew_16:19" title="Matthew 16:19">had reportedly</a> granted to <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Apostle" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter the Apostle">Peter the Apostle</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 66), and offered <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgence</a>—the reduction of the penance in both this world and the purgatory—to sinners from an allegedly inexhaustible <a href="/wiki/Treasury_of_merit" title="Treasury of merit">treasury of merit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003107–108-83">[68]</a> The popes also granted <a href="/wiki/Dispensation_(Catholic_canon_law)" title="Dispensation (Catholic canon law)">dispensations</a> to institutions or individuals, exempting them from certain provisions of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> (or ecclesiastic law).<a href="#cite_note-84">[note 16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200339-76">[62]</a> In 1302, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1294–1303) <a href="/wiki/Unam_Sanctam" class="mw-redirect" title="Unam Sanctam">declared</a> obedience to the papacy as a precondition for <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">salvation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200330-85">[69]</a> A year later, French troops arrested him, and in 1309, the seat of the papacy was transferred from the chaotic Rome to <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham2016143,_212-86">[70]</a> During the period of the <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a>, the popes assumed control of the appointment of all senior Catholic clerics. The appointees had to pay fees and other contributions to the Roman Curia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200338-87">[71]</a> The idea that Rome was the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter#Catholic_view" title="Primacy of Peter">legitimate center</a> of Catholicism never ceased, with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1370–1378) returning to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200332-51">[45]</a> However, conflict between his successor <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VI" title="Pope Urban VI">Urban VII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1378–1389) and the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" title="College of Cardinals">College of Cardinals</a> developed into the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> (1378-1417) when his opponents declared his election invalid and proclaimed the French <a href="/wiki/Antipope_Clement_VII" title="Antipope Clement VII">Clement VII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1378–1394) pope. Clement returned to Avignon, establishing a rival line of popes who were considered as <a href="/wiki/Antipope" title="Antipope">antipopes</a> by their opponents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham2016187,_212–213-88">[72]</a> When taking sides between the two popes, church leaders mainly accepted the local ruler's decision, which weakened the supranational character of the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201257-89">[73]</a> In 1409, cardinals from both sides elected a new pope at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Pisa" title="Council of Pisa">Council of Pisa</a> but his two rivals refused to resign. More prudent preparations paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a>. Here, one of the three popes resigned, his two rivals were deposed, and the newly elected <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Martin V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1417–1431) was acknowledged as the legitimate pope throughout Catholic Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham2016213-90">[74]</a> The Council of Constance <a href="/wiki/Haec_sancta_synodus" title="Haec sancta synodus">declared</a> that the popes owed obedience to the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">ecumenical councils</a>. This idea known as <a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">conciliarism</a> was <a href="/wiki/Execrabilis" title="Execrabilis">condemned</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_II" title="Pope Pius II">Pope Pius II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1458–1467) in a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a>, but ecclesiastic and secular leaders often referred to it during their conflicts with the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200331-91">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201254–56-92">[76]</a> Relationships between the papacy and powerful Catholic rulers were regulated in special agreements known as <a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">concordats</a>, limiting papal authority.<a href="#cite_note-95">[note 17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200310-96">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201258–59-97">[80]</a> As princes of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in Italy, the popes were deeply involved in the power struggles of the peninsula. In this respect, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> popes were not dissimilar to secular rulers. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1492–1503) appointed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Borgia" title="House of Borgia">his relatives</a>, among them his own <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">illegitimate</a> sons to high offices. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_II" title="Pope Julius II">Pope Julius II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1503–1513) took up arms to recover papal territories lost during his predecessors' reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200340–41-98">[81]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a>, Pope Alexander VI claimed the right to distribute the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal, and <a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">his decision</a> was confirmed in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> in 1494.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202314–15-99">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200364–65-100">[83]</a> The Spanish and Portuguese conquests and developing trade networks contributed to the global expansion of Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-102">[note 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitchfield2022198-101">[84]</a> The popes were generous patrons of art and architecture. Julius II ordered the demolition of the ruined <a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">4th-century St. Peter's Basilica</a> in preparation for the building of a <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">new Renaissance basilica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon20229-103">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Partial_and_failed_institutional_reforms">Partial and failed institutional reforms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Partial and failed institutional reforms">edit</a>]</div> The necessity of a church reform in capite et membris ('in head and limbs') was frequently discussed at the ecumenical councils from the late 13th century. However, most stakeholders—popes, prelates and kings—preferred the status quo because they did not want to lose privileges or revenues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201244–45-104">[86]</a> The system of papal dispensations was a principal obstacle to the implementation of reform measures, as the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> regularly granted immunities to those who did not want to execute them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200339-76">[62]</a> Within regular clergy, the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Congregation_(group_of_houses)" title="Congregation (group of houses)">congregations</a> of strict observance" spread. These were monastic communities that returned to the strict interpretation of their order's rule.<a href="#cite_note-106">[note 19]</a> Reformist bishops tried to discipline their clergy through regular <a href="/wiki/Canonical_visitation" title="Canonical visitation">canonical visitations</a> but their attempts mainly failed due to the resistance of autonomous institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_chapter" title="Cathedral chapter">cathedral chapters</a>. Neither could they exercise authority over non-resident clerics who had received their benefice from the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201247–53-107">[88]</a> On the eve of the Reformation, the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fifth Council of the Lateran">Fifth Council of the Lateran</a> was the last occasion when efforts to introduce a far-reaching reform from above could have achieved but it was dissolved in 1517 without making decisions on the issues that would soon come to the fore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200384–85-108">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanism_and_lay_religion">Humanism and lay religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Humanism and lay religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Complutensian_Polyglot_Bible" title="Complutensian Polyglot Bible">Complutensian Polyglot Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A middle-aged man with a book in his hands wearing a fur coat and a fur hat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/220px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/330px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/440px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Erasmus_of_Rotterdam" title="Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam">Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a> (d. 1543)</figcaption></figure> A new intellectual movement known as <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>. The Humanists' slogan <a href="/wiki/Ad_fontes" title="Ad fontes">ad fontes</a>! ('back to the sources!') demonstrated their enthusiasm for <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> texts and <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual criticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202348–50-109">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">rise of the Ottoman Empire</a> led to the mass immigration of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> scholars to Western Europe, and many of them brought <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> previously unknown to western scholarship. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">rediscovery of</a> the Ancient Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (347/348 BC). Plato's ideas about an ultimate reality lying beyond visible reality posed a serious challenge to scholastic theologians' rigorous definitions. Textual criticism called into question the reliability of some of the fundamental texts of papal privilege: humanist scholars, like <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> (d. 1464) proved that one of the basic documents of papal authority, the allegedly 4th-century <a href="/wiki/Donation_of_Constantine" title="Donation of Constantine">Donation of Constantine</a> was a medieval forgery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200375–79-110">[91]</a> New religious movements promoted the deeper involvement of laity in religious practices. The <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life" title="Brethren of the Common Life">Brethren of the Common Life</a> dissuaded their members' priestly ordination and often placed their houses under the protection of urban authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200322-111">[92]</a> They were closely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Devotio_moderna" class="mw-redirect" title="Devotio moderna">devotio moderna</a>, a new method of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_spirituality" title="Catholic spirituality">Catholic spirituality</a> with a special emphasis on the education of laypeople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath200422-112">[93]</a> A leader of the movement the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Wessel_Gansfort" title="Wessel Gansfort">Wessel Gansfort</a> (d. 1489) attacked abuses of indulgences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003119-113">[94]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">manufacturing of paper</a> from rags and the printing machine with <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> were spreading in Europe, books could be bought at a reasonable price from the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-115">[note 20]</a> Demand for religious literature was especially high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200368–70-116">[96]</a> The German inventor <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> (d. 1468) first published a <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">two-volume printed version</a> of the Vulgata in the early 1450s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon20228,_18,_29-117">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Czech and Catalan translations of the Bible were published between 1466 and 1492; in France, the Bible's abridged French versions gained popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200370–71-118">[98]</a> Laypeople who read the Bible could challenge their priests' sermons, as it happened already in 1515.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon202230-119">[99]</a> Completed by <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (d. 420), the Vulgate contained the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> version of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200327–28-120">[100]</a> The systematic study of Biblical manuscripts revealed that Jerome had sometimes misinterpreted his sources of translation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[note 21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200379-121">[101]</a> A series of Latin-Greek <a href="/wiki/Novum_Instrumentum_omne" title="Novum Instrumentum omne">editions of the New Testament</a> was completed by the Dutch humanist <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> (d. 1536). These new Latin translations challenged the scriptural <a href="/wiki/Proof_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Proof texts">proof texts</a> for some Catholic dogmas.<a href="#cite_note-125">[note 22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200395–97-126">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissidents">Dissidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dissidents">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_heresies" title="List of Christian heresies">List of Christian heresies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compactata" class="mw-redirect" title="Compactata">Compactata</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_(depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils;_Prague_manuscript).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man wearing a hat depicting two demonic figures is being burned. He is surrounded by armed people." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png/220px-Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png/330px-Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png/440px-Burning_of_Jan_Hus_during_the_Council_of_Constance_in_1415_%28depicted_in_the_Chronik_des_Konstanzer_Konzils%3B_Prague_manuscript%29.png 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Burning of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Constance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Constance">Constance</a> (from the Chronicle of the Council of Constance by <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_of_Richenthal" title="Ulrich of Richenthal">Ulrich of Richenthal</a>)</figcaption></figure> After <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>—a <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christological doctrine</a> condemned as <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a> at ecumenical councils—disappeared in the late 7th century, no major disputes menaced the theological unity of the Western Church. Religious enthusiasts could organise their followers into nonconformist groups but they disbanded after their founder died.<a href="#cite_note-128">[note 23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> were a notable exception. Due to their efficient organisation, they survived not only the death of their founder <a href="/wiki/Peter_Waldo" title="Peter Waldo">Peter Waldo</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1205), but also a series of <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusades" class="mw-redirect" title="Albigensian Crusades">anti-heretic crusades</a>. They rejected the clerics' monopoly of public ministry, and allowed all trained members of their community, men and women alike, to preach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton20033,_129–135-129">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> reinforced a general desire for church reform. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> theologian <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (d. 1384) was one of the most radical critics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20094-130">[107]</a> He attacked pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, and the doctrine of transubstantiation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003135–136-131">[108]</a> He regarded the Church as an exclusive community of those chosen by God to salvation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201281-132">[109]</a> and argued that the state could seize the corrupt clerics' endowments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202143-133">[110]</a> Known as <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a>, Wycliffe's followers rejected clerical celibacy and the grant of indulgences. The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a> passed a <a href="/wiki/De_heretico_comburendo" title="De heretico comburendo">law against heretics</a>, but Lollard communities survived the purges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201281-132">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003136-134">[111]</a> Wycliffe's theology had a marked impact on the <a href="/wiki/Charles_University" title="Charles University">Prague</a> academic <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (d. 1415). He delivered popular sermons against the clerics' wealth and temporal powers, for which he was summoned to the Council of Constance. Although the German king <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_of_Luxemburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund of Luxemburg">Sigismund of Luxemburg</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1410–1437) had granted him safe conduct, Hus was sentenced to death for heresy and <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burned at the stake</a> on 6 July 1415. His execution led to a <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">nationwide religious movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Bohemia</a>, and the papacy called for a <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">series of crusades</a> against Hus's followers. The moderate <a href="/wiki/Hussitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussitism">Hussites</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/Czech_nobility" title="Czech nobility">Czech aristocrats</a> and academics, were known as <a href="/wiki/Utraquism" title="Utraquism">Utraquists</a> for they taught that the Eucharist was to be administered sub utraque specie ('in both kinds') to the laity. The most radical Hussites, called <a href="/wiki/Taborites" title="Taborites">Taborites</a> after their new town of <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1bor" title="Tábor">Tábor</a>, held their property in common. Their <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarianism</a> shocked the Utraquists who destroyed them in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lipany" title="Battle of Lipany">Battle of Lipany</a> in 1434.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWickham2016246–247-135">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201276–77-136">[113]</a> By this time, the remaining Catholic communities in Bohemia were almost exclusively German-speaking. The lack of a Hussite church hierarchy enabled the Czech aristocrats and urban magistrates to assume control of the Hussite clergy from the 1470s. The radical Hussites set up their own Church known as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Moravian_Church#15th_century" title="History of the Moravian Church">Union of Bohemian Brethren</a>. They rejected the separation of clergy and laity, and condemned all forms of violence and oath taking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200336–37-137">[114]</a> Marshall writes that the Lollards, Hussites and conciliarist theologians "collectively give the lie to any suggestion that torpor and complacency were the hallmarks of religious life in the century before Martin Luther."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20094-130">[107]</a> Historians customarily refer to Wycliffe and Hus as "Forerunners of the Reformation". The two reformers' emphasis on the Bible is often regarded as an early example of one of the basic principles of the Reformation—the idea <a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">sola scriptura</a> ('by the <a href="/wiki/Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptures">Scriptures</a> alone'), although prominent scholastic theologians were also convinced that Scripture, interpreted reasonably and in accord with the Church and the <a href="/wiki/Church_fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Church fathers">Fathers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-138">[115]</a> contained all knowledge necessary for salvation.<a href="#cite_note-141">[note 24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2004137–138-142">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beginnings">Beginnings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Beginnings">edit</a>]</div> The Reformation in Germanic countries was instigated by Martin Luther, however historians note that many of his ideas were pre-dated by Wycliff, Huss, <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zwingli" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwingli">Zwingli</a> and others, both heretic and orthodox. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luther_and_the_Ninety-five_Theses">Luther and the Ninety-five Theses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Luther and the Ninety-five Theses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A round-faced middle-aged man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/220px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/330px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/440px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Martin Luther (1529) by <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1513–1521) decided to complete the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. As the sale of certificates of indulgences had been a well-established method of papal fund raising, he announced new indulgences in the papal bull Sacrosanctis in 1515. On the advice of the banker <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Fugger" title="Jakob Fugger">Jakob Fugger</a> (d. 1525), he appointed the pluralist prelate <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Brandenburg" title="Albert of Brandenburg">Albert of Brandenburg</a> (d. 1545) to supervise the sale campaign in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-144">[note 25]</a> The Dominican friar <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tetzel" title="Johann Tetzel">Johann Tetzel</a> (d. 1519), a leading figure in the campaign, applied unusually aggressive marketing methods. A slogan attributed to him famously claimed that "As soon as the coin into the box rings, a soul from purgatory to heaven springs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202171-145">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200915-146">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick the Wise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">Prince-elector</a> of Saxony (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1486–1525) forbade the campaign because the Sacrosanctis suspended the sale of previous indulgences, depriving him of revenues that he had spent on his collection of <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[note 26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003119-113">[94]</a> The campaign's vulgarity shocked many serious-minded believers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003119-113">[94]</a> among them Martin Luther, a theology professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wittenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wittenberg">University of Wittenberg</a> in Saxony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200915-146">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb200641-149">[123]</a> Born into a middle-class family, Luther entered an <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine%27s_Monastery_(Erfurt)" title="St. Augustine's Monastery (Erfurt)">Augustinian monastery</a> after a heavy thunderstorm dreadfully reminded him the risk of sudden death and eternal damnation, but his anxiety about his sinfulness did not abate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb200640–41-150">[124]</a> His studies on the works of the Late Roman theologian <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (d. 430) convinced him that those whom God chose as his elect received a gift of faith independently of their acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003114,_116-151">[125]</a> He first denounced the idea of justification through human efforts in his Disputatio contra scholasticam theologiam ('Disputation against Scholastic Theology') in September 1517.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202370-152">[126]</a> On 31 October 1517, Luther addressed a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, stating that the clerics preaching the St. Peter's indulgences were deceiving the faithful, and attached his Ninety-five Theses to it. He questioned the efficacy of indulgences for the dead, although also stated "If ... indulgences were preached according to the spirit and intention of the pope, all ... doubts would be readily resolved".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202375-153">[127]</a> Archbishop Albert ordered the theologians at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mainz" title="University of Mainz">University of Mainz</a> to examine the document. Tetzel, and the theologians <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wimpina" title="Konrad Wimpina">Konrad Wimpina</a> (d. 1531) and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Eck" title="Johann Eck">Johann Eck</a> (d. 1543) were the first to associate some of Luther's propositions with Hussitism. The case was soon forwarded to the Roman Curia for judgement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202375–79-154">[128]</a> Pope Leo remained uninterested, and mentioned the case as "a quarrel among friars".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200915-146">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003121-155">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_theology">New theology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: New theology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ; color: #202122;background-color: #F5FAFF;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #CEE0F2;">Luther on the Christian struggles toward God</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Christians should be exhorted to seek earnestly to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, hells. And let them thus be more confident of entering heaven through many tribulations rather than through a false assurance of peace. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">Martin Luther, Ninety-five Theses<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003120-156">[130]</a></cite> </div> As the historian <a href="/wiki/Lyndal_Roper" title="Lyndal Roper">Lyndal Roper</a> notes, the "Reformation proceeded by a set of debates and arguments".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202258-157">[131]</a> Luther presented his views in public at the <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Disputation" title="Heidelberg Disputation">observant Augustinians' assembly</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> on 26 April 1518.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202377–79-158">[132]</a> Here he explained his "<a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_Cross" title="Theology of the Cross">theology of the Cross</a>" about a loving God who had <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">become frail</a> to save <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fallen</a> humanity, contrasting it with what he saw as the scholastic "theology of glory" that in his view celebrated erudition and human acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003121-155">[129]</a> It is uncertain when Luther's concept of <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">justification by faith alone</a>—a central element of his theology—crystallised. He would later attribute it to his "tower experience"<a href="#cite_note-160">[note 27]</a> (1519),<a href="#cite_note-161">[134]</a> when he comprehended that God could freely declare even sinners righteous while he was thinking about the words of <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> (d. 64 or 65)—"<a href="/wiki/Romans_1:17" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans 1:17">the just shall live by faith</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012114–121-162">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003115–116-163">[136]</a> Urged by Luther's opponents, Pope Leo appointed the jurist <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Ghinucci" title="Girolamo Ghinucci">Girolamo Ghinucci</a> (d. 1541) and the theologian <a href="/wiki/Sylvester_Mazzolini" title="Sylvester Mazzolini">Sylvester Mazzolini</a> (d. 1527) to inspect Luther's teaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012103-164">[137]</a> Mazzolini argued that Luther had questioned papal authority by attacking the indulgences, while Luther concluded that only a fundamental reform could put an end to the abuse of indulgences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202172–75-165">[138]</a> Pope Leo did not excommunicate Luther because Leo did not want to alienate Luther's patron Frederick the Wise.<a href="#cite_note-166">[note 28]</a> Instead, he appointed Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan" title="Thomas Cajetan">Thomas Cajetan</a> (d. 1534) to convince Luther to withdraw some of his theses. Cajetan met with Luther at <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a> in October 1518.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012102-21">[18]</a> The historian Berndt Hamm says that the meeting was the "historical point at which the opposition between the Reformation and Catholicism first emerged",<a href="#cite_note-167">[note 29]</a> as Cajetan thought that believers accepting Luther's views of justification would no more obey clerical guidance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamm199975–76-168">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202179-169">[140]</a> Luther first expressed his sympathy for Jan Hus at a <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Debate" title="Leipzig Debate">disputation in Leipzig</a> in June 1519. His case was reopened at the Roman Curia. Cajetan, Eck and other papal officials drafted the papal bull <a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a> ('Arise, O Lord') which was published on 15 June 1520. It condemned Luther's forty-one theses, and offered a sixty-day-long grace period to him to recant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012103–104-170">[141]</a> Luther's theology quickly developed. In a Latin treatise <a href="/wiki/On_the_Babylonian_Captivity_of_the_Church" title="On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church">On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church</a>, he stated that only baptism and the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_Lutheranism" title="Eucharist in Lutheranism">Eucharist</a> could be regarded as sacraments, and priests were not members of a privileged class but servants of the community (hence they became called <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">ministers</a> from the Latin word for servant). His German manifesto <a href="/wiki/To_the_Christian_Nobility_of_the_German_Nation" title="To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation">To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation</a> associated the papacy with the <a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a>, and described the Holy See as "the worst whorehouse of all whorehouses" in reference to the funds flowing to the Roman Curia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202382–84-171">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202260–62-172">[143]</a> It also challenged the Biblical justification of clerical celibacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202193-173">[144]</a> Luther's study <a href="/wiki/On_the_Freedom_of_a_Christian" title="On the Freedom of a Christian">On the Freedom of a Christian</a> consolidated his thoughts about the believers' inner freedom with <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">their obligation</a> to care for their neighbours although he rejected the traditional teaching about good works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202384–85-174">[145]</a> The study is a characteristic example of Luther's enthusiasm for paradoxes.<a href="#cite_note-176">[note 30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003126–127-175">[146]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Ein%27_Feste_Burg.ogg" title="File:Ein' Feste Burg.ogg">Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott ('A Mighty Fortress Is Our God') sung in German</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="161" data-mwtitle="Ein'_Feste_Burg.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Ein%27_Feste_Burg.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Ein%27_Feste_Burg.ogg/Ein%27_Feste_Burg.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">The German text of Luther's hymn <a href="/wiki/A_Mighty_Fortress_Is_Our_God" title="A Mighty Fortress Is Our God">Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott</a> sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> The papal nuncio <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Aleandro" title="Girolamo Aleandro">Girolamo Aleandro</a> (d. 1542) ordered the burning of Luther's books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012104-177">[147]</a> In response, Luther and his followers burned the papal bull along with a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Canonici" title="Corpus Juris Canonici">Corpus Juris Canonici</a>—the fundamental document of medieval ecclesiastic law—at Wittenberg. The <a href="/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificem" title="Decet Romanum Pontificem">papal bull excommunicating Luther</a> was published on 3 January 1521.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202183-178">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202262-179">[149]</a> The newly elected <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1519–1556) wanted to outlaw Luther at the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a>, but could not make the decision alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012105-180">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was a confederation of <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">autonomous states</a>, and authority rested with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)">Imperial Diets</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Estate" title="Imperial Estate">Imperial Estates</a> assembled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200912-181">[151]</a> Frederick the Wise vetoed the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_ban" title="Imperial ban">imperial ban</a> against Luther, and Luther was summoned to <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a> to defend his case at the Diet in April 1521. Here he refused to recant stating that only arguments from the Bible could convince him that his works contained errors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012105-180">[150]</a> After Luther and his supporters left the Diet, those who remained sanctioned the imperial ban, threatening Luther's supporters with imprisonment and confiscation of their property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202185-182">[152]</a> To save Luther's life but also to hide his involvement, Frederick arranged Luther's abduction on 4 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012105-180">[150]</a> During his ten-month-long<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg202185-182">[152]</a> staged captivity at Frederick's castle of <a href="/wiki/Wartburg" title="Wartburg">Wartburg</a>, Luther translated the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> to High German. The historian <a href="/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCulloch" title="Diarmaid MacCulloch">Diarmaid MacCulloch</a> describes the translation as an "extraordinary achievement that has shaped the German language ever since", adding that "Luther's gift was for seizing the emotion with sudden, urgent phrases".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003128–129-183">[153]</a> The translation would be published at the 1522 <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Book_Fair" title="Leipzig Book Fair">Leipzig Book Fair</a> along with Luther's treatise On Monastic Vows that laid the theological foundations of the dissolution of monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202389-184">[154]</a> Luther also composed <a href="/wiki/List_of_hymns_by_Martin_Luther" title="List of hymns by Martin Luther">religious hymns</a> in Wartburg. They would be first published in collections in 1524.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003129-185">[155]</a> During Luther's absence, his co-workers, primarily <a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a> (d. 1560) and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Karlstadt" title="Andreas Karlstadt">Andreas Karlstadt</a> (d. 1541) assumed the leadership of Reformation in Wittenberg. Melanchthon consolidated Luther's thoughts into a coherent theological work titled <a href="/wiki/Loci_communes" title="Loci communes">Loci communes</a> ('Common Places').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003135–136-186">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread">Spread</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spread">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial Reformation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg/300px-Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg/450px-Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg/600px-Christ_mocked_-_pope_venerated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1331" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Woodcuts by <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a> from the Passional of Christ and Antichrist, contrasting Christ who wears the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Thorns" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Thorns">Crown of Thorns</a> and is mocked (on the left), with the pope crowned with a <a href="/wiki/Papal_tiara" title="Papal tiara">tiara</a> and adored by bishops and abbots (on the right)</figcaption></figure> Roper argues that "the most important reason why Luther did not meet with Hus's fate was technology: the new medium of print". Luther was publishing his views in short but pungent treatises that gained unexpected popularity: he was responsible for about one-fifth of all works printed in Germany in the first third of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-188">[note 31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202268–69-189">[158]</a> German printing presses were scattered in many urban centers which prevented their control by central authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200917-190">[159]</a> Statistical analysis indicates a significant <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between the presence of a printing press in a German city and the adoption of Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-193">[note 32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin201618-194">[162]</a> Reformation spread through the activities of enthusiastic preachers such as <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Oecolampadius" title="Johannes Oecolampadius">Johannes Oecolampadius</a> (d. 1531) and <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Pellikan" title="Konrad Pellikan">Konrad Kürsner</a> (d. 1556) in <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Hofmeister" title="Sebastian Hofmeister">Sebastian Hofmeister</a> (d. 1533) in <a href="/wiki/Schaffhausen" title="Schaffhausen">Schaffhausen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Matth%C3%A4us_Zell" title="Matthäus Zell">Matthäus Zell</a> (d. 1548) and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a> (d. 1551) in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012111–112-195">[163]</a> They were called "Evangelicals" due to their insistence on teaching in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a> (or Evangelion).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013189-196">[164]</a> Luther and many of his followers worked with the artist <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a> (d. 1553) who had a keen sense of visualising their message. He produced Luther's idealised portrait setting a template for further popular images printed on the covers of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202269–71-197">[165]</a> Cranach's <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcuts</a> together with itinerant preachers' explanations helped the mainly illiterate people to understand Luther's teaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin2016205-198">[166]</a> The illustrated pamphlets were carried from place to place typically by peddlers and merchants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimPfaff2012205-199">[167]</a> Laypeople started to discuss various aspects of religion in both private and public all over Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202392–93-200">[168]</a> The self-governing <a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">free imperial cities</a> were the first centers of the Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013190-201">[169]</a> The Evangelical preachers emphasized that many of the well-established church practices had no precedent in the Bible. They offered the Eucharist to the laity in both kinds,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202395–96-202">[170]</a> and denied the clerics' monopolies, which resonated with popular anti-clericalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin20169-203">[171]</a> It was not unusual that their supporters attacked clerics and church buildings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202396-204">[172]</a> Violent iconoclasm was common.<a href="#cite_note-206">[note 33]</a>In some cities such as Strasbourg and <a href="/wiki/Ulm" title="Ulm">Ulm</a>, the urban magistrates supported the Reformation; in the cities of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> the affluent middle classes enforced changes in church life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20149-207">[174]</a> Cities located closer to the most important ideological centers of the Reformation—Wittenberg and Basel—adopted its ideas more likely than other towns. This indicates the significance either of student networks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimPfaff2012206-208">[175]</a> or of neighbours who had rejected Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantoni201220-209">[176]</a> The sociologist Steven Pfaff underlines that "ecclesiastical and liturgical reform was not simply a religious question ... since the sort of reforms demanded by Evangelicals could not be accommodated within existing institutions, prevailing customs, or established law". After their triumph, the reformers expelled their leading opponents, dissolved the monasteries and convents, secured the urban magistrates' control of the appointment of priests, and established new civic institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013191-210">[177]</a> Evangelical town councils usually prohibited begging but established a common chest for <a href="/wiki/Poverty_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty relief">poverty relief</a> by expropriating the property of dissolved ecclesiastic institutions. The funds were used for the daily support of orphans, old people and the sick, but also for low-interest loans to the impoverished to start a business. Luther was convinced that only educated people could effectively serve both God and the community. Under his auspices, public schools and libraries were opened in many towns offering education to more children than the traditional <a href="/wiki/Monastic_school" title="Monastic school">monastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021113–124-211">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance_and_oppression">Resistance and oppression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Resistance and oppression">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treasury_of_St._Ursula,_Cologne,_the_Rhine,_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A golden shrine in a large room" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg/260px-Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg/390px-Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg/520px-Treasury_of_St._Ursula%2C_Cologne%2C_the_Rhine%2C_Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Treasury of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Ursula" title="Saint Ursula">Saint Ursula</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_St._Ursula,_Cologne" title="Basilica of St. Ursula, Cologne">Basilica of St. Ursula, Cologne</a>. Her popular cult contributed to the townspeople's resistance to Evangelical proselytism in <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013201-212">[179]</a></figcaption></figure> Resistance to Evangelical preaching was significant in <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria" title="Duchy of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and Austria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin201621-213">[180]</a> Here the veneration of local saints was strong, and statistical analysis indicates that cities where indigenous saints' shrines served as centers of vivid communal cults less likely adopted Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-215">[note 34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013214-216">[182]</a> Likewise, cities with an episcopal see or monasteries more likely resisted Evangelical proselytism.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin270-217">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurukSmulders2016-218">[184]</a> Luther's ideas were rejected by most representatives of the previous generation of Humanists. <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> stated that Luther's "unrestrained enthusiasm carries him beyond what is right". <a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Hoogstraaten" title="Jacob van Hoogstraaten">Jacob van Hoogstraaten</a> (d. 1527) compared Luther's theology of salvation "as if Christ takes to himself the most foul bride and is unconcerned about her cleanliness".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012132–134-219">[185]</a> Luther's works were burned in most European countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003131-220">[186]</a> Emperor Charles initiated the execution of the first Evangelical martyrs, the Augustinian monks <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Essen_and_Hendrik_Vos" title="Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos">Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos</a>. They were burned in Brussels on 1 July 1523.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023138-221">[187]</a> Charles was determined to protect the Catholic Church, but the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks'</a> expansion towards Central Europe often thwarted him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIyigun20084,_27-222">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin201615,_19-223">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> prevented the spread of Evangelical literature in that country, and suppressed the spiritual movement of the <a href="/wiki/Alumbrados" title="Alumbrados">Alumbrados</a> ('Illuminists') who put a special emphasis on personal faith. Some Italian men of letters, such as the Venetian nobleman <a href="/wiki/Gasparo_Contarini" title="Gasparo Contarini">Gasparo Contarini</a> (d. 1542) and the Augustinian canon <a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermigli" title="Peter Martyr Vermigli">Peter Martyr Vermigli</a> (d. 1562) expressed ideas resembling Luther's theology of salvation but did not quickly break with Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-226">[note 35]</a> They were part of a group known as <a href="/wiki/Spirituali" title="Spirituali">Spirituali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023146–147-227">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012135–136-228">[193]</a> The English king <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1509–1547) commissioned a team of theologians to defend the Catholic dogmas against Luther's attacks. Their treatise titled <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_the_Seven_Sacraments" title="Defence of the Seven Sacraments">The Assertion of the Seven Sacraments</a> was published under Henry's name, and the grateful Pope awarded him with the title <a href="/wiki/Defender_of_the_Faith" title="Defender of the Faith">Defender of the Faith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003131-220">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023142-229">[194]</a> In Scotland, the first Evangelical preacher <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Hamilton_(martyr)" title="Patrick Hamilton (martyr)">Patrick Hamilton</a> (d. 1528) was burned for heresy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003316-230">[195]</a> In France, the theologians of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> stated that Luther "vomited up a doctrine of pestilence". <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Bri%C3%A7onnet_(Bishop_of_Meaux)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guillaume Briçonnet (Bishop of Meaux)">Guillaume Briçonnet</a> (d. 1534), <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Meaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Meaux">Bishop of Meaux</a>, also condemned Luther but employed reform-minded clerics like <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lef%C3%A8vre_d%27%C3%89taples" title="Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples">Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1536) and <a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a> (d. 1565) to renew religious life in his diocese. They enjoyed the protection of <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_de_Navarre" title="Marguerite de Navarre">Marguerite of Angoulême</a> (d. 1549), the well-educated sister of the French king <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1515–1547). The <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris" title="Parlement of Paris">Parlement of Paris</a> only took actions against them after Francis was captured in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Battle of Pavia</a> in 1525, forcing many of them into exile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021260–262-231">[196]</a> Correspondence between <a href="/wiki/Luke_of_Prague" title="Luke of Prague">Luke of Prague</a> (d. 1528), leader of the Bohemian Brethren, and Luther made it clear that their theologies were incompatible even if their views about justification were similar. In Bohemia, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Hungary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385-1569)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1385-1569)">Poland</a>, Luther's theology spread in the local German communities. King <a href="/wiki/Louis_II_of_Hungary" title="Louis II of Hungary">Louis of Bohemia and Hungary</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1516–1526) ordered the persecution of Evangelical preachers although his wife <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Hungary_(governor_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Mary of Hungary (governor of the Netherlands)">Mary of Austria</a> (d. 1558) favoured the reformers. <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a>, King of Poland and Grand Duke of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Lithuania</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1506–1548) banned the import of Evangelical literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023150–152-232">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_II_of_Denmark" title="Christian II of Denmark">Christian II</a>, who ruled the <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a> of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1513–1523), was sympathetic towards the Reformation but his despotic methods led to revolts. He was replaced by his uncle <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_of_Denmark" title="Frederick I of Denmark">Frederick I</a> in Denmark and Norway (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1523–1533), and by a local aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Gustav_I_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav I of Sweden">Gustav I Vasa</a> in Sweden (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1523–1560).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012275-233">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alternatives">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saxon_radicals_and_rebellious_knights">Saxon radicals and rebellious knights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Saxon radicals and rebellious knights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knights%27_War" title="Knights' War">Knights' War</a></div> Andreas Karlstadt accelerated the implementation of Reformation in Wittenberg. On Christmas Day 1521, he administered the Eucharist in common garment; the next day he announced his engagement to a fifteen-year-old noble girl Anna von Mochau. He proclaimed that images were examples of "devilish deceit" which led to the mass destruction of religious art. Enthusiasts began swarming to Wittenberg. The <a href="/wiki/Zwickau_prophets" title="Zwickau prophets">Zwickau prophets</a>, who had been incited by the radical preacher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Thomas Müntzer</a> (d. 1525), claimed that they had received revelations from God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003136–138-234">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202393–95-235">[200]</a> They rejected transubstantiation and attacked infant baptism. Luther defended art as a proof of the beauty of the <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Creation</a>, maintained that Christ's Body and Blood were <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">physically present</a> in the Eucharist,<a href="#cite_note-237">[note 36]</a> and regarded infant baptism as a sign of membership in the Christian community.<a href="#cite_note-239">[note 37]</a> To put an end to the anarchy, Frederick the Wise released Luther in March 1522. Luther achieved the Zwickau prophets' removal from Wittenberg, calling them fanatics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003138–140-240">[203]</a> Karlstadt voluntarily left Wittenberg for <a href="/wiki/Orlam%C3%BCnde" title="Orlamünde">Orlamünde</a> where the local congregation elected him its minister. Luther visited most parishes in the region to prevent radical reforms, but he was often received by verbal or physical abuses. When he wanted to dismiss Karlstadt, the parishioners referred to his own words about the congregations' right to freely elect their ministers, and Karlstadt called him a "perverter of the Scriptures". Karlstadt was expelled from Electoral Saxony without a trial on Luther's initiative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021131–134-241">[204]</a> Luther condemned violence but some of his followers took up arms. <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Sickingen" title="Franz von Sickingen">Franz von Sickingen</a> (d. 1523), an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_knight" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial knight">imperial knight</a> from the Rhineland, formed an alliance with his peers against <a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Greiffenklau_zu_Vollrads" title="Richard von Greiffenklau zu Vollrads">Richard von Greiffenklau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Trier" title="Electorate of Trier">Archbishop-elector of Trier</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1511–1531), allegedly to lead the Archbishop's subjects "to evangelical, light laws and Christian freedom".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202393-242">[205]</a> Sickingen had demanded the restitution of monastic property to the grantors' descendants, stating that the <a href="/wiki/Secularisation_(church_property)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secularisation (church property)">secularisation of church property</a> would also improve the poor peasants' situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006128-243">[206]</a> Sickingen and his associates <a href="/wiki/Knights%27_War" title="Knights' War">attacked the archbishopric</a> but failed at the siege of Trier. Sickingen was mortally wounded while defending his <a href="/wiki/Nanstein_Castle" title="Nanstein Castle">Nanstein Castle</a> against the Archbishop's troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann202393-242">[205]</a> Luther denounced Sickingen's violent acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006129-244">[207]</a> According to his "<a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">theory of two kingdoms</a>", true Christians had to submit themselves to princely authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003152-245">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zwingli">Zwingli</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Zwingli">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Theology of Huldrych Zwingli">Theology of Huldrych Zwingli</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A middle-aged man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg/180px-Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg/270px-Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg/360px-Ulrich_Zwingli_by_Asper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a>'s 16th-century portrait by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Asper" title="Hans Asper">Hans Asper</a></figcaption></figure> The Swiss Humanist priest Huldrych Zwingli would claim that he "began to preach the Gospel of Christ in 1516 long before anyone in our region had ever heard of Luther". He came to prominence when <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Sausages" title="Affair of the Sausages">attended a meal of sausages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> during <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a> 1522, breaching the rules of <a href="/wiki/Fasting_and_abstinence_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church">fasting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200918-246">[209]</a> He held disputations with the urban magistrates' authorization to discuss changes in church life, and always introduced them with the magistrates' support. In 1524, all images were removed from the churches, and fasting and clerical celibacy were abolished. Two years later, a German communion service replaced the Latin liturgy of the <a href="/wiki/Mass_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Mass in the Catholic Church">Mass</a>, and the Eucharist (or Lord's Supper) was administered on a plain wooden table instead of an embellished <a href="/wiki/Altar_(Catholic_Church)" title="Altar (Catholic Church)">altar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall200918-246">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200564-247">[210]</a> Two new institutions were organised in Zürich: the <a href="/wiki/Prophezei" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophezei">Prophezei</a> (a public school for Biblical studies), and the Marriage and Morals Court (a legal court and moral police consisting of two laymen and two clerics). Both would be copied in other towns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023105-248">[211]</a> Zwingli's interpretation of the Eucharist differed from both Catholic theology and Luther's teaching. He denied Christ's presence in the sacramental bread and wine, and regarded the Eucharist as a <a href="/wiki/Memorialism" title="Memorialism">commemorative ceremony</a> in honor of the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucified</a> Jesus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003142-249">[212]</a> The disagreement caused a bitter pamphlet war between Luther and Zwingli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200565–66-250">[213]</a> They both rejected intermediary Eucharistic formulas coined by Bucer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003176-251">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swiss_Brethren">Swiss Brethren</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Swiss Brethren">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></div> Zwingli's cautious "Magisterial Reformation" outraged the more radical reformers, among them <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Conrad Grebel</a> (d. 1526), a Zürich patrician's son who had fallen out with his family for marrying a low born girl. The radicals summarized their theology in a letter to Müntzer in 1524. They identified the Church as an exclusive community of the righteous, and demanded its liberation from the state. They deplored all religious practices that had no Biblical foundations, and endorsed <a href="/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism" title="Believer's baptism">believers' (or adult) baptism</a>. In January 1525, a former Catholic priest <a href="/wiki/George_Blaurock" title="George Blaurock">George Blaurock</a> (d. 1529) asked Grebel to <a href="/wiki/Rebaptism" title="Rebaptism">rebaptize</a> him, and after his request was granted they rebaptized fifteen other people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021198–201-252">[215]</a> For this practice, they were called <a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptists</a> ('rebaptizers').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003145–146-253">[216]</a> As a featuring element of <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a> and other heretic movements, rebaptism had been a <a href="/wiki/Capital_offence" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital offence">capital offence</a> since the Late Roman period. After the magistrates had some radicals imprisoned, Blaurock called Zwingli the Antichrist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021198–203-254">[217]</a> The town council enacted a law that threatened rebaptizers with capital punishment, and the Anabaptist <a href="/wiki/Felix_Manz" title="Felix Manz">Felix Manz</a> (d. 1527) was condemned to death and drowned in the <a href="/wiki/Limmat_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Limmat River">Limmat River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003146-255">[218]</a> He was the first victim of religious persecution by reformist authorities. The purge convinced many Anabaptists that they were the true heirs to early Christians who had <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">suffered martyrdom</a> for their faith. The most radicals took inspiration from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> for apocalyptic prophesies. Some of them burnt the Bible reciting St Paul's words, "<a href="/wiki/2_Corinthians_3" title="2 Corinthians 3">the letter kills</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021203–204-256">[219]</a> In <a href="/wiki/St._Gallen" title="St. Gallen">St. Gallen</a>, Anabaptist women cut their hair short to avoid arousing sexual passion, while a housemaid Frena Bumenin proclaimed herself the New Messiah before announcing that she would give birth to the Antichrist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003164–165-257">[220]</a> According to Dr Kenneth R. Davis, "the Anabaptists can best be understood as, apart from their own creativity, a radicalization and Protestantization not of the Magisterial Reformation but of the lay-oriented, ascetic reformation of which <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> is the principle mediator."<a href="#cite_note-258">[221]</a>: 292  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peasants'_War">Peasants' War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Peasants' War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A page depicting men armed with pikes, flails, maces and pitchforks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg/220px-Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg/330px-Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg/440px-Titelblatt_12_Artikel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="1005" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Articles" title="Twelve Articles">Twelve Articles</a>, a manifesto by Swabian peasants in March 1525</figcaption></figure> MacCulloch says that the Reformation "injected an extra element of instability" into the relationship between the peasants and their lords, as it raised "new excitement and bitterness against established authority".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003155-259">[222]</a> Public demonstrations in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Forest" title="Black Forest">Black Forest</a> area indicated a general discontent among the southern German peasantry in May 1524. The Anabaptist preacher <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Hubmaier" title="Balthasar Hubmaier">Balthasar Hubmaier</a> (d. 1528) was one of the peasant leaders, but most participants never went beyond traditional anti-clericalism. In early 1525, the movement spread towards <a href="/wiki/Upper_Swabia" title="Upper Swabia">Upper Swabia</a>. The radical preacher Cristopher Schappler and the pamphleteer <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Lotzer" title="Sebastian Lotzer">Sebastian Lotzer</a> summarized the Swabian peasants' demand in a manifesto known as <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Articles" title="Twelve Articles">Twelve Articles</a>. The peasants wanted to control their ministers' election and to supervise the use of church revenues, but also demanded the abolition of the tithe on meat. They reserved the right to present further demands against non-Biblical seigneurial practices but promised to abandon any of their demands that contradicted the Bible, and appointed fourteen "arbitrators" to clarify divine law on the relationship between peasants and landlords. The arbitrators approached Luther, Zwingli, Melanchthon and other leaders of the Reformation for advice but none of them answered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006130–135-260">[223]</a> Luther wrote a treatise, equally blaming the landlords for the oppression of the peasantry and the rebels for their arbitrary acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012209-261">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georg,_Truchsess_von_Waldburg" title="Georg, Truchsess von Waldburg">Georg Truchsess von Waldburg</a> (d. 1531), commander of the army of the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Swabian_League" title="Swabian League">Swabian League</a>, achieved the dissolution of the peasant armies either by force or through negotiations. By this time the peasant movements reached <a href="/wiki/Franconia" title="Franconia">Franconia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%BCringia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thüringia">Thüringia</a>. The Franconian peasants formed alliances with artisans and petty nobles such as <a href="/wiki/Florian_Geyer" title="Florian Geyer">Florian Geyer</a> (d. 1525) against the patricians and the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg">Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg</a> but Truchsess forced them into submission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012207–208-262">[225]</a> In Thüringia, Müntzer convinced 300 radicals that they were invincible but they were annihilated <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frankenhausen" title="Battle of Frankenhausen">at Frankenhausen</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philip_I,_Landgrave_of_Hesse" title="Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse">Philip the Magnanimous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landgrave_of_Hesse" class="mw-redirect" title="Landgrave of Hesse">Landgrave of Hesse</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1509–1567) and <a href="/wiki/George,_Duke_of_Saxony" title="George, Duke of Saxony">George, Duke of Saxony</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1500–1539). Müntzer who had hidden in an attic before the battle was discovered and executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200560–61-263">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012208-264">[227]</a> News of atrocities by peasant bands and meetings with disrespectful peasants during a preaching tour outraged Luther while he was writing his treatise <a href="/wiki/Against_the_Murderous,_Thieving_Hordes_of_Peasants" title="Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants">Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants</a>. In it, he urged the German princes to "smite, slay, and slab" the rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021157-265">[228]</a> Moderate observers felt aggrieved at his cruel words. They regarded as an especially tasteless act that Luther married <a href="/wiki/Katharina_von_Bora" title="Katharina von Bora">Katharina von Bora</a> (d. 1552), a former nun while the punitive actions against the peasantry were still in process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012209–210,_417-266">[229]</a> Further peasant movements began in other regions in Central Europe but they were pacified through concessions or suppressed by force before the end of 1525.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012208–209-267">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consolidation">Consolidation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Consolidation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Princely_Reformation_in_Germany">Princely Reformation in Germany</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Princely Reformation in Germany">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man is falling from ladder at a tower with a city burning at the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg/220px-Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg/330px-Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg/440px-Sack_of_Rome_1527.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Sack of Rome</a> in 1527 by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Charles V</a>'s troops (1555) on a woodcut by <a href="/wiki/Maarten_van_Heemskerck" title="Maarten van Heemskerck">Maarten van Heemskerck</a></figcaption></figure> The Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Duke_of_Prussia" title="Albert, Duke of Prussia">Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1510–1525) was the first prince to formally abandon Catholicism. The <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Order" title="Teutonic Order">Teutonic Order</a> held <a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> of Poland. After defeats in a <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Teutonic_War_(1519%E2%80%931521)" title="Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521)">war against</a> Poland and Lithuania demoralised the Knights, Albert transformed the region into the hereditary <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Prussia" title="Duchy of Prussia">Duchy of Prussia</a> in April 1525. As the secularisation of Prussia represented an open rebellion against Catholicism, it was followed by the establishment of the first Evangelical <a href="/wiki/State_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="State Church">state church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003158-268">[231]</a> In August, Albert's brothers, <a href="/wiki/Casimir,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Kulmbach" title="Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach">Casimir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1515–1527) and <a href="/wiki/George,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach" title="George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach">George</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1536–1543) instructed the priests in <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bayreuth" title="Principality of Bayreuth">Brandenburg-Kulmbach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ansbach" title="Principality of Ansbach">Brandenburg-Ansbach</a> to pray the doctrine of justification by faith alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012256–257-269">[232]</a> The Reformation was officially introduced in Electoral Saxony under <a href="/wiki/John,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John, Elector of Saxony">John the Constant</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1525–1532) on Christmas Day 1525.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012271–272-270">[233]</a> Electoral Saxony's conversion facilitated the adoption of the Reformation in smaller German states, such as <a href="/wiki/County_of_Mansfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Mansfeld">Mansfeld</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hessen" class="mw-redirect" title="Landgraviate of Hessen">Hessen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantoni2012524-271">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012273-272">[235]</a> Philip of Hessen founded the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">first Evangelical university</a> at his capital <a href="/wiki/Marburg" title="Marburg">Marburg</a> in 1527.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003159-273">[236]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Speyer_(1526)" title="Diet of Speyer (1526)">Diet of Speyer</a> in 1526, the German princes agreed that they would "live, govern, and act in such a way as everyone trusted to justify before God and the Imperial Majesty".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021219-274">[237]</a> In practice, they sanctioned the principle <a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a> ('whose realm, their religion'), acknowledging the princes' right to determine their subjects' religious affiliation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003161-275">[238]</a> Fully occupied with the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a> against France and its Italian allies, Emperor Charles had appointed his brother <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1521–1564) to represent him in Germany. They both opposed the compromise, but Ferdinand was brought into succession struggles in Bohemia and Hungary after their brother-in-law King Louis died in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a>. In 1527, Charles's mutinous<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200592-224">[190]</a> troops <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">sacked Rome</a> and took <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII" title="Pope Clement VII">Pope Clement VII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1523–1534) under custody. Luther stated that "Christ reigns in such a way that the emperor who persecutes Luther for the pope is forced to destroy the pope for Luther".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021219-274">[237]</a> After his experiences with radical communities, Luther no more wrote of the congregations' right to elect their ministers (or <a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">pastors</a>). Instead, he expected that princes acting as "emergency bishops" would prevent the disintegration of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003161-275">[238]</a> Close cooperation between clerics and princely officials at church visitations paved the way for the establishment of the new church system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021220-276">[239]</a> In Electoral Saxony, princely decrees enacted the Evangelical ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012272-277">[240]</a> Liturgy was simplified, the church courts' jurisdiction over secular cases was abolished, and state authorities took control of church property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021220-276">[239]</a> The Evangelical equivalent to bishop was created with the appointment of a former Catholic priest <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bugenhagen" title="Johannes Bugenhagen">Johannes Bugenhagen</a> (d. 1558) as <a href="/wiki/Superintendent_(Christianity)" title="Superintendent (Christianity)">superintendent</a> in 1533.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012272-277">[240]</a> The church visitations convinced Luther that the villagers' knowledge of the Christian faith was imperfect.<a href="#cite_note-279">[note 38]</a> To deal with the situation, he completed two <a href="/wiki/Cathecism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathecism">cathecisms</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Large_Catechism" title="Luther's Large Catechism">Large Catechism</a> for the education of priests, and the <a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Small_Catechism" title="Luther's Small Catechism">Small Catechism</a> for children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006141-278">[241]</a> Records from Brandenburg-Ansbach indicates that Evangelical pastors often attacked traditional communal activities such as church fairs and <a href="/wiki/Spinning_bee#In_other_countries" title="Spinning bee">spinning bees</a> for debauchery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006142-280">[242]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ; color: #202122;background-color: #F5FAFF;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #CEE0F2;">Evangelical Imperial Estates on their protestation at the Diet of Speyer</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "In matters concerning God's honor and our soul's salvation everyone must stand before God and answer by himself, nobody can excuse himself in that place by the actions of decisions of others whether they be a minority or majority." </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">Five imperial princes and representatives of fourteen imperial cities, <a href="/wiki/Protestation_at_Speyer" title="Protestation at Speyer">Protestation at Speyer</a> (1529)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021220-276">[239]</a></cite> </div> Taking advantage of Emperor Charles' victories in Italy, Ferdinand I achieved the reinforcement of the imperial ban against Luther at the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Speyer_(1529)" title="Diet of Speyer (1529)">Diet of Speyer</a> in 1529. In response, five imperial princes and fourteen imperial cities<a href="#cite_note-282">[note 39]</a> presented a formal <a href="/wiki/Protestation_at_Speyer" title="Protestation at Speyer">protestatio</a>. They were mocked as "Protestants", and this appellation would be quickly applied to all followers of the new theologies.<a href="#cite_note-284">[note 40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021220–221-285">[245]</a> To promote Protestant unity, Philip the Magnanimous <a href="/wiki/Marburg_Colloquy" title="Marburg Colloquy">organised a colloquy</a> (or theological debate) between Luther, Melanchton, Zwingli and Oecolampadius at Marburg early in October 1529,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003168-286">[246]</a> but they could not coin a common formula on the Eucharist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012192-287">[247]</a> During the discussion, Luther remarked that "Our spirit has nothing in common with your spirit", expressing the rift between the two mainstream versions of the Reformation. Zwingli's followers started to call themselves the "<a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed Church">Reformed</a>", as they regarded themselves as the true reformers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire202295-288">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stalemate_in_Switzerland">Stalemate in Switzerland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stalemate in Switzerland">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Kappel" title="First War of Kappel">First War of Kappel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_Kappel" title="Second War of Kappel">Second War of Kappel</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a></div> In 1526, the villagers of the autonomous <a href="/wiki/Graub%C3%BCnden" class="mw-redirect" title="Graubünden">Graubünden</a> region in <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Switzerland</a> agreed that each village could freely choose between Protestantism and Catholicism, setting a precedent for the coexistence of the two denominations in the same jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003160-289">[249]</a> Religious affiliation in the Mandated Territories (lands jointly administered by the Swiss cantons) became the subject of much controversy between Protestant and Catholic cantons. The Protestant cantons concluded a military alliance early in 1529, the Catholic cantons in April.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003170-290">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012225-291">[251]</a> After a bloodless <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Kappel" title="First War of Kappel">armed conflict</a>, the Mandated communities were granted the right to choose between the two religions by a majority vote of the male citizens. Zwingli began an intensive proselityzing campaign which led to the conversion of most Mandated communities to Protestantism. He set up a council of clergymen and lay delegates for church administration, thus creating the forerunners of <a href="/wiki/Presbytery_(church_polity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbytery (church polity)">presbyteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003171-292">[252]</a> Zürich imposed an economic blockade on the Catholic cantons but the Catholics <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_Kappel" title="Second War of Kappel">routed</a> Zürich's army in 1531. The Catholics' victory stopped the Protestant expansion in Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012225-291">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003172-293">[253]</a> Zwingli was killed in the battlefield, and succeeded by a former monk <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a> (d. 1575) in Zürich. Bullinger developed Zwingli's Eucharistic formula in an attempt to reach a compromise with Luther, saying that the faithful made spiritual contact with God during the commemorative ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-295">[note 41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003173–174-296">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schleitheim_Articles">Schleitheim Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Schleitheim Articles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A page with printed text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg/220px-Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg/330px-Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg/440px-Titelseite_Schleitheimer_Artikel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the <a href="/wiki/Schleitheim_Confession" title="Schleitheim Confession">Schleitheim Articles</a> passed at the pacifist Anabaptists' assembly in 1527</figcaption></figure> The historian <a href="/wiki/Carter_Lindberg" title="Carter Lindberg">Carter Lindberg</a> states that the "Peasants' War was a formative experience for many leaders of Anabaptism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021204-297">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hut" title="Hans Hut">Hans Hut</a> (d. 1527) continued Müntzer's apocalyticism but others rejected all forms of violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006138-298">[257]</a> The pacifist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sattler" title="Michael Sattler">Michael Sattler</a> (d. 1527) took the chair at an Anabaptist assembly at <a href="/wiki/Schleitheim" title="Schleitheim">Schleitheim</a> in February 1527. Here the participants adopted an anti-militarist program now known as the <a href="/wiki/Schleitheim_Confession" title="Schleitheim Confession">Schleitheim Articles</a>. The document ordered the believers' separation from the evil world, and prohibited oath-taking, bearing of arms and holding of civic offices. Facing Ottoman expansionism, the Austrian authorities considered this pacifism as a direct threat to their country's defense. Sattler was quickly captured and executed. During his trial, he stated that "If the Turks should come, we ought not to resist them. For <a href="/wiki/Matthew_5:21" title="Matthew 5:21">it is written:</a> Thou shalt not kill."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021204–207-299">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012328-300">[259]</a> Total segregation was alien to Hübmaier who tried to achieve a peaceful coexistence with non-Anabaptists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200570-301">[260]</a> Expelled from Zürich, he settled in the <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Moravia" title="Margraviate of Moravia">Moravian</a> domains of Count Leonhard von Liechtenstein at Nikolsburg (now <a href="/wiki/Mikulov" title="Mikulov">Mikulov</a>, Czech Republic). He baptised infants on the parents' request for which hard-line Anabaptists regarded him as an evil compromiser. He was sentenced to death and burned at the stake for heresy on Ferdinand I's orders. His execution inaugurated a period of intensive purge against rebaptisers. His followers relocated to Austerlitz (now <a href="/wiki/Slavkov_u_Brna" title="Slavkov u Brna">Slavkov u Brna</a>, Czech Republic) where refugees from Tyrol joined them. After the Tyrolian <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Hutter" title="Jakob Hutter">Jakob Hutter</a> (d. 1536) assumed the leadership of the community, they began to held their goods in common. The Bohemian Brethren symphatised with the <a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a> which facilitated their survival in Moravia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003161–165-302">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confessions">Confessions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Confessions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rijksdag_van_Augsburg,_1530_Ware_ende_eygenlycke_afbeeldinghe_van_de_hooch_aensienlycke_vergaderinge_gehouden_int_jaer_1530_den_25_juny_op_den_bisschoplycken_sael_binnen_de_stadt_Augsborch_(titel_op_object),_RP-P-OB-46.329.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Rijksdag_van_Augsburg%2C_1530_Ware_ende_eygenlycke_afbeeldinghe_van_de_hooch_aensienlycke_vergaderinge_gehouden_int_jaer_1530_den_25_juny_op_den_bisschoplycken_sael_binnen_de_stadt_Augsborch_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-46.329.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Rijksdag_van_Augsburg%2C_1530_Ware_ende_eygenlycke_afbeeldinghe_van_de_hooch_aensienlycke_vergaderinge_gehouden_int_jaer_1530_den_25_juny_op_den_bisschoplycken_sael_binnen_de_stadt_Augsborch_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-46.329.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Rijksdag_van_Augsburg%2C_1530_Ware_ende_eygenlycke_afbeeldinghe_van_de_hooch_aensienlycke_vergaderinge_gehouden_int_jaer_1530_den_25_juny_op_den_bisschoplycken_sael_binnen_de_stadt_Augsborch_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-OB-46.329.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5338" data-file-height="4638" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> receives the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a>, 1530</figcaption></figure> Back in Germany in January 1530, Charles V asked the Protestants to summarize their theology at the following Diet in <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a>. As the imperial ban prevented Luther from attending the Diet, Melanchthon completed the task. Melanchthon sharply condemned Anabaptist ideas and adopted a reconciliatory tone towards Catholicism but did not fail to emphasize the most featuring elements of Evangelical theology, such as justification by faith alone. The twenty-eight articles of the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a> were presented at the Diet on 25 June. Four south German Protestant cities—Strasbourg, Constance, Lindau, and Memmingen—adopted a separate confessional document, the <a href="/wiki/Tetrapolitan_Confession" title="Tetrapolitan Confession">Tetrapolitan Confession</a> because they were influenced by Zwingli's Eucharistic theology. On Charles's request, Eck and other Catholic theologians completed a response to the Augsburg Confession, called <a href="/wiki/Confutatio_Augustana" title="Confutatio Augustana">Confutatio</a> ('refutation'). Charles ordered the Evangelical theologians to admit that their argumentation had been completely refuted. Instead, Melanchthon wrote a detailed explanation for the Evangelical articles of faith, known as the <a href="/wiki/Apology_of_the_Augsburg_Confession" title="Apology of the Augsburg Confession">Apology of the Augsburg Confession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012192-287">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021221–224-303">[262]</a> Charles wanted to attack the Protestant princes and cities but the Catholic princes did not support him fearing that his victory would strengthen his power. The Diet passed a law prohibiting further religious innovations and ordering the Protestants to return to Catholicism until 15 April 1531. Luther had previously questioned the princes' right to resist imperial power, but by then he had concluded that a defensive war for religious purposes could be regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021224–226-304">[263]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_League" title="Schmalkaldic League">Schmalkaldic League</a>—the Protestant Imperial Estates' defensive alliance—was signed by five princes and fourteen cities on 27 February 1531.<a href="#cite_note-306">[note 42]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_G%C3%BCns#Campaign_of_1532" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Güns">new Ottoman invasion</a> prevented the Habsburgs from wage war against the Protestants, a peace treaty was signed at Nuremberg in July 1532.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012351–352-307">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_Reformation_in_Scandinavia">Royal Reformation in Scandinavia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Royal Reformation in Scandinavia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein" title="Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein">Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Reformation in Sweden</a></div> Relationship between the papacy and the Scandinavian kingdoms was tense, as both Frederick I of Denmark and Norway, and Gustav I of Sweden appointed their own candidates to vacant episcopal sees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012275–277-308">[266]</a> In 1526, the Danish Parliament prohibited the bishops to seek confirmation from the Holy See, and declared all fees payable for their confirmation as royal revenue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell1998106-309">[267]</a> The former <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Hospitaller knight</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Tausen" title="Hans Tausen">Hans Tausen</a> (d. 1561) delivered Evangelical sermons in <a href="/wiki/Viborg,_Denmark" title="Viborg, Denmark">Viborg</a> under royal protection from 1526. Four years later, the Parliament rejected the Catholic prelates' demand to condemn Evangelical preaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012275–276-310">[268]</a> After Frederick's death the bishops and conservative aristocrats prevented the election of his openly Protestant son <a href="/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark" title="Christian III of Denmark">Christian</a> as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell1998111-311">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher,_Count_of_Oldenburg" title="Christopher, Count of Oldenburg">Christopher, Count of Oldenburg</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1526–1566) took up arms on the deposed Christian II's behalf, but the war known as <a href="/wiki/Count%27s_Feud" title="Count's Feud">Count's Feud</a> ended with the victory of Frederick's son who ordered the arrest of the Catholic bishops. Christian III (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1534–1559) was crowned king by Bugenhagen. Bugenhagen also ordained seven superintendents to lead the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Denmark" title="Church of Denmark">Church of Denmark</a>. Christian declared the Augsburg Confession as the authoritative articles of faith in 1538,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012276–277-312">[270]</a> but pilgrimages to the most popular shrines continued, and the Eucharistic liturgy kept Catholic elements, such as kneeling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell2006269-313">[271]</a> In the Danish dependencies of Norway and Iceland, the Reformation required vigorous governmental interventions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012279-314">[272]</a> The last Catholic <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Nidaros" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros">Archbishop of Nidaros</a> in Norway <a href="/wiki/Olav_Engelbrektsson" title="Olav Engelbrektsson">Olav Engelbrektsson</a> (d. 1538) was a staunch opponent of the changes, but was succeeded by the Evangelical <a href="/wiki/Gjeble_Pederss%C3%B8n" title="Gjeble Pederssøn">Gjeble Pederssøn</a> (d. 1557) as superintendent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell2006269–270-315">[273]</a> In Iceland, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3n_Arason" title="Jón Arason">Jón Arason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_H%C3%B3lar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Hólar">Bishop of Hólar</a> (d. 1550)—the last Nordic Catholic bishop—took up arms to prevent the Reformation, but he was captured and executed by representatives of royal authority.<a href="#cite_note-317">[note 43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHjálmarsson201271–74-318">[275]</a> Gustav I of Sweden appointed the Evangelical preacher <a href="/wiki/Laurentius_Andreae" title="Laurentius Andreae">Laurentius Andreae</a> (d. 1552) as his chancellor, and the Evangelical scholar <a href="/wiki/Olaus_Petri" title="Olaus Petri">Olaus Petri</a> (d. 1552) as a minister at Stockholm. Petri translated the Gospels to Swedish. On his advice, Gustav dissolved a Catholic printing house that published popular <a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">anti-Protestant</a> literature under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Brask" title="Hans Brask">Hans Brask</a> (d. 1538), <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Link%C3%B6ping" title="Bishop of Linköping">Bishop of Linköping</a>. Gustav also expelled the radical German pastor <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Hoffman" title="Melchior Hoffman">Melchior Hoffman</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1543) from Sweden for <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclastic</a> propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell1998124-319">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012277-320">[277]</a> The royal treasury needed extra funds to repay the loans borrowed from the Hanseatic League to finance the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_War_of_Liberation" title="Swedish War of Liberation">war against</a> Christian II. Gustav persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Riksdag" title="Riksdag">legislative assembly</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reduction_of_Gustav_I_of_Sweden" title="Reduction of Gustav I of Sweden">secularise church property</a> by threatening the delegates with his abdication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012277-320">[277]</a> The peasantry remained very cautious about changes in church life. This together with heavy taxation led to uprisings. To appease the rebels, Gustav declared that he had not sanctioned the changes, and dismissed Andreae in 1531, Petri in 1533.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell2006124–125-321">[278]</a> He continued the transformation of church life in Sweden and Finland after the Reformation was fully introduced in Denmark. He was assisted by two Evangelical theologians <a href="/wiki/Georg_Norman" title="Georg Norman">Georg Norman</a> (d. 1552/1553) and <a href="/wiki/Mikael_Agricola" title="Mikael Agricola">Mikael Agricola</a> (d. 1557).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrell1998125-322">[279]</a> In 1539, Norman was appointed as supertindent of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Sweden" title="Church of Sweden">Church of Sweden</a>, and Gustav took the title of "Supreme Defender of the Church".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012278–279-323">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catholic_reform">Catholic reform</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Catholic reform">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_2">Beginnings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Beginnings">edit</a>]</div> The religious upheaval in Germany and the sack of Rome convinced many Catholics that their Church was in need of a profound reform. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_III" title="Pope Paul III">Pope Paul III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1534–1549) appointed prominent representatives of the Catholic reform movement as cardinals, among them Contarini, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Pole" title="Reginald Pole">Reginald Pole</a> (d. 1558), and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pietro_Caraffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Pietro Caraffa">Giovanni Pietro Caraffa</a> (d. 1559). They <a href="/wiki/Consilium_de_Emendanda_Ecclesia" title="Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia">completed a report</a> condemning the corruption of church administration and the waste of church revenues.<a href="#cite_note-325">[note 44]</a> Contarini, Pole and other Spirituali were ready to make concessions to the Protestants but their liberalism shocked Caraffa and other conservative prelates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003207–211-326">[282]</a> Negotiations between moderate Catholic and Protestant theologians were not unusual. In 1541, Bucer and the Catholic theologian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gropper" title="Johann Gropper">Johann Gropper</a> (d. 1559) drafted a compromise formula on <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">justification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[note 45]</a> The draft was discussed along with other issues at a colloquy during the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Regensburg_(1541)" title="Diet of Regensburg (1541)">Diet of Regensburg</a> but no compromise was reached, not least due to opposition by both Luther and the Holy See.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012353–354-328">[283]</a> Contarini, who represented the papacy at the Diet, died in 1541; many Spirituali such as Vermigli fled from Italy to avoid persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003224-329">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_of_Wied" title="Hermann of Wied">Hermann of Wied</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop-elector_of_Cologne" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop-elector of Cologne">Archbishop-elector of Cologne</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1515–1546) completed a reform program with Bucer's assistance, criticising prayers to the saints and traditional Eucharistic theology, and proposing sermons about justification by faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003262–263-330">[285]</a> The canons of the <a href="/wiki/Cologne_Cathedral" title="Cologne Cathedral">Cologne Cathedral</a> requested Gropper to write a critical response to it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003263-331">[286]</a> and achieved Hermann's deposal by the Roman Curia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012354-332">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Orders">New Orders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: New Orders">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A page with printed text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg/220px-Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg/330px-Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg/440px-Exercitia_Spiritualia_1ed2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="629" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the first edition of the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises" title="Spiritual Exercises">Spiritual Exercises</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a>, published in 1548</figcaption></figure> The spread of new monastic orders was an important element of the Catholic reform movement. Most new orders placed great value on pastoral care.<a href="#cite_note-335">[note 46]</a> Among them, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> (or Jesuits) became the most influential.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023212–214-336">[290]</a> Its founder <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a> (d. 1556) was born to a Basque noble family. He chose a military career but abandoned it after being wounded <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1521%E2%80%931526" title="Italian War of 1521–1526">during a siege</a>. He started to write a devotional guide, the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises" title="Spiritual Exercises">Spiritual Exercises</a>, during his ascetic retreat <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Saint_Ignatius" title="Cave of Saint Ignatius">at a cave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021333–334-337">[291]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignatian_spirituality" title="Ignatian spirituality">His mysticism</a> arouse the Spanish Inquisition's suspicion but the Spirituali supported him. Paul III sanctioned the establishment of the Jesuits on Contarini's influence in 1540.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003215–216-338">[292]</a> The new order quickly developed: when Loyola died, the Society had about 1,000 members; in less than a decade, it numbered around 3,500. The maintenance of a well organised schooling system was the Jesuits' most prominent feature. Their <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Germanicum_et_Hungaricum" title="Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum">Roman collegium</a> prepared future priests to discuss and reject Protestant theologies primarily in Germany, Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Malley2006224,_227,_231-339">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Council_of_Trent">Council of Trent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Council of Trent">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></div> Paul III decided to convoke the nineteenth ecumenical council to handle the crisis caused by the Reformation. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> met in a series of sessions from December 1545 to 1548, 1521 to 1522, and 1562 to 1563.<a href="#cite_note-340">[note 47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200594–95-341">[294]</a> The topics dealt with included the Creed, the Sacraments including transubstantiation and ordination,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003267-342">[295]</a> justification, and improvement in the quality of priests by diocesan seminaries and annual canonical visitations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003294-343">[296]</a> The council reaffirmed that apostolic tradition was as authentic a source of faith as the Bible, and emphasized the importance of good works in salvation, rejecting two important elements of Luther's theology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003227–229-344">[297]</a> Before being closed in December 1563, the Council mandate the papacy to revise liturgical books and complete a new catechism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitchfield2022212-345">[298]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Borromeo" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Borromeo">Carlo Borromeo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Milan">Archbishop of Milan</a> (d. 1582) adopted a more practical approach. He completed a handbook covering everyday details of church life, including the delivery of sermons, arrangement of church interiors, and hearing confessions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitchfield2022228-346">[299]</a> After the council, papal authority was reinforced through the establishment of central offices known as <a href="/wiki/Congregation_(Roman_Curia)" title="Congregation (Roman Curia)">congregations</a>. One of them became responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">list of forbidden literature</a>. All church officials and university teachers were required to take a Tridentine confessional oath that included an oath of "true obedience" to the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023211–212-347">[300]</a> Lindberg suggests that (following Trent) the "spirituality of Catholic reform was the ascetic, subjective, and personal piety", as expressed in public processions, the "perpetual" <a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_adoration" title="Eucharistic adoration">adoration of the Eucharist</a>, and the reaffirmed veneration of Mary the Virgin and the saints.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021344-348">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_waves">New waves</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: New waves">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_reformation_under_Henry_VIII">English reformation under Henry VIII</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: English reformation under Henry VIII">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1491_Henry_VIII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A round-faced bearded middle-aged man wearing a hat decorated with a large feather" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/220px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/330px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/440px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1213" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of King Henry VIII (early 1530s) by <a href="/wiki/Joos_van_Cleve" title="Joos van Cleve">Joos van Cleve</a></figcaption></figure> In England, reformist clerics such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bilney" title="Thomas Bilney">Thomas Bilney</a> (d. 1531) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barnes_(martyr)" title="Robert Barnes (martyr)">Robert Barnes</a> (d. 1540) spread Luther's theology among Cambridge and Oxford scholars and students.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012284-349">[302]</a> The young priest <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a> (d. 1536) translated the New Testament to English using Erasmus's <a href="/wiki/Novum_Instrumentum_omne#Third_edition" title="Novum Instrumentum omne">Latin-Greek edition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022250–251-350">[303]</a> By around 1535, more than 15,000 copies of his translation had been distributed in secret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023181-351">[304]</a> Tyndale's biographer <a href="/wiki/David_Daniell_(author)" title="David Daniell (author)">David Daniell</a> (d. 2016) writes that the translation "gave the English language a plain prose style of the very greatest importance", and his "influence has been greater than any other writer in English".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021299-352">[305]</a> The Lord Chancellor Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wolsey" title="Thomas Wolsey">Thomas Wolsey</a> (d. 1530) had strong links to the Roman Curia, he was unable to achieve the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_nullity" title="Declaration of nullity">annulment</a> of the marriage of Henry VIII and the middle-aged <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a> (d. 1536).<a href="#cite_note-354">[note 48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012284–285-355">[307]</a> They had needed a papal dispensation to marry because Catherine was the widow of Henry's brother <a href="/wiki/Arthur,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Arthur, Prince of Wales">Arthur, Prince of Wales</a> (d. 1502). As she had not produced a male heir, Henry became convinced that their <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incestuous</a> marriage drew the <a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">wrath of God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003193-356">[308]</a> Henry charged a group of scholars including <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a> (d. 1556) with collecting arguments in favour of the annulment. They concluded that the English kings had always had authority over the clergy, and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Leviticus" title="Book of Leviticus">Book of Leviticus</a> forbade marriage between a man and his brother's widow in all circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022253-357">[309]</a> In 1530, <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation_Parliament" title="English Reformation Parliament">the Parliament</a> limited the jurisdiction of church courts. Wolsey had meanwhile lost Henry's favour and died, but More tried to convince Henry to abandon his plan about the annulment of his marriage. In contrast, Cranmer and Henry's new chief advisor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cromwell" title="Thomas Cromwell">Thomas Cromwell</a> (d. 1540) argued that the marriage could be annulled without papal interference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012285-353">[306]</a> Henry who had fallen in love with Catherine's lady-in-waiting <a href="/wiki/Anne_Boleyn" title="Anne Boleyn">Anne Boleyn</a> (d. 1536) decided to marry her even if the marriage could lead to a total break with the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022252-358">[310]</a> During a visit in Germany, Cranmer <a href="/wiki/Margarete_Cranmer" title="Margarete Cranmer">married</a> but kept his marriage in secret. On his return to England, Henry appointed him as the new <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, and the Holy See confirmed the appointment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003194-359">[311]</a> The links between the English Church and the papacy were severed by Acts of Parliament.<a href="#cite_note-361">[note 49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson2005110-362">[313]</a> In April 1533, the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Appeals_Act_1532" title="Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532">Act of Appeals</a> decreed that only English courts had jurisdiction in cases of last wills, marriages and grants to the Church, emphasizing that "this realm of England is an Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022254-363">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012285–286-364">[315]</a> A special church court annulled the marriage of Henry and Catherine, and declared their only daughter <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a> (d. 1558) <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">illegitimate</a> in May 1533.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023180-365">[316]</a> Pope Clement VII did not sanction the judgement and excommunicated Henry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021302-366">[317]</a> Ignoring the papal ban, Henry married Anne, and she gave birth to a daughter <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth</a> (d. 1603).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012286-367">[318]</a> Anne was a staunch supporter of the Reformation, and mainly her nominees were appointed to the vacant bishoprics between 1532 and 1536.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003194-359">[311]</a> In 1534, the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Supremacy">Act of Supremacy</a> declared the king the "only supreme head of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson2005110-362">[313]</a> Many of those who refused to swear a special oath of loyalty to the king—65 from about 400 defendants—were executed. More and <a href="/wiki/John_Fisher" title="John Fisher">John Fisher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Rochester" title="Bishop of Rochester">Bishop of Rochester</a> (d. 1535) were among the most prominent victims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012286-367">[318]</a> Cromwell gradually convinced Henry that a "purification" of church life was needed. The number of <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">feast days</a> was reduced by about 75 per cent, pilgrimages were forbidden, <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">all monasteries were dissolved</a> and their property was seized by the Crown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023181-351">[304]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Parliament of Ireland</a> passed similar acts but they could only be fully implemented in the <a href="/wiki/The_Pale" title="The Pale">lands under direct English rule</a>. Resistance against the Reformation was vigorous. In 1534, the powerful <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_10th_Earl_of_Kildare" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare">Lord Thomas FitzGerald</a> (d. 1537) staged a revolt. Although it was crushed, thereafter Henry's government did not introduce drastic changes in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Ireland" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003196–197-368">[319]</a> In England, the dissolution of monasteries caused a popular revolt known as the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_of_Grace" title="Pilgrimage of Grace">Pilgrimage of Grace</a>. The "pilgrims" demanded the dismissal of "heretic" royal advisors but they were overcame by royalist forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2009255–256-369">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012287-370">[321]</a> The principal articles of faith of the Church of England were summarized in the <a href="/wiki/Six_Articles_(1539)" class="mw-redirect" title="Six Articles (1539)">Six Articles</a> in 1539. It reaffirmed several elements of traditional theology, such as transubstantiation and clerical celibacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021303-371">[322]</a> As Anne Boleyn did not give birth to a son, she lost Henry's favour. She was executed for adultery, and Elizabeth was declared a bastard. Henry's only son <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward</a> (d. 1553) was born to Henry's third wife <a href="/wiki/Jane_Seymour" title="Jane Seymour">Jane Seymour</a> (d. 1537). In 1543, an <a href="/wiki/Third_Succession_Act" title="Third Succession Act">Act of Parliament</a> returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of the succession behind Edward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023181–182-372">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003195,_279-373">[324]</a> Henry <a href="/wiki/Rough_Wooing" title="Rough Wooing">attacked Scotland</a> to enforce the marriage of Edward and the infant <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1542–1567) but her mother <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Guise" title="Mary of Guise">Mary of Guise</a> (d. 1560) reinforced Scotland's <a href="/wiki/Auld_Alliance" title="Auld Alliance">traditional alliance</a> with France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012295–296-374">[325]</a> The priest <a href="/wiki/George_Wishart" title="George Wishart">George Wishart</a> (d. 1546) was the first to preach Zwinglian theology in Scotland. After he was burned for heresy, his followers, among them <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> (d. 1572), assassinated Cardinal <a href="/wiki/David_Beaton" title="David Beaton">David Beaton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_St_Andrews" title="Archbishop of St Andrews">Archbishop of St Andrews</a> (d. 1546), but French troops crushed their revolt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021316–317-375">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Münster">Münster</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Münster">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A fortified town on a river surrounded by soldiers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg/300px-MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg/450px-MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg/600px-MuensterUnderSiege1534.jpg 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a> besieged by <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Prince-Bishopric of Münster">Prince-bishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Waldeck" title="Franz von Waldeck">Franz von Waldeck</a></figcaption></figure> Having been banished from Sweden, Hoffman was wandering in southern Germany and the Low Countries. He turned Anabaptist<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaude2006244-376">[327]</a> but suspended adult baptism to avoid persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003199-377">[328]</a> He denied that Christ had become flesh,<a href="#cite_note-379">[note 50]</a> and preached that <a href="/wiki/Revelation_7" title="Revelation 7">144,000 elect</a> were to gather in Strasbourg to witness <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Christ's return</a> in 1533.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaude2006244-376">[327]</a> His followers known as Melchiorites swarmed into the city, presenting an enormous challenge for its charity provisions. Hoffman also came to Strasbourg, but the authorities arrested him. After the deadline for Christ's return passed uneventfully, many disappointed Melchiorites accepted the leadership of a charismatic Dutch baker <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matthijszoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Matthijszoon">Jan Matthijszoon</a> (d. 1534). He blamed Hoffman for the suspension of adult baptism, and proclaimed the city of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a> as the <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a>. Although Münster was an <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Prince-Bishopric of Münster">episcopal see</a>, the town council had installed a Protestant pastor <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Rothmann" title="Bernhard Rothmann">Bernhard Rothmann</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1535) in clear defiance to the new prince-bishop <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Waldeck" title="Franz von Waldeck">Franz von Waldeck</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1532–1553). Those who expected a radical social transformation from the Reformation flocked to Münster. The radicals assumed full control of the town in February 1534.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003183,_199–200-380">[330]</a> Bishop Franz and his allies, among them Philip of Hessen, attacked Münster but could not capture it. Under Matthijszoon's rule, private property and the use of money was outlawed in the town. Believing that God would protect him, Matthijszoon made a sortie against the enemy, but he was killed. Another charismatic Dutchman, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Leiden" title="John of Leiden">John of Leiden</a> (d. 1536)—a former tailor—succeeded him. Leiden announced that he was receiving revelations from God, and proclaimed himself "king of righteousness" and "the ruler of the new <a href="/wiki/Zion" title="Zion">Zion</a>". Church and state were united, and all sinners were executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021208–209-381">[331]</a> Leiden legalized <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a>, and ordered all women who were twelve or older to marry. The protracted siege demoralized the defenders, and Münster fell through treason on 25 June 1535. After the fall of Münster, most Anabaptist groups adopted a pacifist approach under the leadership of a former priest <a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a> (d. 1561).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaude2006245-382">[332]</a> He associated the Anabaptist communities with the New Jerusalem. His followers would be known as <a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaude2006253-383">[333]</a> Nearly all Anabaptist communities were destroyed in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2009114-384">[334]</a> but moderate Anabaptist groups survived in <a href="/wiki/East_Frisia" title="East Frisia">East Frisia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021287-385">[335]</a> and were mainly tolerated in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaude2006253–254-386">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calvin_and_the_Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion">Calvin and the Institutes of the Christian Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Calvin and the Institutes of the Christian Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_(1509-1564)-uitsnede.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A long-faced bearded middle-aged man wearing a hat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_%281509-1564%29-uitsnede.jpg/180px-MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_%281509-1564%29-uitsnede.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_%281509-1564%29-uitsnede.jpg/270px-MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_%281509-1564%29-uitsnede.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/MCC-31320_Portret_van_Johannes_Calvijn_%281509-1564%29-uitsnede.jpg 2x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of John Calvin (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1550) by an unknown French painter</figcaption></figure> The future reformer <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> (d. 1564) was destined to a church career by his father, a lay administrator of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Noyon" title="Ancient Diocese of Noyon">Bishopric of Noyon</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-388">[note 51]</a> He studied theology at the Sorbonne, and law at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="University of Orléans">Orléans</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bourges" title="University of Bourges">Bourges</a>. He read treatises by Lefèvre and Lefèvre's disciples at the newly established <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège Royal</a>, and abandoned Catholicism under the influence of his Protestant friends, particularly the physician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Cop" title="Nicolas Cop">Nicolas Cop</a> (d. 1540).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire202298–101-389">[338]</a> The persecution of French Protestants intensified after the so-called <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Placards" title="Affair of the Placards">Affair of the Placards</a>. In October 1534, placards (or posters) attacking the Mass were placed at many places, including the door to the royal bedchamber in <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27Amboise" title="Château d'Amboise">Château d'Amboise</a>. In retaliation, twenty-four Protestants were executed, and many intellectuals had to leave France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003188–189-390">[339]</a> Calvin was one of the religious refugees. He settled in Basel and completed the first version of his principal theological treatise, the <a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" title="Institutes of the Christian Religion">Institutes of the Christian Religion</a> in 1536. He would be rewriting and expanding it several times until 1559. As the historian <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Eire" title="Carlos Eire">Carlos Eire</a> writes, "Calvin's text was blessed with a lawyer's penchant for precision, a humanist's love for poetic expression and rhetorical flourishes, and a theologian's respect for paradox".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022102–103-391">[340]</a> With Eire's words, Calvin "revived <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_make_unto_thee_any_graven_image" title="Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image">the jealous God</a> of the Old Testament". He warned King Francis that the persecution of the faithful would incur the wrath of God upon him but sharply distanced moderate Protestants from Anabaptists.<a href="#cite_note-394">[note 52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003190-393">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022103–104-395">[343]</a> Already the first edition of the Institutes contained references to two distinguishing elements of Calvin's theology, both traceable back to Augustine: his conviction that the <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a> had completely corrupted human nature, and his strong belief in "<a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Calvinism" title="Predestination in Calvinism">double predestination</a>". In his view, only strict social and ecclesiastic control could prevent sins and crimes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022105–107-396">[344]</a> and God did not only decide who were saved but also those who were destined to damnation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012156-62">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingdon2006113-397">[345]</a> In 1536, Farel convinced Calvin to settle in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. Their attempts to implement radical reforms in discipline brought them into conflicts with those who feared that the new measures would lead to clerical despotism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingdon2006106-398">[346]</a> After they refused to acknowledge the urban magistrates' claim to intervene in the process of excommunication, they were banished from the town. Calvin moved to Strasbourg where Bucer made a profound impact on him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022109-399">[347]</a> Under Bucer's influence, Calvin adopted an intermediate position on the Eucharist between Luther and Zwingli, denying Christ's presence in it but acknowledging that the rite included a real spiritual communion with Christ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022109-399">[347]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ; color: #202122;background-color: #F5FAFF;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #CEE0F2;">Calvin on the "double pedestrination"</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> No one who wishes to be thought religious dares simply deny predestination, by which God adopts some to hope of life, and sentences others to eternal death...For all are not created in an equal condition; rather eternal life is fore-ordained for some, eternal damnation for others. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (1559)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022107-400">[348]</a></cite> </div> After Calvin and Farel left Geneva, no pastors were able to assume the leadership of the local Protestant community. Fearing of a Catholic restoration, the urban magistrates convinced Calvin to come back to Geneva in 1541. Months after his return, the town council enacted The Ecclesiastical Ordinances, a detailed regulation summarizing Calvin's proposals for church administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingdon2006106–107-401">[349]</a> The Ordinances established four church offices. The pastors were responsible for pastoral care and discipline; the doctors instructed believers in the faith; the <a href="/wiki/Elder_(Christianity)" title="Elder (Christianity)">elders</a> (or presbyters) were authorized to "watch over the life of each person" and to report those who lived a "disorderly" life to the pastors; and <a href="/wiki/Deacon" title="Deacon">deacons</a> were appointed to administer the town's charity. All townspeople were obliged to regularly attend church services. Calvin established a special court called the consistory to hear cases of moral lapse such as <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_take_the_name_of_the_Lord_thy_God_in_vain" title="Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain">blasphemy</a>, adultery, disrespect to authorities, gossiping, witchcraft and participation in rites considered superstitious by church authorities. The consistory was composed of the pastors, the elders, and an urban magistrate, and the townspeople were encouraged to report sinful acts to it. First-time offenders mainly received lenient sentences such as fines, but repeat offenders were banished from the town or executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022110–112-402">[350]</a> Resistance against the Ordinances was significant. Many continued visit shrines and pray to saints, while many patricians insisted on liberal traditional customs for which Calvin called them "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Libertines_(Geneva)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libertines (Geneva) (page does not exist)">Libertines</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022112–113-403">[351]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reformation_in_Britain">Reformation in Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Reformation in Britain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_under_Elizabeth_I" title="History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I">History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I</a></div> Henry VIII died on 27 January 1547. His nine-year-old son Edward VI (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1547–1553) succeeded him, and Edward's maternal uncle <a href="/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset">Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset</a> (d. 1552) assumed power as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a>. Somerset halted the persecution of religious dissidents, making England a safe haven for religious refugees from all over Europe. They established their own congregations, served by prominent pastors, such as the Polish <a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81aski" title="Jan Łaski">Jan Łaski</a> (d. 1560) and the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Casiodoro_de_Reina" title="Casiodoro de Reina">Casiodoro de Reina</a> (d. 1594). Most of them adhered to Reformed theology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021306-404">[352]</a> Cranmer introduced further religious reforms: images were removed from the churches, the doctrine of purgatory was rejected, and all endowments for prayers for the dead (or <a href="/wiki/Chantry" title="Chantry">chantries</a>) were confiscated. With the introduction of Cranmer's <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1549)" title="Book of Common Prayer (1549)">Book of Common Prayer</a>, the Mass was replaced by a vernacular liturgy.<a href="#cite_note-406">[note 53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022261-407">[354]</a> Marshall notes, that it is "safe to say that the greater part of the population disliked what was taking place". The liturgical changes caused popular revolts <a href="/wiki/Prayer_Book_Rebellion" title="Prayer Book Rebellion">in Devon and Cornwall</a> and other places but they were quickly suppressed, just like the riot against the dissolution of chantries in East Yorkshire. Even <a href="/wiki/Kett%27s_Rebellion" title="Kett's Rebellion">in Norfolk</a>, where the peasants adopted a Protestant rhetoric, they assembled under the banners of their parish saints.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022263–264-408">[355]</a> Somerset's opponents take advantage of the unrest to get rid of him. He was replaced by <a href="/wiki/John_Dudley,_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland" title="John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland">John Dudley</a> (d. 1553) who was made <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Northumberland" title="Duke of Northumberland">Duke of Northumberland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003249-405">[353]</a> Cranmer continued the liturgical reforms, and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1552)" title="Book of Common Prayer (1552)">new version</a> of the Book of Common Prayer rejected the dogma of transubstantiation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022261–262-409">[356]</a> He completed the <a href="/wiki/Forty-two_Articles" title="Forty-two Articles">Forty-two Articles</a>, a new confessional document combining elements of Reformed and Evangelical theologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021307-410">[357]</a> Edward died of tuberculosis on 6 July 1553. He had designated his Protestant relative <a href="/wiki/Jane_Grey" class="mw-redirect" title="Jane Grey">Jane Grey</a> (d. 1554) as his heir to prevent the succession of his Catholic sister Mary, but most English remained loyal to the Tudor dynasty. Initially, Mary I (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1553–1558) took advantage of her royal prerogatives to dismiss married clergy, appoint Catholic priests to bishoprics, and restore the Mass.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021308–309-411">[358]</a> She had to make concessions to landowners who had seized church property to achieve the restoration of papal supremacy by the Parliament in November 1554. Cranmer was forced to sign six documents condemning his own acts but withdrew his recantations while being burned for heresy in public in March 1556. Reginald Pole was appointed as the new archbishop of Canterbury, but he was accused of heresy after his old enemy Carafa had been elected pope as Paul IV (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1555–1559).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003273–276-412">[359]</a> The restoration of the altars and images gained popular support in many places, but recatholisation faced significant resistance—around 300 Protestants were burned, and about 1,000 were forced into exile during Mary's reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall2022268–269-413">[360]</a> Her marriage with Philip II of Spain was unpopular, and she died childless on 17 November 1558.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021310-414">[361]</a> Mary's sister and successor Elizabeth I (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1558–1603) sought a <a href="/wiki/Via_media" title="Via media">via media</a> ('middle way') between religious extremists. Her <a href="/wiki/1st_Parliament_of_Elizabeth_I" title="1st Parliament of Elizabeth I">first Parliament</a> restored the royal leadership of the Church of England, and introduced a <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1559)" title="Book of Common Prayer (1559)">modified version</a> of the Book of Common Prayer. The Anglican liturgy retained elements of Catholic ceremonies, such as priestly vestments, and contained ambiguous sentences about the Eucharist, suggesting the real presence of Jesus's Blood and Body for conservatives, and a memorial service for reformers. Elizabeth supervised the revision of the Anglican articles of faith in person. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">Thirty-nine Articles</a> were formulated in a way that adherents to the major mainstream Protestant theologies could accept them. However, the most resolute Protestants were determined to purify the Church of England from the remnants of Catholic ceremonies, hence they were called <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>. They were especially influential at the universities. Many of them rejected the authority of bishops, the Presbyterians emphasized the equal status of all priests, whereas the Congregationalists wanted to strengthen the position of local communities in church administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021310–314-415">[362]</a> England's recatholisation contributed to the triumph of Reformation in Scotland. <a href="/wiki/James_Hamilton,_Duke_of_Ch%C3%A2tellerault" title="James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault">James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran</a> (d. 1575), heir presumptive to Queen Mary of the Scots, assumed the leadership of the Protestant lords. Incited by Knox's passionate sermons, anti-Catholic sentiments led to a popular revolt of elementary force in 1559, causing the destruction of monasteries and friaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003283–286-416">[363]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Servetus_and_the_Restoration_of_Christianity">Servetus and the Restoration of Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Servetus and the Restoration of Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A page with printed text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif/220px-Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif/330px-Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Servet_Christianismi_restitutio.gif 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the Restoration of Christianity (1553) by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a></figcaption></figure> The first radicals who rejected the dogma of Trinity were put on trial in Augsburg in 1527. A scholar from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a> (d. 1553) adopted <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">antitrinitarian</a> theology in the 1530s. MacCulloch proposes that Servetus rejected the Trinity, a dogma extremely offensive to Jews and Muslims, because he wanted to present Christianity as a <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universal religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003182–183-417">[364]</a> After studying medicine and anatomy in Paris,<a href="#cite_note-419">[note 54]</a> Servetus became the court physician of the elderly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Vienne" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienne">Catholic archbishop of Vienne</a> in southern France. While in <a href="/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Vienne, Isère">Vienne</a>, he sent the first (unpublished) versions of his theological work, the Restoration of Christianity to Calvin. He disrespectfully described the Trinity as a three-headed <a href="/wiki/Cerberus" title="Cerberus">Cerberus</a>, attacked infant baptism, and denied original sin. He also wrote insulting comments on Calvin's Institutes. The Restoration was published anonymously in Lyon in 1553, but the Catholic Inquisition identified Servetus as its author by using documents from Calvin's personal files. Servetus fled from France but attended a church service delivered by Calvin in Geneva. He was recognised and arrested, and the urban authorities sentenced him to death with Calvin's consent. He was burned at the stake on 27 October 1553.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021253-418">[365]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003237–238-420">[366]</a> Bucer, Melanchthon and other leading Protestant theologians agreed with Servetus's execution. Only the Basel-based schoolmaster <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Castellio" title="Sebastian Castellio">Sebastian Castellio</a> (d. 1563) condemned it in a manifesto for religious toleration. He also addressed a letter to Calvin, stating "To burn a heretic is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a man".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021254–255-421">[367]</a> Antitrinitarian theology survived among Italian exiles in Basel. <a href="/wiki/Lelio_Sozzini" title="Lelio Sozzini">Lelio Sozzini</a> (d. 1562), a scholar from <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>, argued that Biblical texts calling Jesus "<a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son of God</a>" did not refer to his divinity but to his faultless humanity. His nephew, <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Sozzini" title="Fausto Sozzini">Fausto Sozzini</a> (d. 1604) rejected the <a href="/wiki/Satisfaction_theory_of_atonement" title="Satisfaction theory of atonement">theory of satisfaction</a> (the concept that Christ's sufferings brought about atonement to God the Father for the original sin). The two Sozzinis also believed that human nature was essentially good. Their followers became known as <a href="/wiki/Socinians" class="mw-redirect" title="Socinians">Socinians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023228-422">[368]</a> After Servetus's execution Calvin strengthened his position as the leading figure of Reformed Protestantism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003238-423">[369]</a> In Geneva, the Libertines rose up but they were quickly overcame, and forced into exile or executed. The confiscation of the property of the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Ami_Perrin" title="Ami Perrin">Ami Perrin</a> (d. 1561) and his family provided the city with funds to create an academy. It served both as a preparatory school for local youths and as a <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminary</a> for Reformed ministers. Calvin's chief assistant <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a> (d. 1605) was appointed as its first rector. The academy quickly developed into a principal center of theologian training for students from all over Europe, earning Geneva the nickname "the Protestant Rome". It was especially popular among French Protestants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022120–121-424">[370]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wars_of_religion_and_tolerance">Wars of religion and tolerance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Wars of religion and tolerance">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schmalkaldic_Wars">Schmalkaldic Wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Schmalkaldic Wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg,_por_Tiziano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A fully armed bearded man riding a horse with a lance in his right hand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg/220px-Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg/330px-Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg/440px-Carlos_V_en_la_Batalla_de_M%C3%BChlberg%2C_por_Tiziano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="2817" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Emperor Charles V at the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg (1548) by <a href="/wiki/Tizian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tizian">Tizian</a></figcaption></figure> Scandals and internal conflicts weakened the Protestants' position in Germany in the early 1540s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012354-332">[287]</a> Philip the Magnanimous committed <a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">bigamy</a> by secretly marrying a <a href="/wiki/Margarethe_von_der_Saale" title="Margarethe von der Saale">lady-in-waiting of his court</a> although <a href="/wiki/Christine_of_Saxony" title="Christine of Saxony">his wife</a> was still alive. Bucer, Luther, and Melanchthon had discretely sanctioned the bigamious marriage allegedly to prevent adultery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012354-332">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003222-425">[371]</a> In 1542, Philip and John the Constant's successor, <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_I,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony">John Frederick I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1532–1547) invaded the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Braunschweig-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel">Duchy of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel</a> which brought disapproval from other princes. Disputes over lands renewed the old rivalry between the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leipzig" title="Treaty of Leipzig">Ernestine and Albertine</a> branches of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wettin" title="House of Wettin">Wettin dynasty</a> of Saxony. Taking advantage of the situation, Emperor Charles built a broad coalition of Catholic and Evangelical princes against Hesse and Electoral Saxony. The coalition included the Albertine duke <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Maurice, Elector of Saxony">Maurice of Saxony</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1541–1553). During the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a>, Charles and his allies won a decisive victory, and Maurice was rewarded with John Frederick's title of elector.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012354–356-426">[372]</a> The triumphant Charles V regulated religious issues with an imperial edict known as the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a>. The Interim sanctioned clerical marriage and the communion in both kinds in Protestant territories, but denied further concessions. Maurice issued an alternative regulation called the <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Interim" title="Leipzig Interim">Leipzig Interim</a> for Saxony which ordered the clergy to wear <a href="/wiki/Surplice" title="Surplice">surplices</a>. Melanchthon supported the Leipzig Interim, stating that such issues were "matters indifferent" but uncompromising Lutheran theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_von_Amsdorf" title="Nicolaus von Amsdorf">Nicolaus von Amsdorf</a> (d. 1565) and <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Flacius" title="Matthias Flacius">Matthias Flacius</a> (d. 1575) rejected all concessions to imperial demands. Different views on justification and the Eucharist caused further heated debates between Melanchton's followers, known as <a href="/wiki/Philippists" title="Philippists">Philippists</a>, and their opponents, called <a href="/wiki/Gnesio-Lutherans" title="Gnesio-Lutherans">Gnesio-Lutherans</a> ('authentic Lutherans') in the 1550s. The Augsburg Interim was only implemented in the southern German Protestant cities. This led to the expulsion of recalcitrant clerics, including Bucer from Strasbourg.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003264–265-427">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012356–357,_372–374-428">[374]</a> Alarmed by Charles's triumph, Calvin and Bullinger agreed on a consensual Eucharistic formula, now known as <a href="/wiki/Consensus_Tigurinus" title="Consensus Tigurinus">Consensus Tigurinus</a> ('Consensus of Zürich'), emphasising that Christ "makes us participants of himself" in the Lord's Supper, but also stating that God "uses the ministry of the sacraments" without infusing divine power into them. Luther had died in 1546 but his followers rejected the Consensus.<a href="#cite_note-430">[note 55]</a> The rift between Evangelical and Reformed Protestants widened to the extent that Reformed refugees faced an unfriendly reception at Evangelical countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003244–245-431">[376]</a> In Bohemia, Hussite and Evangelical aristocrats and townspeople rose up against King Ferdinand I. Although Ferdinand crushed the revolt, he had to sanction religious plurality in Moravia as a reward for the Moravian Estates' loyalty during the Bohemian revolt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003265-432">[377]</a> Distrusting Emperor Charles, Maurice brokered a coalition of Evangelical princes, and promised four prince-bishoprics to King <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II of France</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1547–1559) for financial support. Maurice and his allies <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">invaded the Habsburgs' domains</a>, forcing Charles to flee. Signed on 10 August 1552, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Passau" title="Peace of Passau">Peace of Passau</a> prescribed that the religious issues were to be discussed at the following Imperial Diet. The Diet was opened at Augsburg on 5 February 1555. Already exhausted, Charles appointed Ferdinand to represent him. Ferdinand's negotiations with the Evangelical princes ended with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> on 25 September. The document reaffirmed the principle cuius regio, eius religio, but the Imperial Estates could only choose between Catholicism and the Augsburg Confession. Evangelical imperial free cities had to tolerate the existence of Catholic communities within their walls, and prince-bishoprics <a href="/wiki/Reservatum_ecclesiasticum" title="Reservatum ecclesiasticum">could not be secularised</a> in case the bishop abandoned the Catholic faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021231-433">[378]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012357–358-434">[379]</a> Charles, who did not sign the peace treaty, abdicated, ceding his imperial title to Ferdinand, and his vast empire to his son <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1556–1598).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003266-435">[380]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Wars_of_Religion">French Wars of Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: French Wars of Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Colloquy_of_Poissy" title="Colloquy of Poissy">Colloquy of Poissy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_Henry_IV_of_France" title="Succession of Henry IV of France">Succession of Henry IV of France</a></div> Many French Protestants did not risk to profess their faith in public. They were known as <a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a> after <a href="/wiki/Nicodemus" title="Nicodemus">Nicodemus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pharisee" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharisee">Pharisee</a> who visited Jesus in secret. Calvin condemned this practice describing those who attended the Mass as soldiers "in the army of Antichrist". Under his influence, the French Protestants started to stay away from Catholic church services. They were called <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> for uncertain reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022115–119-436">[381]</a> The poet <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Marot" title="Clément Marot">Clément Marot</a> (d. 1544) provided them with popular stirring songs by translating forty-nine Psalms to French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021268-437">[382]</a> Francis I promised to exterminate heresy in France in a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cr%C3%A9py" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Crépy">peace treaty</a> with Charles V in 1544. Next year, Waldensians <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rindol_massacre" title="Mérindol massacre">were massacred</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Luberon" title="Luberon">Luberon</a> region. In 1547, Henry II established a special court for heresy cases, named <a href="/wiki/Chambre_Ardente" title="Chambre Ardente">la chambre ardente</a> ('the burning chamber'). The lawyer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Crespin" title="Jean Crespin">Jean Crespin</a> (d. 1572) completed a <a href="/wiki/Martyrology" title="Martyrology">catalogue of martyrs</a> to commemorate the victims of the purges, and it gained immense popularity in the Protestant communities all over Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012366–367-438">[383]</a> After around 1555, prominent French aristocrats converted to Protestantism, including Marguerite of Angoulême's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Albret" title="Jeanne d'Albret">Jeanne d'Albret</a>, (d. 1572), Jeanne's husband <a href="/wiki/Antoine_of_Navarre" title="Antoine of Navarre">Antoine de Bourbon</a> (d. 1562), and <a href="/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny" title="Gaspard II de Coligny">Gaspard II de Coligny</a> (d. 1572), <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_France" title="Admiral of France">admiral of France</a>. Their patronage encouraged less distinguished Huguenots to express their faith in public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012383-439">[384]</a> In 1559, delegates from seventy-two congregations attended the first synod of the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_of_France" title="Reformed Church of France">Reformed Church of France</a>, representing about 1.5–2 million believers. The synod adopted the <a href="/wiki/Gallican_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallican Confession">Gallican Confession</a>, a confessional document drated by Calvin. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021268–269-440">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006151-441">[386]</a> Fully preoccupied with a <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1551%E2%80%931559" title="Italian War of 1551–1559">new war</a> against Emperor Charles, Henry II did not take severe measures against the Huguenot nobility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021270-442">[387]</a> After his sudden death after an accident, his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France" title="Francis II of France">Francis II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1559–1560) ascended the throne. His wife, Mary, Queen of Scots was the niece of <a href="/wiki/Francis,_Duke_of_Guise" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis, Duke of Guise">Francis, Duke of Guise</a> (d. 1563) and <a href="/wiki/Charles,_Cardinal_of_Lorraine" title="Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine">Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine</a> (d. 1574), two leaders of the most resolute Catholic faction of the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006153-443">[388]</a> The queen mother <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici" title="Catherine de' Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a> (d. 1589) distrusted them but the persecution of Huguenots intensified under their influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021270-442">[387]</a> When Francis died by an ear infection, Calvin considered his fate as divine deliverance. Francis was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France" title="Charles IX of France">Charles IX</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1560–1574) under Catherine's regency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021270–273-444">[389]</a> She <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Saint-Germain" title="Edict of Saint-Germain">enacted</a> the Huguenots' right to freely attend church services and hold public assemblies because she wanted to avoid a civil war along religious lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012384-445">[390]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two sides of a medal, one depicting a bearded man in monk's habit, the other an armed angel killing people" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg/300px-Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg/450px-Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg/600px-Gregory_XIII_medal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a>'s medal commemorating the <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a> in Paris with the inscription "VGONOTTORVM STRAGES 1572" ('Massacre of Huguenots, 1572')</figcaption></figure> Uncompromising Catholics and Huguenots considered their confrontation inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003294-343">[296]</a> The first of the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>—a series of armed conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots—began after Guise's retainers <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Vassy" title="Massacre of Vassy">massacred</a> more than fifty Huguenots at <a href="/wiki/Wassy" title="Wassy">Vassy</a> on 1 March 1562.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012384-445">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006154-446">[391]</a> As Antoine de Bourbon had returned to Catholicism, his brother <a href="/wiki/Louis_I,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis I, Prince of Condé">Louis I, Prince of Condé</a> (d. 1569) assumed the leadership of a Huguenot revolt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006154-446">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson2005137-447">[392]</a> They concluded a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hampton_Court_(1562)" title="Treaty of Hampton Court (1562)">treaty with</a> England in September 1562.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021274-448">[393]</a> To achieve a reconciliation, Catherine de'Medici married off her daughter <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Valois" title="Margaret of Valois">Margaret of Valois</a> (d. 1615) to the Protestant son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine de Bourbon, <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry de Bourbon</a>, King of Navarre (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1572–1610). Mutual mistrust between Catholics and Huguenots, and the Parisians' determination to cleanse their city of heresy led to the <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a> after the wedding. On 24 August 1572, a fanatic mob slaughtered 2,000–3,000 Protestants in Paris, and by early October further 6,000–7,000 Huguenots fell victim to pogroms in other cities and towns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006158–159-449">[394]</a> Many Huguenots returned to the Catholic Church or fled from France, and those who remained gathered in southern and southern-west France and continued the armed resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012385-450">[395]</a> Known as "<a href="/wiki/Malcontents_(France)" title="Malcontents (France)">Malcontents</a>", moderate Catholics concluded that only concessions to the Huguenots could restore peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006158-451">[396]</a> Charles IX died in May 1574 leaving an almost empty treasury to his brother <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1574–1567).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiefendorf2006158–159-449">[394]</a> Henry adopted a moderate religious policy but the uncompromising Catholics established the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)" title="Catholic League (French)">Catholic League</a> in 1576. They entered into a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville" title="Treaty of Joinville">secret alliance</a> with Philip II of Spain to prevent the spread of Protestantism. In 1589, the monk <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cl%C3%A9ment" title="Jacques Clément">Jacques Clément</a> mortally wounded King Henry. He named Henry de Bourbon as his heir, but the League and many cities refused to obey to a Huguenot king. Henry IV secured the support of moderate Catholics by converting to Catholicism. He defeated his French opponents and their Spanish allies, and put an end to the civil war early in 1598. He enacted many of the demands of the Huguenots, about fifteen per cent of the population, in the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>. Among others, they were allowed to attend religious services in many places, and their right to hold public offices was confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021279–280-452">[397]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolt_in_the_Netherlands">Revolt in the Netherlands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Revolt in the Netherlands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beeldenstorm_(Iconoclastic_Fury)_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="People dragging down sculptures and breaking windows in a large church" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg/290px-Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg/435px-Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg/580px-Beeldenstorm_%28Iconoclastic_Fury%29_in_Antwerpen_1566_Frans_Hogenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2208" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of the sack of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Our_Lady_(Antwerp)" title="Cathedral of Our Lady (Antwerp)">Church of Our Lady in Antwerp</a> (1566) by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Hogenberg" title="Frans Hogenberg">Frans Hogenberg</a></figcaption></figure> More Protestants fell victim to persecution in the seventeen provinces of <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> than in any other country between 1523 and 1555.<a href="#cite_note-454">[note 56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021283-455">[399]</a> The ruthless persecution prevented the establishment of Evangelical congregations although Luther's ideas were widely discussed in <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021285–286-456">[400]</a> Reformed theology spread among the <a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloons</a> through individuals' correspondence with Calvin and the Genevan academy from the 1540s. Nicodemism was not unusual but uncompromising Protestants disturbed Catholic ceremonies.<a href="#cite_note-458">[note 57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021287–288-459">[402]</a> The preacher <a href="/wiki/Guido_de_Bres" title="Guido de Bres">Guido de Bres</a> (d. 1567) established the first permanent Reformed congregations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012387-453">[398]</a> He was a main contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Belgic_Confession" title="Belgic Confession">Belgic Confession</a>, a confessional document based on the Gallican Confession, first published in <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> in 1561, and in Dutch in 1562. The Confession sharply criticised the Anapabtists, and emphasized the importance of church discipline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012387-453">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021288–289-460">[403]</a> In 1566, <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_Nobles" title="Compromise of Nobles">300 nobles</a> requested Philip II's <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Habsburg_Netherlands" title="List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands">governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma" title="Margaret of Parma">Margaret of Parma</a> (d. 1586) to moderate anti-heretic legislation. Although the petitioners were mocked as "<a href="/wiki/Geuzen" title="Geuzen">beggars</a>",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021289-461">[404]</a> Margaret was open to a compromise. Protestant refugees returned from abroad, and religious enthusiasts stirred up public demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003302-462">[405]</a> On the night of 20–21 August 1566, a Protestant mob sacked the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Our_Lady_(Antwerp)" title="Cathedral of Our Lady (Antwerp)">Antwerp Cathedral</a>, introducing a <a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">popular iconoclastic movement</a> that spread all over the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012388-463">[406]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022129-464">[407]</a> In 1567, Philip appointed <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a> (d. 1582) to crush the riots. Alba arrived at the head of a 20,000-strong army, and introduced a reign of terror, leading to the execution of thousands of people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021289-461">[404]</a> A prominent aristocrat <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Orange" title="Prince of Orange">Prince of Orange</a> (d. 1584) assumed the leadership of the resistance. His "Sea Beggars"—a squadron of privateers—seized the provinces of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Zeeland" title="County of Zeeland">Zeeland</a> by 1572,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012388–389-465">[408]</a> although the Reformed communities were in the minority in most towns.<a href="#cite_note-467">[note 58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson2005139-466">[409]</a> Philip II's government faced bankruptcy and his unpaid Spanish troops <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">sacked Antwerp</a> in 1576. This led to a <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War,_1576%E2%80%931579" title="Eighty Years' War, 1576–1579">general revolt</a> against Spanish rule. The Catholic aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Philippe_III_de_Cro%C3%BF" title="Philippe III de Croÿ">Philippe III de Croÿ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Aarschot" title="Duke of Aarschot">Duke of Aarschot</a> (d. 1595), made an alliance with William the Silent but rivalry between Catholics and Protestants did not abate. In 1581, the northern provinces united under William's leadership, and <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Abjuration" title="Act of Abjuration">renounced allegiance</a> to Philip. In the south, Margaret of Parma's son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alessandro Farnese</a> crushed the revolts,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012389-468">[410]</a> forcing about 100,000 Protestants to seek refugee in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021290-469">[411]</a> Developed from the union of seven northern provinces, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> remained under the loose leadership of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">House of Orange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012389-468">[410]</a> The Reformed pastors were eager to transform the whole society along their ideas. They failed because William preferred a more tolerant approach, and significant Protestant groups associated church discipline with Catholicism. As a consequence, Evangelical, Annabaptist and Catholic communities survived in the Dutch Republic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021291-470">[412]</a> Heterodox theologies could also spread, such as the views of <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius" title="Jacobus Arminius">Jacobus Arminius</a> (d. 1609) who argued that an individual could resist divine grace. Although <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a> was rejected at the international <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Synod of Dort</a> in 1619, it continued to influence Protestant theologians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012390-471">[413]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edict_of_Torda">Edict of Torda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Edict of Torda">edit</a>]</div> After King Louis's death at Mohács, two claimants <a href="/wiki/John_Z%C3%A1polya" title="John Zápolya">John Zápolya</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1526–1540) and Ferdinand I of Habsburg (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1526–1564) competed for the Hungarian throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel199849–51-472">[414]</a> They were Catholic but neither of them risked to alienate potential supporters by anti-Protestant purges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETóth2006210–211-473">[415]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxons" title="Transylvanian Saxons">Transylvanian Saxon</a> leader <a href="/w/index.php?title=Markus_Pemfflinger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Markus Pemfflinger (page does not exist)">Markus Pemfflinger</a> (d. 1537) promoted Evangelical preaching in the Saxon metropolis Hermanstadt (<a href="/wiki/Sibiu" title="Sibiu">Sibiu</a>, Romania) from around 1530. Evangelical teaching spread among ethnic Hungarians, Slovaks, and Croats after Protestant aristocrats started to appoint Evangelical preachers to the churches under their <a href="/wiki/Jus_patronatus" title="Jus patronatus">patronage</a> in the 1530s. After Zápolya's death, the Ottomans <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Buda_(1541)" title="Siege of Buda (1541)">conquered</a> central Hungary, his widow <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Jagiellon" title="Isabella Jagiellon">Isabella Jagiellon</a> (d. 1559) assumed the regency for their infant son <a href="/wiki/John_Sigismund_Z%C3%A1polya" title="John Sigismund Zápolya">John Sigismund Zápolya</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1540–1571) in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hungarian_Kingdom" title="Eastern Hungarian Kingdom">eastern Hungary</a> under Ottoman suzerainty, and Ferdinand ruled <a href="/wiki/Royal_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Hungary">Royal Hungary</a> in the north and west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel199851–52,_62,_65-474">[416]</a> Often in need of funds, Ferdinand seized church revenues, while Isabella and her treasurer the Catholic bishop <a href="/wiki/George_Martinuzzi" title="George Martinuzzi">George Martinuzzi</a> (d. 1551) secularised the estates of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Transylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Transylvania">Transylvanian bishopric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETóth2006213-475">[417]</a> The Transylvanian Saxons adopted the Augsburg Confession in 1544; five years later, <a href="/wiki/Pentapolitana" title="Pentapolitana">five free royal boroughs</a> accepted an Evangelical confession in Royal Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012282-476">[418]</a> Two former Catholic priests <a href="/wiki/Matthias_D%C3%A9vay" title="Matthias Dévay">Mátyás Dévai Bíró</a> (d. 1547) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mih%C3%A1ly_Szt%C3%A1rai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihály Sztárai (page does not exist)">Mihály Sztárai</a> (d. 1575) were among the first Hungarian pastors to teach Zwinglian Eucharistic theology. "<a href="/wiki/Sacramentarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacramentarianism">Sacramentarianism</a>" (the denial of Christ's presence in the Eucharist) and rebaptism were outlawed by the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary" title="Diet of Hungary">Diet</a> in Royal Hungary in 1548.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniel199865-477">[419]</a> John Sigismund was open to religious innovations. Under the influence of his court chaplain <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_D%C3%A1vid" title="Ferenc Dávid">Ferenc Dávid</a> (d. 1579), he adhered to Reformed theology from 1562, and accepted antitrinitarian views during the last years of his life.<a href="#cite_note-480">[note 59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Torda" title="Edict of Torda">Edict of Torda</a> legalised three Protestant denominations—Evangelical, Reformed and <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania" title="Unitarian Church of Transylvania">Unitarian</a>—in eastern Hungary in 1568.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETóth2006215–216-481">[422]</a> Eastern Hungary transformed into the autonomous <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1570%E2%80%931711)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)">Principality of Transylvania</a> under Ottoman suzerainty <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Speyer_(1570)" title="Treaty of Speyer (1570)">in 1570</a>. The coexistence of four officially recognised churches—Catholicism and the three legalised Protestant denominations—remained a lasting feature of religious politics in Transylvania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003254–255,_443-482">[423]</a> The most radical antitrinitarians rejected the New Testament and held Saturday (or <a href="/wiki/Sabbat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabbat">Sabbath</a>) as weekly holiday; hence they were called <a href="/wiki/Szekler_Sabbatarians" title="Szekler Sabbatarians">Sabbatarians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETóth2006216-483">[424]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warsaw_Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Warsaw Confederation">edit</a>]</div> As the Bohemian Brethren were famed for their diligence, many <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Polish aristocrats</a> eagerly settled them on their estates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmitessa2006194-484">[425]</a> Ethnic Poles became receptive to Protestant ideas, especially to Calvin's theology from the 1540s. The <a href="/wiki/Hetmans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Hetman</a> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Tarnowski" title="Jan Tarnowski">Jan Tarnowski</a> (d. 1561) entered into correspondence with Calvin in 1540; in 1542, <a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81aski" title="Jan Łaski">Jan Łaski</a> (d. 1560) converted although <a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81aski_(1456%E2%80%931531)" title="Jan Łaski (1456–1531)">his uncle (and namesake)</a> had been the <a href="/wiki/Primate_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Primate of Poland">Primate of Poland</a>. In 1548, Sigismund the Old's tolerant son <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1548–1572) ascended the throne. Two years later, the first synod of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Reformed_Church" title="Polish Reformed Church">Polish Reformed Church</a> assembled at <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%84cz%C3%B3w" title="Pińczów">Pińczów</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012281-485">[426]</a> Proposals for the introduction of vernacular liturgy and communion in both kinds, and the abolition of clerical celibacy were forwarded by Sigismund Augustus to the Holy See but <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV" title="Pope Paul IV">Pope Paul IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1555–1559) rejected them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003256–257-486">[427]</a> The Catholic prelates tried to put Protestant nobles and married priests on trial for heresy but the legislative assembly, or <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> suspended such persecutions on the initiative of the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Sejm" title="Marshal of the Sejm">Marshal of the Sejm</a> <a href="/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Leszczy%C5%84ski_(1526%E2%80%931592)" title="Rafał Leszczyński (1526–1592)">Rafał Leszczyński</a> and Tarnowski in 1552.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012281-485">[426]</a> In 1556, Łaski organised a synod in the hope of reuniting all non-Lutheran Protestants but failed. At the meeting, <a href="/wiki/Piotr_of_Goni%C4%85dz" title="Piotr of Goniądz">Piotr of Goniądz</a> (d. 1573) openly attacked infant baptism and the doctrine of Trinity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003257-487">[428]</a> The antitrinitarian <a href="/wiki/Polish_Brethren" title="Polish Brethren">Polish Brethren</a> established their own church, known as Minor Church in contrast with the Reformed Major Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmitessa2006195-488">[429]</a> From 1565, Polish nobles could no more be persecuted on religious grounds which allowed them to freely choose between competing theologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012281-485">[426]</a> By this time, around one-fifth of the nobility had converted to the Reformed faith, and most secular members of the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate</a> were Protestant. Relationship between Poland and Lithuania was redefined by the 1569 <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> which created the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003330–331-489">[430]</a> After Sigismund Augustus died, the Sejm passed the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a> prescribing that only candidates who promised to protect religious freedom could be elected king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012281-485">[426]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counter-Reformation_and_regional_conflicts">Counter-Reformation and regional conflicts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Counter-Reformation and regional conflicts">edit</a>]</div> The continuous expansion of Protestantism stopped in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg. The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria" title="Duchy of Bavaria">Bavarian</a> duke <a href="/wiki/Albert_V,_Duke_of_Bavaria" title="Albert V, Duke of Bavaria">Albert V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1550–1579) took the lead of recatholicisation. He overcame the opposition of Evangelical nobles, and exiled all clerics who refused to take the Tridentine oath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013392,_394-490">[431]</a> With Albert's support, the Jesuits opened a college in <a href="/wiki/Ingolstadt" title="Ingolstadt">Ingolstadt</a> that accepted Evangelical and Hussite students.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Malley2006231-491">[432]</a> Emperor Ferdinand I's eldest son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1564–1576) pursued a tolerant religious policy but his brothers, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Archduke_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria">Ferdinand II of the Tyrol</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1564–1595) and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II,_Archduke_of_Austria" title="Charles II, Archduke of Austria">Charles II of Inner Austria</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1564–1590) were determined to subdue their Protestant subjects. After the predominantly Evangelical Estates of Inner Austria who controlled taxation extracted concessions from Charles II, he promoted Catholicism by appointing Catholics to state offices even if he needed to hire Bavarian and Tyrolian nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003436-492">[433]</a> Interreligious conflicts led to wars in many regions of Central Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a> broke out after <a href="/wiki/Gebhard_Truchsess_von_Waldburg" title="Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg">Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg</a>, Archbishop-elector of Cologne (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1577–1583), abandoned Catholicism and married his Protestant lover <a href="/wiki/Agnes_von_Mansfeld-Eisleben" title="Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben">Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben</a> (d. 1637) in 1582. The war ended with the victory of his Catholic opponent <a href="/wiki/Ernest_of_Bavaria" title="Ernest of Bavaria">Ernest</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1583–1612), a younger son of Albert V.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013402–403-493">[434]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_Bishops%27_War" title="Strasbourg Bishops' War">Strasbourg Bishops' War</a> began when both the Catholic and Protestant canons of the <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_Cathedral" title="Strasbourg Cathedral">Strasbourg Cathedral</a> elected their own candidate to the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Strasbourg" title="Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg">see of Strasbourg</a> in 1592. At the end, the Protestant candidate <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_von_Brandenburg" title="Johann Georg von Brandenburg">Johann Georg von Brandenburg</a> (d. 1624) renounced in favor of his opponent <a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine_(bishop_of_Metz_and_Strasbourg)" title="Charles of Lorraine (bishop of Metz and Strasbourg)">Charles of Lorraine</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1592–1607).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013412–413-494">[435]</a> Charles II's son and successor <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1590–1637) set up "reformation commissions"—a group of clerics and state officials led by a senior clergyman—to visit the Inner Austrian parishes between 1598 and 1601. The commissioners seized and destroyed Evangelical churches, burned Protestant books and expelled Evangelical priests, often with the support of the local (mainly <a href="/wiki/Slovenians" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovenians">Slovenian</a>) peasantry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003437-495">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013430-496">[437]</a> His cousin <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Rudolf II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1576–1612) introduced anti-Protestant measures in Royal Hungary and Transylvania, <a href="/wiki/Bocskai_uprising" title="Bocskai uprising">provoking a rebellion</a>. The Ottomans supported the rebels whose leader, the Reformed aristocrat <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bocskai" title="Stephen Bocskai">Stephen Bocskai</a> was proclaimed prince of Transylvania (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1605–1606). Rudolph appointed his brother <a href="/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor">Matthias</a> to conduct negotiations with Bocskai, and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vienna_(1606)" title="Treaty of Vienna (1606)">peace treaty</a> sanctioned the freedom of the Evangelical and Reformed Churches in Royal Hungary in 1606.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013434–435-497">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003444-498">[439]</a> Rudolph was forced to cede Hungary, Austria and Moravia to Matthias in 1608, and to <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Majesty" title="Letter of Majesty">confirm religious freedom</a> in Bohemia in 1609.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaley2013436-499">[440]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reformation_outside_Germany">Reformation outside Germany</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Reformation outside Germany">edit</a>]</div> The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nordic_countries">Nordic countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Nordic countries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark-Norway_and_Holstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein">Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland#The_Reformation" title="Religion in Iceland">Religion in Iceland § The Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway#From_Reformation_to_1964" title="Religion in Norway">Religion in Norway § From Reformation to 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden#Lutheran_Reformation" title="Religion in Sweden">Religion in Sweden § Lutheran Reformation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Reformation in Sweden</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henrik_sormi.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Henrik_sormi.JPG/220px-Henrik_sormi.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Henrik_sormi.JPG/330px-Henrik_sormi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Henrik_sormi.JPG/440px-Henrik_sormi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>The seal of the <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Turku" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Turku">Diocese of Turku</a> (Finland) during the 16th and 17th centuries featured the finger of St Henry. The post-Reformation diocese included the relic of a pre-Reformation saint in its seal.</figcaption></figure> All of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iceland">Iceland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Iceland">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Reformation" title="Icelandic Reformation">Icelandic Reformation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a>'s influence had already reached <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> before King Christian's decree. The <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> fished near Iceland's coast, and the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church in <a href="/wiki/Hafnarfj%C3%B6r%C3%B0ur" title="Hafnarfjörður">Hafnarfjörður</a> as early as 1533. Through German trade connections, many young <a href="/wiki/Icelanders" title="Icelanders">Icelanders</a> studied in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHjálmarsson199369-500">[441]</a> In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gmundur" title="Ögmundur">Ögmundur</a> and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHjálmarsson199370-501">[442]</a> In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Klaus_von_Mervitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Klaus von Mervitz (page does not exist)">Klaus von Mervitz</a>, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHjálmarsson199370-501">[442]</a> Von Mervitz seized a monastery in <a href="/wiki/Vi%C3%B0ey" title="Viðey">Viðey</a> with the help of his sheriff, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dietrich_of_Minden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dietrich of Minden (page does not exist)">Dietrich of Minden</a>, and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by Ögmundur. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Great Britain">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England">England</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: England">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a> is a complex historical series of events and reversals, whose nature and effect has been debated by historians.<a href="#cite_note-502">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-peeps-503">[444]</a>: 23  The results of the reformation included an <a href="/wiki/Established_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Established church">established church</a> with a "Prayer Book consciously aligned with Swiss theology,...(but) the most elaborate liturgy of any Protestant Church in Europe" practiced in Cathedrals, with plain, sermon-centred services in parish churches,<a href="#cite_note-504">[445]</a>: 30  politically imposed by a "literate Protestant elite".<a href="#cite_note-peeps-503">[444]</a>: 28  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="English_North_America">English North America</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: English North America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_in_North_America" title="History of the Puritans in North America">History of the Puritans in North America</a></div> The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">colony of Massachusetts</a> in New England, which later became one of the original United States. These Puritan separatists were also known as "the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Fathers">Pilgrims</a>". After establishing a colony at <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a> (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>. Civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to dissenters to enforce conformity, including the <a href="/wiki/Branding_iron" title="Branding iron">branding iron</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Whipping_post" class="mw-redirect" title="Whipping post">whipping post</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bilboes" title="Bilboes">bilboes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hangman's noose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-505">[446]</a> Notable individuals persecuted by the Puritans include <a href="/wiki/Anne_Hutchinson" title="Anne Hutchinson">Anne Hutchinson</a> who was banished to Rhode Island during the <a href="/wiki/Antinomian_Controversy" title="Antinomian Controversy">Antinomian Controversy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Dyer" title="Mary Dyer">Mary Dyer</a> who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony.<a href="#cite_note-PER-506">[447]</a> Dyer was one of the four executed Quakers known as the <a href="/wiki/Boston_martyrs" title="Boston martyrs">Boston martyrs</a>. Executions ceased in 1661 when <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">King Charles II</a> explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.<a href="#cite_note-CHLS-507">[448]</a> In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-508">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-509">[450]</a> Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offence carried a death penalty.<a href="#cite_note-510">[451]</a> The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-511">[452]</a> The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Andros" title="Edmund Andros">Edmund Andros</a>, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-511">[452]</a> Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.<a href="#cite_note-512">[453]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wales">Wales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Wales">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales#Early_modern_period" title="History of Wales">History of Wales § Early modern period</a></div> Bishop <a href="/wiki/Richard_Davies_(bishop)" title="Richard Davies (bishop)">Richard Davies</a> and dissident Protestant cleric <a href="/wiki/John_Penry" title="John Penry">John Penry</a> introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh language</a>. The translation had a significant impact upon the Welsh population and helped to firmly establish Protestantism among the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-513">[454]</a> The Welsh Protestants used the model of the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Synod of Dort</a> of 1618–1619. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' <a href="/wiki/Calvinistic_Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinistic Methodist">Calvinistic Methodist</a> movement. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-514">[455]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Scotland">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Knox_preaching.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/220px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/330px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/440px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="1837" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> was a leading figure in the Scottish Reformation</figcaption></figure> The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along <a href="/wiki/Reformed_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed theology">reformed</a> lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation. The <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation_Parliament" title="Scottish Reformation Parliament">Reformation Parliament</a> of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the <a href="/wiki/Papal_Jurisdiction_Act_1560" title="Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560">Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560</a>, forbade the celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Mass</a> and approved a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Confession_of_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession of Faith">Confession of Faith</a>. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Guise" title="Mary of Guise">Mary of Guise</a>, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> (then also <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">Queen</a> of France). Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a> (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Covenanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenanter">Covenanters</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Episcopalianism</a>. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a>, which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Episcopalian minority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-515">[456]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_M%C3%A9rindol" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre of Mérindol">Massacre of Mérindol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_of_France" title="Reformed Church of France">Reformed Church of France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></div> Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a> (1685), which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France, leading some Huguenots to live as <a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-516">[457]</a> In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_I,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg">Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg</a> declared the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Potsdam" title="Edict of Potsdam">Edict of Potsdam</a> (October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees and tax-free status to them for ten years. In the late 17th century, 150,000–200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies.<a href="#cite_note-517">[458]</a> A significant community in France remained in the <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9vennes" title="Cévennes">Cévennes</a> region. A separate Protestant community, of the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> faith, existed in the newly conquered province of <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a>, its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Spain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Phillip_II_and_the_wars_of_religion" title="History of Spain">History of Spain § Phillip II and the wars of religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Spain" title="Protestantism in Spain">Protestantism in Spain</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:217px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg/128px-Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg/192px-Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg/256px-Francisco_de_Enzinas-Nuevo_Testamento.001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1085" data-file-height="1845" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The New Testament translated by Francisco de Enzinas into the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish language</a> (Castilian), published in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> (1543)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:158px;max-width:158px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:217px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Leizarraga_biblia_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Leizarraga_biblia_01.png/156px-Leizarraga_biblia_01.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Leizarraga_biblia_01.png/234px-Leizarraga_biblia_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Leizarraga_biblia_01.png 2x" data-file-width="295" data-file-height="412" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The New Testament translated by <a href="/wiki/Joanes_Leizarraga" title="Joanes Leizarraga">Joanes Leizarraga</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque language</a> (1571) on the orders of Navarre's Calvinist queen, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeanne III of Navarre">Jeanne III of Navarre</a></div></div></div></div></div> In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> in 1478. The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly persecuting any new movement that the leaders of the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettegree2000304-518">[459]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Charles_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Charles V">Charles V</a> did not wish to see Spain or the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in light of continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Catholic Church reform itself from within. This led to a <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> in Spain in the 1530s. During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. As early as 1521, the Pope had written a letter to the Spanish monarchy warning against allowing the unrest in Northern Europe to be replicated in Spain. Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg/220px-Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg/330px-Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg/440px-Contemporary_illustration_of_the_Auto-da-fe_held_at_Validolid_Spain_21-05-1559..jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">auto-da-fé</a> of <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, in which fourteen Protestants were burned at the stake for their faith, on 21 May 1559</figcaption></figure> Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a> adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep1986299-519">[460]</a> Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>. Notable reformers included Juan Gil and Juan Pérez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Enzinas" title="Francisco de Enzinas">Francisco de Enzinas</a> to translate the Greek <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julián Hernández, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>, conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. On May 21, 1559, sixteen Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake; 14 were strangled before being burnt, while two were burnt alive. In October another 30 were executed. Spanish Protestants who were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe, such as <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where some of them embraced <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> teachings. Those who fled to England were given support by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a>, although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> monarchs, including <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a> and his mother, <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_III_of_Navarre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeanne III of Navarre">Jeanne III of Navarre</a>, a devout Calvinist. Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some <a href="/wiki/Basques" title="Basques">Basques</a> through the translation of the Bible into the <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque language</a> by <a href="/wiki/Joanes_Leizarraga" title="Joanes Leizarraga">Joanes Leizarraga</a>. As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> into Basque<a href="#cite_note-520">[note 60]</a> and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9arnese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Béarnese language">Béarnese</a> for the benefit of her subjects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Italy" title="Reformation in Italy">Reformation in Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Girolamo Savonarola</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldenser-Wappen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Waldenser-Wappen.jpg/170px-Waldenser-Wappen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Waldenser-Wappen.jpg/255px-Waldenser-Wappen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Waldenser-Wappen.jpg/340px-Waldenser-Wappen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>Waldensian symbol Lux lucet in tenebris ("Light glows in the darkness")</figcaption></figure> Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out and suppressing heresy, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed, or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-McCulloch401-521">[461]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirpo2004169_ff-522">[462]</a> Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Biandrata" title="Giorgio Biandrata">Giorgio Biandrata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_Ochino" title="Bernardino Ochino">Bernardino Ochino</a>, Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Sozzini" title="Fausto Sozzini">Fausto Sozzini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Stancaro" title="Francesco Stancaro">Francesco Stancaro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Valentino_Gentile" title="Giovanni Valentino Gentile">Giovanni Valentino Gentile</a>), who propagated <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> there and were chief instigators of the movement of <a href="/wiki/Polish_Brethren" title="Polish Brethren">Polish Brethren</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Church457-523">[463]</a> Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including <a href="/wiki/Peter_Vermigli" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Vermigli">Peter Vermigli</a>. In 1532, the <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a>, who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology. The <a href="/wiki/Waldensian_Evangelical_Church" title="Waldensian Evangelical Church">Waldensian Church</a> survived in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Alps" title="Western Alps">Western Alps</a> through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron1984-524">[464]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slovenia">Slovenia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Slovenia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia#Protestantism" title="Religion in Slovenia">Religion in Slovenia § Protestantism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primoz-Trubar_(rotated).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg/170px-Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg/255px-Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg/340px-Primoz-Trubar_%28rotated%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2624" data-file-height="3936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Primo%C5%BE_Trubar" title="Primož Trubar">Primož Trubar</a>, a Lutheran reformer in Slovenia</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Primo%C5%BE_Trubar" title="Primož Trubar">Primož Trubar</a> is notable for consolidating the <a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene language</a> and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality.<a href="#cite_note-Voglar_I-525">[465]</a> He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the <a href="/wiki/Slovene_Lands" title="Slovene Lands">Slovene Lands</a>, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, <a href="/wiki/Catechismus" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechismus">Catechismus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abecedarium_(Trubar)" title="Abecedarium (Trubar)">Abecedarium</a>, were written by Trubar.<a href="#cite_note-526">[466]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Greece">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece_(1453%E2%80%931821)" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece (1453–1821)">Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece (1453–1821)</a></div> The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Lucaris" title="Cyril Lucaris">Cyril Lucaris</a> in 1629 with the publishing of the Confessio (Calvinistic doctrine) in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">historical rivalry</a> and mistrust between the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox</a> and the Catholic Churches along with their concerns of <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> to the Greek populace. He subsequently sponsored <a href="/wiki/Maximos_of_Gallipoli" title="Maximos of Gallipoli">Maximos of Gallipoli</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Greek" title="Bible translations into Greek">translation of the New Testament</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Greek language">Modern Greek language</a> and it was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Ia%C8%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="Synod of Iași">Synod of Iași</a> (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Dositheos_II_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem">Dositheos</a>, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines. In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Christos_Yannaras" title="Christos Yannaras">Christos Yannaras</a> told <a href="/w/index.php?title=Norman_Russell_(theologian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norman Russell (theologian) (page does not exist)">Norman Russell</a> that although he had participated in the <a href="/wiki/Zo%C3%AB_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoë movement">Zoë movement</a>, he had come to regard it as <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-527">[467]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spread_2">Spread</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Spread">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/220px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/330px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/440px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 2x" data-file-width="4005" data-file-height="3964" /></a><figcaption>Religious fragmentation in Central Europe at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618).</figcaption></figure> The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. The greatest geographical extent of Protestantism occurred at some point between 1545 and 1620. In 1620, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a> defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Majesty" title="Letter of Majesty">Letter of Majesty</a> upheld. The <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> began in 1618 and brought a drastic territorial and demographic decline when the House of Habsburg introduced counter-reformational measures throughout their vast possessions in Central Europe. Although the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, the French <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars of the Counter-Reformation</a> continued, as well as the expulsion of Protestants in Austria. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Protestant_Reformation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/220px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/330px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/440px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Approximation of the Reformation at its peak, superimposed on modern European borders.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Counterreformation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/220px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/330px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/440px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Approximations of the Reformation & the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> at the commonly-used end year of 1648, superimposed on modern European borders.</figcaption></figure> According to a 2020 study in the American Sociological Review, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press.<a href="#cite_note-528">[468]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conclusion_and_legacy">Conclusion and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Conclusion and legacy">edit</a>]</div> There is no universal agreement on the exact or even the approximate date the Reformation ended. Various interpretations emphasise different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended.<a href="#cite_note-529">[469]</a> However, there are a few popular interpretations. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, allowing rulers to choose either <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> or Catholicism as the official <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">confession</a> of their state. It could be considered to end with the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Creed#Christian_confessions_of_faith" title="Creed">confessions of faith</a>. Other suggested ending years relate to the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> or the 1648 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>. From one Catholic perspective, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> ended the Counter-Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-530">[470]</a> <ul><li>In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Period, also termed the <a href="/wiki/Template:17th-century_scholasticism" title="Template:17th-century scholasticism">Scholastic Period</a>, succeeded the Reformation with the 1545–63 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>, the 1562 Anglican <a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">Thirty-nine Articles</a>, the 1580 <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Creed#Christian_confessions_of_faith" title="Creed">confessions of faith</a>. The Orthodox Era ended with the development of both <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> might be considered to be the event that ended the Reformation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirty_Years'_War:_1618–1648">Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/310px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/465px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg/620px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4649" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Westphalia">Treaty of Westphalia</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> to be freely exercised, reducing the need for <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Calvinism" title="Crypto-Calvinism">Crypto-Calvinism</a></figcaption></figure> The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–48) devastated much of <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_history_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern history of Germany">Germany</a>, killing between 25 and 40% of its population.<a href="#cite_note-531">[471]</a> The Catholic <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Crown of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovene_Lands" title="Slovene Lands">Slovene Lands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. Two main tenets of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: <ul><li>All parties would now recognise the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of <a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a>).</li> <li>Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.</li></ul> The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X" title="Pope Innocent X">Pope Innocent X</a> declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his apostolic brief Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECross2005-532">[472]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_the_Reformation">Consequences of the Reformation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Consequences of the Reformation">edit</a>]</div> Today, Protestantism—broadly defined—constitutes the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">second-largest form</a> of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 1.17 billion adherents worldwide or about 44% of all Christians.<a href="#cite_note-pewforum1-533">[473]</a><a href="#cite_note-gordonconwell.edu-534">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-536">[note 61]</a> <a href="#cite_note-537">[note 62]</a> In nations that remained Catholic, or reverted to it, remaining Protestants sometimes lived as <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestantism" title="Crypto-Protestantism">crypto-Protestants</a>, also called <a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a>, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly.<a href="#cite_note-538">[476]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestantism" title="Crypto-Protestantism">crypto-Protestants</a> have been identified as late as the 19th century after immigrating to Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-Martínez_Fernández-539">[477]</a> In Britain from the Elizabethan period, dissenters called <a href="/wiki/Recusancy" title="Recusancy">Recusants</a> included both Catholic families and <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">English Dissenters</a> (Quakers, Ranters, Diggers, Grindletonians, etc.): almost the entire Irish population were recusants from the imposed Protestant Church of Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-540">[478]</a> Travel and migration between countries became more difficult. "In 1500, a Christian could travel from one end of Europe to another without fear of persecution; by 1600, every form of Christianity was illegal somewhere in Europe."<a href="#cite_note-541">[479]</a> Two prolonged series of conflicts, the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598) and the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648) resulted in between <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion#Death_toll" title="European wars of religion">six and sixteen million deaths</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radical_Reformation">Radical Reformation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Radical Reformation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></div> In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution.<a href="#cite_note-horsch-542">[480]</a> Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zwinglian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwinglian">Zwinglian</a> churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-543">[481]</a> Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some "repeating patterns" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Schleitheim_Confession" title="Schleitheim Confession">Schleitheim Confession (1527)</a> and include <a href="/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism" title="Believer's baptism">believers' (or adult) baptism</a>, memorial view of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Lord's Supper</a>, belief that Scripture is the final authority on matters of faith and practice, emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a>, interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a <a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">two-kingdom theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonresistance" title="Nonresistance">nonresistance</a>, communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, "yieldedness" (Gelassenheit) to one's community and to God, the <a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">ban</a> (i.e., shunning), salvation through divinization (Vergöttung) and ethical living, and discipleship (Nachfolge Christi).<a href="#cite_note-544">[482]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literacy">Literacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Literacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lutherbibel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lutherbibel.jpg/220px-Lutherbibel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lutherbibel.jpg/330px-Lutherbibel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lutherbibel.jpg/440px-Lutherbibel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Modern_High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern High German">Modern High German</a> translation of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a> by the Protestant reformer <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> (1534).<a href="#cite_note-Lobenstein-Reichmann-545">[483]</a> The widespread popularity of the <a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible translated into High German by Luther</a> helped establish modern Standard High German.<a href="#cite_note-Lobenstein-Reichmann-545">[483]</a></figcaption></figure> The Protestant Reformation was a triumph of <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and the new <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-546">[484]</a><a href="#cite_note-548">[note 63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rubin270-217">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-549">[486]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther's translation of the Bible into High German</a> (the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> was published in 1522; the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> was published in parts and completed in 1534) was also decisive for the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a> and its evolution from <a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a> to Modern Standard German.<a href="#cite_note-Lobenstein-Reichmann-545">[483]</a> Luther's translation of the Bible promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area.<a href="#cite_note-550">[487]</a> The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Culture_and_literacy" title="History of Germany">spread of literacy in early modern Germany</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lobenstein-Reichmann-545">[483]</a> and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards1994-551">[488]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-553">[note 64]</a> By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Evangelization_of_Peoples" title="Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples">Congregatio de Propaganda Fide</a> (Congregation for Propagating the Faith) from the Counter-Reformation. Reform writers used existing styles, cliches and stereotypes which they adapted as needed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards1994-551">[488]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his <a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Small_Catechism" title="Luther's Small Catechism">Smaller Catechism</a> for parents teaching their children, and his <a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Large_Catechism" title="Luther's Large Catechism">Larger Catechism</a>, for pastors. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a> (1472–1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeimer2004387–405-554">[490]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outcomes">Outcomes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Outcomes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup_reorganize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/40px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/60px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg/80px-Ambox_rewrite.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">layout guidelines</a>. Please help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit">editing the article</a> to make improvements to the overall structure. (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Protestants have developed <a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">their own culture</a>, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields.<a href="#cite_note-Karl_Heussi_1956_pp._317–319-555">[491]</a> The following outcomes of the Reformation regarding <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> formation, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant ethic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a>, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin2016-556">[492]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_capital_formation">Human capital formation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Human capital formation">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Higher literacy rates.<a href="#cite_note-Becker_531–596-557">[493]</a></li> <li>Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates.<a href="#cite_note-558">[494]</a></li> <li>Higher primary school enrollment.<a href="#cite_note-559">[495]</a></li> <li>Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts.<a href="#cite_note-560">[496]</a></li> <li>Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history.<a href="#cite_note-561">[497]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestant_ethic">Protestant ethic </h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Protestant ethic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></div> <ul><li>More hours worked.<a href="#cite_note-562">[498]</a></li> <li>Divergent stated attitudes about the absolute priority of work between Protestants and Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-563">[499]</a></li> <li>Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants.<a href="#cite_note-564">[500]</a></li> <li>Lower life satisfaction when unemployed.<a href="#cite_note-565">[501]</a></li> <li>Pro-market attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-566">[502]</a></li> <li>Higher relative income growth in Protestant cities compared to Catholic cities (correlated with larger growth in Protestant city size.)<a href="#cite_note-Becker_531–596-557">[493]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_development">Economic development</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Economic development">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg/170px-Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg/255px-Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg/340px-Katharina-v-Bora-1526.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Katharina_von_Bora" title="Katharina von Bora">Katharina von Bora</a> played a role in shaping social ethics during the Reformation.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers.<a href="#cite_note-Becker_531–596-557">[493]</a></li> <li>Growth of Protestant cities.<a href="#cite_note-567">[503]</a><a href="#cite_note-568">[504]</a></li> <li>Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states.<a href="#cite_note-569">[505]</a><a href="#cite_note-570">[506]</a></li> <li>Different social ethics facilitating impersonal trade.<a href="#cite_note-571">[507]</a></li> <li>Industrialization.<a href="#cite_note-572">[508]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Governance">Governance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Governance">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system.<a href="#cite_note-573">[509]</a><a href="#cite_note-574">[510]</a></li> <li>The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements.<a href="#cite_note-575">[511]</a></li> <li>The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition.<a href="#cite_note-576">[512]</a></li> <li>Enabling professional <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracies</a> to emerge in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-577">[513]</a></li> <li>Establishment of state churches.<a href="#cite_note-578">[514]</a></li> <li>Poor relief and social welfare regimes.<a href="#cite_note-579">[515]</a><a href="#cite_note-580">[516]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> noted that <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">doctrine of the two kingdoms</a> marked the beginning of the modern conception of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-581">[517]</a></li> <li>The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_magistrate" title="Lesser magistrate">lesser magistrate</a> contributed to <a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">resistance theory in the Early Modern period</a> and was employed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>.</li> <li>Reformers such as Calvin promoted <a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-582">[518]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-583">[519]</a> which governments such as the United States subsequently adopted.<a href="#cite_note-584">[520]</a><a href="#cite_note-585">[521]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_outcomes">Other outcomes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Other outcomes">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market.<a href="#cite_note-586">[522]</a></li> <li>Christopher J. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and Judaism to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.<a href="#cite_note-587">[523]</a></li> <li>In its decree on <a href="/wiki/Unitatis_redintegratio" title="Unitatis redintegratio">ecumenism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> of Catholic bishops declared that by contemporary dialogue that, while still holding views as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, between the churches "all are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ's will for the Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of renewal and reform" (Unitatis Redintegratio, 4).</li> <li>Beer production switched from using herbs to hops.<a href="#cite_note-588">[524]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">new social history</a> in the 1960s led to looking at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob1991215-589">[525]</a> For example, historian John Bossy characterized the Reformation as a period where Christianity was re-cast not as "a community sustained by ritual acts, but as a teaching enforced by institutional structures," for Catholics as well as Protestants;<a href="#cite_note-590">[note 65]</a><a href="#cite_note-591">[note 66]</a> and sin was re-cast from the <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a> —wrong because antisocial— to transgressions of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> —wrong as affronts to God. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music_and_art">Music and art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Music and art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Protestantism#Arts" title="Protestantism">Protestantism § Arts</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;"> Painting and sculpture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism#Northern_Mannerism,_politics_and_religion" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art#Reformation_era" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance#Art" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_art#Renaissance_and_Baroque_art" title="Swedish art">Swedish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_art#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="English art">English art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_master_print#The_North_after_Dürer" title="Old master print">Woodcuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">Beeldenstorm</a></li></ul> Building <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture#The_Reformation_and_its_influence_on_church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Influence on church architecture</a></li></ul> Literature <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature#Early_modern_era" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature#The_manuscript_tradition" title="Irish literature">Anglo-Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature#German_Renaissance_and_Reformation" title="German literature">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature#Reformation" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature#Emergence_of_vernacular_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature#1500-1650" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature#Beginning_of_Writing_and_Publishing_in_Romanian" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature#Reformation_era" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature#"Four_Hundred_Years_of_Darkness"" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature#Reformation_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature#Pre-Nineteenth_century" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature#Middle_Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_Low_Countries#In_folk_tales" title="Folklore of the Low Countries">Folklore of the Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond" title="Renaissance humanism">16th century Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_poetry" title="16th century in poetry">16th century in poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th century in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li></ul> Musical forms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe#Reformation" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_music_of_the_British_Isles#Reformation" title="Early music of the British Isles">Music of the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn_tune#The_Reformation" title="Hymn tune">Hymn tune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_chorale" title="Lutheran chorale">Lutheran chorale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_hymn" title="Lutheran hymn">Lutheran hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music#History" title="Anglican church music">Anglican church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_psalmody" title="Exclusive psalmody">Exclusive psalmody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_chant" title="Anglican chant">Anglican chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">Homophony</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Polyphony#European_polyphony" title="Polyphony">Polyphony</a></li></ul> Liturgies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_worship#General_principles_and_historical_overview" title="Reformed worship">Reformed worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship#John_Calvin's_Liturgy" title="Regulative principle of worship">Calvin's liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_missae" title="Formula missae">Formula missae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Messe" title="Deutsche Messe">Deutsche Messe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(music)#Renaissance" title="Mass (music)">Lutheran and Anglican Mass</a> in music</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_mass" title="Cyclic mass">Cyclic mass</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Paraphrase_mass" title="Paraphrase mass">Paraphrase mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Tridentine_Mass" title="Pre-Tridentine Mass">Roman</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Use_of_Sarum" title="Use of Sarum">Sarum</a> Rites</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_(musical_form)" title="Sequence (musical form)">Sequence</a> (retained by Lutherans, mostly banned by Trent)</li></ul> Hymnals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Lutheran_hymnal" title="First Lutheran hymnal">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Enchiridion" title="Erfurt Enchiridion">Second</a> Lutheran hymnals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyn_geystlich_Gesangk_Buchleyn" title="Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn">First Wittenberg hymnal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swenske_songer_eller_wisor_1536" title="Swenske songer eller wisor 1536">Swenske songer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomiss%C3%B8n%27s_hymnal" title="Thomissøn's hymnal">Thomissøn's hymnal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souterliedekens" title="Souterliedekens">Souterliedekens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Order" title="Book of Common Order">Book of Common Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevan_Psalter" title="Genevan Psalter">Genevan Psalter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnbooks_of_the_Church_of_Scotland#Scottish_Psalter_(1564)" title="Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland">Scottish Psalter</a></li></ul> Secular music <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Madrigal_School" title="English Madrigal School">English Madrigal School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensleeves" title="Greensleeves">Greensleeves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrigal#Continental_Europe" title="Madrigal">German madrigals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_traditional_music#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravian traditional music">Moravian traditional music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meistersinger" title="Meistersinger">Meistersinger</a></li></ul> </div> Partly due to Martin Luther's love for music, music became important in Lutheranism. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant majority countries. Songs such as the Lutheran hymns or the Calvinist Psalter became tools for the spread of Protestant ideas and beliefs, as well as identity flags. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertoglio2017-592">[526]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Catholic Church and ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic-Protestant_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic-Protestant relations">Catholic-Protestant relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms" title="Concordat of Worms">Concordat of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessionalization" title="Confessionalization">Confessionalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_City_of_the_Reformation" title="European City of the Reformation">European City of the Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Historiography of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_Reformers" title="List of Protestant Reformers">List of Protestant Reformers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Germany" title="Protestantism in Germany">Protestantism in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence_among_Christians" title="Sectarian violence among Christians">Sectarian violence among Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Protestant_Reformation" title="Women in the Protestant Reformation">Women in the Protestant Reformation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Bossy characterized late-medieval parish Christianity as a "community of believers whose religious ideal was peace and mutual love." <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDuffy2016" class="citation web cs1">Duffy, Eamon (1 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.firstthings.com/article/2016/11/the-end-of-christendom">"The End of Christendom"</a>. First Things. Retrieved 27 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=First+Things&rft.atitle=The+End+of+Christendom&rft.date=2016-11-01&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Eamon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstthings.com%2Farticle%2F2016%2F11%2Fthe-end-of-christendom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Enno_van_Gelder" title="Hendrik Enno van Gelder">Hendrik Enno van Gelder</a> suggested that the Reformations of Luther and Calvin were minor affairs compared to the Reformation of Erasmus and the humanists, "which propelled Christianity further than (the others) could do, away from medieval Catholicism and towards the modern world." Historians <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper" title="Hugh Trevor-Roper">Hugh Trevor-Roper</a> also wrote of a "third church".<a href="#cite_note-mansfield-8">[7]</a>: 149  </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> "This ‘rhetoric of reform’ crops up in a variety of sources all of which originated in the royal court of Charlemagne and his successors. Subsequently, words such as corrigere, emendare, renovare, reformare and their synonyms, readily became the instruments for achieving unity, and unity gave the Christian empire of Charlemagne pax, caritas and concordia."<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a>: 158  </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> As Wittenberg academics regularly published their disputation papers by posting it to the door of the castle church, the story is quite probable even if it was first mentioned years after the events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012102-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202252-22">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> According to historian Konrad Eisenbichler, "After the State and the Church, the most well-organised membership system of medieval and early modern Europe was the confraternity—an association of lay persons who gathered regularly to pray and carry out a charitable activity. In cities, towns, and villages it would have been difficult for someone not to be a member of a confraternity, a benefactor of a confraternity’s charitable work, or, at the very least, not to be aware of a confraternity’s presence in the community."<a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Saints were often supposed to assist those who faithfully <a href="/wiki/Supplication" title="Supplication">supplicated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veneration" title="Veneration">venerated</a> them. There were occurrences where disappointed farmers who thought that an agricultural saint had unjustly failed to assist the weather or harvest dragged down his or her statue or spattered it with mud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013196–197-43">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> A notable example was the Dominican nun <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a> (d. 1380) whose revelations convinced Pope Gregory XI to return his seat from Avignon to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200332-51">[45]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Though in medieval High Masses in at least France, Germany and England, the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Tridentine_Mass#Vernacular_and_laity_in_the_medieval_and_Reformation_eras" title="Pre-Tridentine Mass">Prône</a>, "a vernacular para-liturgy within the Latin whole" (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newliturgicalmovement.org/2020/09/bidding-prayers-from-medieval.html">Bidding Prayers from Medieval Regensburg</a>) became common. (See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100349423">"prone"</a>. Oxford Reference.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=prone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100349423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> In some <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> dioceses, <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> was used as liturgical language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200353-55">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Except for the common prayers, see <a href="/wiki/Catechesis#Medieval" title="Catechesis">Medieval Catechesis</a>. However, Historian <a href="/wiki/Alec_Ryrie" title="Alec Ryrie">Alec Ryrie</a> notes of pre-Reformation Tudor England that the laity "knew what it (the Latin) signified." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyrie2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alec_Ryrie" title="Alec Ryrie">Ryrie, Alec</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ivniDQAAQBAJ">The Age of Reformation: The Tudor and Stewart Realms, 1485–1603</a>. Religion, Politics and Society in Britain (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27214-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27214-6"><bdi>978-1-315-27214-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reformation%3A+The+Tudor+and+Stewart+Realms%2C+1485%E2%80%931603&rft.series=Religion%2C+Politics+and+Society+in+Britain&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-315-27214-6&rft.aulast=Ryrie&rft.aufirst=Alec&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DivniDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> For instance, Catholic commentators read the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Moses" title="Law of Moses">Law of Moses</a> in a symbolic or mystical sense thinking that the Jewish ceremonies and laws were irrelevant for Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200329-58">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Biel employed the axiom <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Facienti quod in se est, Deus non denegat gratiam. 'God does not refuse his grace to the one who does what is in him' <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheck2013" class="citation journal cs1">Scheck, Thomas P. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43855981">"Bishop John Fisher's Response To Martin Luther"</a>. Franciscan Studies. 71: 463–509. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-5459">0080-5459</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43855981">43855981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Franciscan+Studies&rft.atitle=Bishop+John+Fisher%27s+Response+To+Martin+Luther&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=463-509&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43855981%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0080-5459&rft.aulast=Scheck&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43855981&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> The medieval Church operated its own legal system and Roman-law-derived <a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_the_Catholic_Church#Jus_Novum" title="Legal history of the Catholic Church">laws and procedures</a> in parallel with the local secular state's legal system: bishops had courts, officers, guards, prisons, etc. These <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">ecclesiastical courts</a> protected priests and religious in various ways from the reach of the distrusted local secular courts and laws, or dealt with laity on issues relating to sacraments, notably marriage and divorce. As well, the Church claimed, but was not always allowed, jurisdiction "over any dispute that arose because one person allegedly wronged another, jurisdiction to protect the poor and unbefriended, and jurisdiction to compensate for the failure of the civil authorities to do justice,[...]and over hard and doubtful cases."<a href="#cite_note-67">[55]</a> On many issues, appeals could be made to the Pope. In England, a parallel parliament for the clergy even arose, largely to keep their taxes independent, but distinct from the citizens' Parliament: the <a href="/wiki/Convocations_of_Canterbury_and_York" title="Convocations of Canterbury and York">Convocations of Canterbury and York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[56]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Examples of exceptionally influential prelates include the Spanish cardinal <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Cisneros" title="Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros">Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros</a> (d. 1517), and the German archbishop <a href="/wiki/Matth%C3%A4us_Lang_von_Wellenburg" title="Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg">Matthäus Lang</a> (d. 1540).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201229-73">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> The archbishops were also the heads of <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province" title="Ecclesiastical province">ecclesiastical provinces</a> that included several dioceses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200333-71">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> For instance, religious orders were regularly exempted of the authority of the bishops, and laypeople could be released of the obligation of <a href="/wiki/Fasting_and_abstinence_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church">fasting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200339-76">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Examples include the 1447 <a href="/wiki/Princes%27_Concordat" title="Princes' Concordat">Princes' Concordat</a> that established the German <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">prince-electors</a>' control of appointments to benefices in their principalities, and the 1516 <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Bologna" title="Concordat of Bologna">Concordat of Bologna</a> that confirmed the French kings' claim to nominate candidates to most major French church offices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201259-93">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon202213-94">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> The baptism of <a href="/wiki/Nzinga_a_Nkuwu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nzinga a Nkuwu">Nzinga a Nkuwu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">King of Kongo</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1470–1509) in 1491 is the earliest example. By the end of the rule of his son <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Alfonso I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1509–1543), about 2 million people received baptism in Kongo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitchfield2022198-101">[84]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> A good example is the Benedictine congregation that began with the reform of monastic life at the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Santa_Giustina" title="Abbey of Santa Giustina">Abbey of Santa Giustina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a> under the auspices of the Venetian nobleman <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Barbo" title="Ludovico Barbo">Ludovico Barbo</a> (d. 1443). By 1505, the congregation included nearly 50 abbeys, and had an effect on the reform of further monasteries, such as <a href="/wiki/Fontevraud_Abbey" title="Fontevraud Abbey">Fontevraud Abbey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marmoutier_Abbey,_Tours" title="Marmoutier Abbey, Tours">Marmoutier Abbey</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201247–48-105">[87]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> The price of the books decreased by about 85 per cent after printing machines started to work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20146-114">[95]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> The Vulgate text of <a href="/wiki/Exodus_34" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus 34">Exodus 34</a> is a well known case of Jerome's mistranslations: the Hebrew text writes of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>'s shining face when narrating the revelation of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> whereas Jerome describes Moses as wearing a pair of horns as he mistook a Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function word</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200379-121">[101]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> For instance, Erasmus's translations did not support the traditional <a href="/wiki/Proof_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Proof text">proof text</a> for the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Infused_righteousness" title="Infused righteousness">infused grace</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[102]</a> and the treasury of merit, by choosing the adjective gratiosa ('gracious') instead of the traditional gratia plena ('full of grace') to address the Virgin Mary in the Latin text of the <a href="/wiki/Hail_Mary" title="Hail Mary">Hail Mary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch200396-124">[103]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> One of the enthusiasts, <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Lausanne" title="Henry of Lausanne">Henry of Lausanne</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1148) persuaded French prostitutes to repent their sins, but opposed confessions, and attacked the wealth of the clergy. Although his calls for a church reform attracted many commoners, his movement quickly disintegrated when he died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton2003130-127">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> (d. 1308) stated that "theology does not concern anything except what is contained in Scripture, and what may be drawn from this," though this does not equate theology and Bibe study.<a href="#cite_note-139">[116]</a> Theologians associated with the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian Order</a> such as Gregory of Rimini rarely cited other sources of faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath2004138,_144–145-140">[117]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> A member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenzollern" title="House of Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern dynasty</a>, Albert ruled the <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishopric of Mainz">Archbishoprics of Mainz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Magdeburg" title="Archbishopric of Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bishopric_of_Halberstadt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishopric of Halberstadt">Bishopric of Halberstadt</a> simultaneously. He had borrowed money from Fugger to pay the fees to the Roman Curia for his appointment to the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">see</a> of Mainz, and his share in the revenues from the sale of indulgences was expected to allow him to repay the loan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003117-143">[119]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Frederick rebuilt the <a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Wittenberg" title="All Saints' Church, Wittenberg">castle church at Wittenberg</a> to store his collection of nearly 20,000 relics. This collection was thought to include a straw from the stable of the <a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a>, the corpse of a <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">holy innocent</a>, and drops from the Virgin's <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201215-147">[122]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> "Luther himself had said that he found his new insight "auff diser cloaca auff dem thurm" (on or over the toilet on the tower); however some historians dispute the account.<a href="#cite_note-auto-159">[133]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Luther's friendship with Frederick's secretary <a href="/wiki/George_Spalatin" title="George Spalatin">George Spalatin</a> (d. 1545) secured him Frederick's favour, and Leo X wanted to influence the forthcoming <a href="/wiki/Imperial_election" title="Imperial election">imperial election</a> with Frederick's assistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202258-157">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Historian Volker Leppin writes "anti-Catholicism does not lie at the root of Reformation, even if later on it obviously became part of the whole Reformation framework," but notes "the anti-Catholic tendency of Luther research".<a href="#cite_note-auto-159">[133]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> For instance, he stated that "A Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none. A Christian is a perfectly dutiful servant of all, subject to all."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003126–127-175">[146]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Between 1517 and 1520, Luther completed 30 treatises, and more than 300,000 of their copies were sold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin20147-187">[157]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> According to an <a href="/wiki/Econometric_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Econometric analysis">econometric analysis</a> by the economist Jared Rubin, "the mere presence of a printing press prior to 1500 increased the probability that a city would become Protestant in 1530 by 52.1 percentage points, Protestant in 1560 by 43.6 percentage points, and Protestant in 1600 by 28.7 percentage points."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin201426-191">[160]</a> Cities with a competitive printing market were even more likely to accept new theologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDittmarSeabold201521-192">[161]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> "Sixteenth-century Protestants and Catholics knew that iconoclasm was not simply a byproduct of the Reformation, or a violent spasm, but its very essence."<a href="#cite_note-205">[173]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Pfaff demonstrates in a study that the presence of a local saint's shrine in a city doubled the likelihood of resisting the Reformation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfaff2013202-214">[181]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Contarini, according to his own words, "changed from great fear and suffering to happpiness" when he concluded, after counsel from a saintly monk on <a href="/wiki/Holy_Saturday" title="Holy Saturday">Holy Saturday</a> 1511, that reliance on asceticism or penances was insufficient, unnecessary and counter-productive<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200592-224">[190]</a> however he did not hold Luther's position on, e.g., the sinfulness of good works.<a href="#cite_note-225">[191]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Luther compared the physical presence of the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist to the heating of a piece of iron that changes its physical features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003139–140-236">[201]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Luther likened infant baptism to the <a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">circumcision of</a> Jewish male infants <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_pieces" title="Covenant of the pieces">prescribed</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>. His radical opponents would emphasize that the command of circumcision could not justify the baptism of infant girls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003145-238">[202]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Many of the believers could not cite the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStayer2006141-278">[241]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> The protestation was signed by John the Constant, Philip the Magnanimous, George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang,_Prince_of_Anhalt-K%C3%B6then" title="Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen">Wolfgang, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1508–1566), and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_I,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Ernest I, Duke of Brunswick">Ernest I, Duke of Brunswick</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1527–1546), and the delegates of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, <a href="/wiki/Lindau" title="Lindau">Lindau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memmingen" title="Memmingen">Memmingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kempten" title="Kempten">Kempten</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%B6rdlingen" title="Nördlingen">Nördlingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heilbronn" title="Heilbronn">Heilbronn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reutlingen" title="Reutlingen">Reutlingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isny_im_Allg%C3%A4u" title="Isny im Allgäu">Isny im Allgäu</a>, St. Gallen, Weissenburg (now <a href="/wiki/Wissembourg" title="Wissembourg">Wissembourg</a>, France), and <a href="/wiki/Windesheim,_Germany" title="Windesheim, Germany">Windesheim</a> at Speyer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021221-281">[243]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> Although not unusual, the use of the appelation "Protestant" when describing events before 1529 is anachronistic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath20214-283">[244]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> Bullinger stated that "Believers ... bring Christ to the Supper in their hearts; they do not receive him in the Supper."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021180-294">[254]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> Electoral Saxony, Hesse, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick-Lüneburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anhalt-K%C3%B6then" title="Anhalt-Köthen">Anhalt-Köthen</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Mansfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Mansfeld">Mansfeld</a>, Strasbourg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Memmingen, Lindau, <a href="/wiki/Biberach_an_der_Ri%C3%9F" title="Biberach an der Riß">Biberach an der Riß</a>, Isny im Allgäu, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> were the founding members of the Schmalkaldic League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021352-305">[264]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Bishop Jón was arrested along with two of his sons by a royalist wealthy peasant <a href="/wiki/Da%C3%B0i_Gu%C3%B0mundsson" title="Daði Guðmundsson">Daði Guðmundsson</a> (d. 1563). Their guards executed them because they feared that Catholic Icelanders would come to their bishop's rescue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHjálmarsson201273–74-316">[274]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> Among others, the report suggested the dissolution of most monastic orders, allowing only the strictest orders to survive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200594-324">[281]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> The compromise included the statement that "the sinner is justified by a living and effectual faith".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200592-224">[190]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Theatines" title="Theatines">Theatines</a> offered pastoral care for the needy and the sick, especially for those who suffered from syphilis,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200593-333">[288]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin" title="Order of Friars Minor Capuchin">Capuchins</a> were itinerant friars also preaching to the poor and the sick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann2023213-334">[289]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> "It ran in two tracks: alongside the reformulation of Catholic doctrine in contrast to Protestant teaching stood the many general…reform decrees which would influence the life of Catholicism for centuries to come.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Campi, Emidio (19 June 2013). "Was the Reformation a German Event?". The Myth of the Reformation: 9–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13109%2F9783666550331.9">10.13109/9783666550331.9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-55033-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-55033-5"><bdi>978-3-525-55033-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Myth+of+the+Reformation&rft.atitle=Was+the+Reformation+a+German+Event%3F&rft.pages=9-31&rft.date=2013-06-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13109%2F9783666550331.9&rft.isbn=978-3-525-55033-5&rft.aulast=Campi&rft.aufirst=Emidio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> Charles V was Catherine's nephew, and after the sack of Rome by imperial troops Pope Clement VII did not dare to offend Charles by annulling the marriage of his aunt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012285-353">[306]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> Henry's lawyers took inspiration from the <a href="/wiki/Defensor_pacis" title="Defensor pacis">Defensor pacis</a> ('The Defender of Peace'), a legal treatise by <a href="/wiki/Marsiglio_of_Padua" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsiglio of Padua">Marsiglio of Padua</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1342) who argued that the Church was subordinated to the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021302–303-360">[312]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> The lay preacher Clement Ziegler was the first to proclaim (in 1524) that Christ had had a celestial body before Mary gave birth to him. Hoffman went as far as comparing Mary with a bag, likely unaware that he adopted a metaphor from the Gnostic theologian <a href="/wiki/Valentinus_(Gnostic)" title="Valentinus (Gnostic)">Valentinus</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 180). According to Valentinus, Christ passed through Mary "as water through a pipe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003182-378">[329]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a> Calvin was only twelve when received a benefice at the <a href="/wiki/Noyon_Cathedral" title="Noyon Cathedral">Noyon Cathedral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire202298-387">[337]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-394"><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a> In the preface to the Institutes, Calvin described moderate Protestants as examples of "chastity, generousity, mercy, continence, patience, modesty, and all other virtues",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEire2022103-392">[341]</a> contrasting them with the Anabaptists who in his view "only wished to govern themselves in accordance with their foolish brains, under the pretence of wishing to obey God"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003190-393">[342]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> The new Anglican liturgy was heavily influenced by Evangelical church services, and Archbishop Hermann of Cologne's liturgical proposals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003249-405">[353]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-419"><a href="#cite_ref-419">^</a> Servetus was one of the first to discover the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021253-418">[365]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a> The Evangelical pastor <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Westphal_(of_Hamburg)" title="Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)">Joachim Westphal</a> (d. 1574) described Calvin as "the cow" and Bullinger as "the bull" in a pamphlet against the Consensus in 1552.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003244-429">[375]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> Around 1,900 individuals were executed for heresy; about two-thirds of them were Anabaptists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012387-453">[398]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-458"><a href="#cite_ref-458">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a>, a Protestant man seized the sacramental bread during the mass, condemning "papist idolatry". An other man called a Catholic cleric a false prophet in <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg2021288-457">[401]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> For instance, Protestants made up less than 3 per cent of the population in the town of <a href="/wiki/Alkmaar" title="Alkmaar">Alkmaar</a> in 1576.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson2005139-466">[409]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-480"><a href="#cite_ref-480">^</a> An exceptionally flexible theologian, Ferenc Dávid was bishop of the Evangelical, Reformed and Unitarian Churches during his life. John Sigismund was also heavily influenced by his antitrinitarian court physician <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Biandrata" title="Giorgio Biandrata">Giorgio Biandrata</a> (d. 1588).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETóth2006215-478">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2003254-479">[421]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-520"><a href="#cite_ref-520">^</a> See the wikipedia entry on <a href="/wiki/Joanes_Leizarraga" title="Joanes Leizarraga">Joanes Leizarraga</a>, the priest who did the translation. His manuscript is considered to be a cornerstone in Basque literature, and a pioneering attempt towards Basque language standardization. </li> <li id="cite_note-536"><a href="#cite_ref-536">^</a> Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than 1 billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.pl-535">[475]</a> while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 1,170,803,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-gordonconwell.edu-534">[474]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-537"><a href="#cite_ref-537">^</a> However, over half of this population are in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members#Modern_Protestantism_–_400–500_million" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">Modern Protestant</a> denominations such as Pentecostal churches which are not derived from the historical Reformation denominations; and the remaining Historical denominations include <a href="/wiki/Arminian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arminian">Arminian</a> denominations such as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members#Methodism_–_60–80_million" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">Methodists</a> which do not hold to certain key Reformation doctrines, such as sola fide. </li> <li id="cite_note-548"><a href="#cite_ref-548">^</a> In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettegree2000543-547">[485]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-553"><a href="#cite_ref-553">^</a> In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettegreeHall2004786-552">[489]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-590"><a href="#cite_ref-590">^</a> "But in the Renaissance era, and even more so in the Reformation period which followed, reliance on symbol and image gave way to the privileging of the printed or spoken word. Peace remained a fundamental Christian aspiration, but ritual and sacrament gave way to persuasion and instruction as the means to achieve it.". </li> <li id="cite_note-591"><a href="#cite_ref-591">^</a> "Until the seventeenth century, …Christianity meant a body of people, but since then it refers only to a body of beliefs." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1986" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Eleanor V. (June 1986). "(Review) Christianity in the West, 1400–1700. By John Bossy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985". Church History. 55 (2): 225–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3167429">10.2307/3167429</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3167429">3167429</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162279854">162279854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=%28Review%29+Christianity+in+the+West%2C+1400%E2%80%931700.+By+John+Bossy.+New+York%3A+Oxford+University+Press%2C+1985&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=225-26&rft.date=1986-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162279854%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3167429%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3167429&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Eleanor+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> Cite error: A <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes#WP:LDR" title="Help:Footnotes">list-defined reference</a> named "FOOTNOTEDuffy2016" is not used in the content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_missing_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references missing key">help page</a>).</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2002" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong, Alstair (2002). European Reformation: 1500–1610 (Heinemann Advanced History): 1500–55. Heinemann Educational. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-435-32710-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-435-32710-0"><bdi>0-435-32710-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Reformation%3A+1500%E2%80%931610+%28Heinemann+Advanced+History%29%3A+1500%E2%80%9355&rft.pub=Heinemann+Educational&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-435-32710-0&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Alstair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation">"Christianity - Schism, Reformation, Doctrine | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 26 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Christianity+-+Schism%2C+Reformation%2C+Doctrine+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FChristianity%2FFrom-the-schism-to-the-Reformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1996291_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavies1996">Davies 1996</a>, p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-ENC3-4"><a href="#cite_ref-ENC3_4-0">^</a> Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William (2003). The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. p. 362. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026564/Counter-Reformation">"Counter Reformation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a>. 9 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Counter+Reformation&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2023-10-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9026564%2FCounter-Reformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Christianity in the West 1400-1700 (review) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWooding2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wooding, Lucy (7 January 2010). "The Canon". Times Higher Education (1929): 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=The+Canon&rft.issue=1929&rft.pages=49&rft.date=2010-01-07&rft.aulast=Wooding&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mansfield-8"><a href="#cite_ref-mansfield_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansfield2003" class="citation book cs1">Mansfield, Bruce (6 May 2003). "Erasmus in the Twentieth Century: Interpretations 1920-2000". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442674554">Erasmus in the Twentieth Century</a>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2F9781442674554">10.3138/9781442674554</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-7455-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-7455-4"><bdi>978-1-4426-7455-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Erasmus+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Interpretations+1920-2000&rft.btitle=Erasmus+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2003-05-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2F9781442674554&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-7455-4&rft.aulast=Mansfield&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3138%2F9781442674554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGrath20212–3-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGrath20212–3_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath2021">McGrath 2021</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirpo2016295-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFirpo2016295_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFirpo2016">Firpo 2016</a>, p. 295. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron20121-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron20121_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCameron2012">Cameron 2012</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201210–11-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon201210–11_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2012">Dixon 2012</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHen2006" class="citation book cs1">Hen, Yitzhak (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qdxv4.11">Medieval Manuscripts in Transition: Tradition and Creative Recycling</a>. Leuven University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-520-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-520-0"><bdi>978-90-5867-520-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qdxv4.11">j.ctt9qdxv4.11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Manuscripts+in+Transition%3A+Tradition+and+Creative+Recycling&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt9qdxv4.11%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-90-5867-520-0&rft.aulast=Hen&rft.aufirst=Yitzhak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt9qdxv4.11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20093–4-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall20093–4_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall2009">Marshall 2009</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamilton200345-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton200345_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamilton2003">Hamilton 2003</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinson200514-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinson200514_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinson2005">Collinson 2005</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201252-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron201252_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCameron2012">Cameron 2012</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall20095-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall20095_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall2009">Marshall 2009</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2012102-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2012102_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2012102_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCameron2012">Cameron 2012</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoper202252-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoper202252_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoper2022">Roper 2022</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201215-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon201215_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2012">Dixon 2012</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201210-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon201210_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2012">Dixon 2012</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon201214–15-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon201214–15_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2012">Dixon 2012</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-etymonline.com-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline.com_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline.com_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=protestant">"Protestant – Origin and meaning"</a>. 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The Oxford History of the Reformation. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 238–291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289526-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289526-4"><bdi>978-0-19-289526-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+Reformations&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Reformation&rft.pages=238-291&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-289526-4&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_W._O%27Malley" title="John W. O'Malley">O'Malley, John</a> (2006) [2004]. "The Society of Jesus". In <a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Hsia" title="Ronnie Hsia">R. Po-Chia, Hsia</a> (ed.). A Companion to the Reformation World. Blackwell Companions to European History. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. pp. 223–236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4962-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4962-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-4962-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Society+of+Jesus&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Reformation+World&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+European+History&rft.pages=223-236&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4962-4&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmitessa2006" class="citation book cs1">Palmitessa, James R. 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The Reformation World. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44527-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44527-3"><bdi>978-0-203-44527-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation+World&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-203-44527-3&rft.aulast=Pettegree&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettegreeHall2004" class="citation journal cs1">Pettegree, Andrew; Hall, Matthew (December 2004). "The Reformation and the Book: A Reconsideration". The Historical Journal. 47 (4): 785–808. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X04003991">10.1017/S0018246X04003991</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4091657">4091657</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145512622">145512622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Reformation+and+the+Book%3A+A+Reconsideration&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=785-808&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145512622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4091657%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X04003991&rft.aulast=Pettegree&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Hall%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfaff2013" class="citation journal cs1">Pfaff, Steven (12 March 2013). "The true citizens of the city of God: the cult of saints, the Catholic social order, and the urban Reformation in Germany". <a href="/wiki/Theory_and_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory and Society">Theory and Society</a>. 42 (2). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer</a>: 189–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11186-013-9188-x">10.1007/s11186-013-9188-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0304-2421">0304-2421</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43694683">43694683</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144049459">144049459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+true+citizens+of+the+city+of+God%3A+the+cult+of+saints%2C+the+Catholic+social+order%2C+and+the+urban+Reformation+in+Germany&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=189-218&rft.date=2013-03-12&rft.issn=0304-2421&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144049459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43694683%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11186-013-9188-x&rft.aulast=Pfaff&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoper2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lyndal_Roper" title="Lyndal Roper">Roper, Lyndal</a> (2022) [2015]. "Martin Luther". In Marshall, Peter (ed.). The Oxford History of the Reformation. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 51–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289526-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289526-4"><bdi>978-0-19-289526-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Martin+Luther&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Reformation&rft.pages=51-94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-289526-4&rft.aulast=Roper&rft.aufirst=Lyndal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rubin, Jared (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1099&context=economics_articles">"Printing and Protestants: An Empirical Test of the Role of Printing in the Reformation"</a>. Review of Economics and Statistics. 96 (2): 270–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2FREST_a_00368">10.1162/REST_a_00368</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52885129">52885129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Economics+and+Statistics&rft.atitle=Printing+and+Protestants%3A+An+Empirical+Test+of+the+Role+of+Printing+in+the+Reformation&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=270-286&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FREST_a_00368&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52885129%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Jared&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.chapman.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1099%26context%3Deconomics_articles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStayer2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_M._Stayer" title="James M. Stayer">Stayer, James M.</a> (2006) [2000]. "The German Peasants' War and the rural Reformation". In Pettegree, Andrew (ed.). The Reformation World. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 127–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16357-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16357-6"><bdi>978-0-415-16357-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+German+Peasants%27+War+and+the+rural+Reformation&rft.btitle=The+Reformation+World&rft.pages=127-145&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16357-6&rft.aulast=Stayer&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTóth2006" class="citation book cs1">Tóth, István György (2006) [2004]. "New Faith in Hungary, Turkish Hungary, and Transylvania". In <a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Hsia" title="Ronnie Hsia">R. Po-Chia, Hsia</a> (ed.). A Companion to the Reformation World. Blackwell Companions to European History. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. pp. 205–220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4962-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4962-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-4962-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Faith+in+Hungary%2C+Turkish+Hungary%2C+and+Transylvania&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Reformation+World&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+European+History&rft.pages=205-220&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4962-4&rft.aulast=T%C3%B3th&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n+Gy%C3%B6rgy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeimer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Weimer, Christoph (2004). "Luther and Cranach on Justification in Word and Image". <a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Quarterly" title="Lutheran Quarterly">Lutheran Quarterly</a>. 18 (4): 387–405.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lutheran+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Luther+and+Cranach+on+Justification+in+Word+and+Image&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=387-405&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Weimer&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaley2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Whaley" title="Joachim Whaley">Whaley, Joachim</a> (2013) [2012]. Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648. Oxford History of Early Modern Europe. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968882-1"><bdi>978-0-19-968882-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+Holy+Roman+Empire%3A+Volume+I%3A+Maximilian+I+to+the+Peace+of+Westphalia%2C+1493%E2%80%931648&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-968882-1&rft.aulast=Whaley&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Wickham" title="Chris Wickham">Wickham, Chris</a> (2016). Medieval Europe. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20834-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20834-4"><bdi>978-0-300-20834-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-300-20834-4&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Appold, Kenneth G. The Reformation: A Brief History (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120083934/the-reformation-a-brief-history">online</a></li> <li>Collinson, Patrick. The Reformation: A History (2006)</li> <li>Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. Reformation Europe: 1517–1559 (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Europe-1517-1559-Blackwell-Histories/dp/0631213848/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Elton, G.R., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559 (1st ed. 1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111462">online free</a></li> <li>Gassmann, Günther, and Mark W. Oldenburg. Historical dictionary of Lutheranism (Scarecrow Press, 2011).</li> <li>Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Protestant Reformation (2nd ed. 2009)</li> <li>Hsia, R. Po-chia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006)</li> <li>Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations (2nd ed. 2009)</li> <li>Mourret, Fernand. History of the Catholic Church (vol 5 1931) online free; pp. 325–516; by French Catholic scholar</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaphy2007" class="citation book cs1">Naphy, William G. (2007). The Protestant Revolution: From Martin Luther to Martin Luther King Jr. BBC Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53920-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-563-53920-9"><bdi>978-0-563-53920-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Protestant+Revolution%3A+From+Martin+Luther+to+Martin+Luther+King+Jr.&rft.pub=BBC+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-563-53920-9&rft.aulast=Naphy&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpalding2010" class="citation book cs1">Spalding, Martin (2010). The History of the Protestant Reformation; In Germany and Switzerland, and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, and Northern Europe. General Books LLC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Protestant+Reformation%3B+In+Germany+and+Switzerland%2C+and+in+England%2C+Ireland%2C+Scotland%2C+the+Netherlands%2C+France%2C+and+Northern+Europe&rft.pub=General+Books+LLC&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Spalding&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Reeves, Michael. The Unquenchable Flame: Discovering the Heart of the Reformation (2nd ed. 2016)</li> <li>Spitz, Lewis William (2003). The Protestant Reformation: 1517–1559.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Theology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology (2004)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBainton1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Bainton" title="Roland Bainton">Bainton, Roland</a> (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reformationofsix00rola">The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century</a>. Boston: The Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1301-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-1301-4"><bdi>978-0-8070-1301-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation+of+the+Sixteenth+Century&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=The+Beacon+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-1301-4&rft.aulast=Bainton&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freformationofsix00rola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Barrett, Matthew, and Michael Horton. Reformation Theology: A Systematic Summary (2017).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Braaten" title="Carl Braaten">Braaten, Carl E.</a> and Robert W. Jenson. The Catholicity of the Reformation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4220-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4220-8">0-8028-4220-8</a>.</li> <li>Cunningham, William. The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation (2013).</li> <li>Payton, James R. Jr. Getting the Reformation Wrong: Correcting Some Misunderstandings (IVP Academic, 2010)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelikan1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Pelikan" title="Jaroslav Pelikan">Pelikan, Jaroslav</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christiantraditi00jaro">Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300–1700)</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-65377-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-65377-8"><bdi>978-0-226-65377-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reformation+of+Church+and+Dogma+%281300%E2%80%931700%29&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-226-65377-8&rft.aulast=Pelikan&rft.aufirst=Jaroslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristiantraditi00jaro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources_in_translation">Primary sources in translation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Primary sources in translation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed. Great Voices of the Reformation [and of other putative reformers before and after it]: an Anthology, ed., with an introd. and commentaries, by Harry Emerson Fosdick. (Modern Library, 1952). xxx, 546 pp.</li> <li>Janz, Denis, ed. A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199231311">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. Reformation Theology: A Reader of Primary Sources with Introductions (2018).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther, Martin</a> Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. vol.2 (1521–1530) from <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. Reprint of Vol. 1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59752-601-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-59752-601-0">1-59752-601-0</a>.</li> <li>Spitz, Lewis W. The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-570-04993-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-570-04993-8">0-570-04993-8</a>.</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bates, Lucy (2010). "The Limits of Possibility in England's Long Reformation". <a href="/wiki/The_Historical_Journal" title="The Historical Journal">The Historical Journal</a>. 53 (4): 1049–1070. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X10000403">10.1017/S0018246X10000403</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40930369">40930369</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159904890">159904890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Limits+of+Possibility+in+England%27s+Long+Reformation&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1049-1070&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159904890%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40930369%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X10000403&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradshaw1983" class="citation journal cs1">Bradshaw, Brendan (1983). "The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation". <a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a>. 33 (11): 42–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+Reformation+and+the+Counter-Reformation&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=42-45&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Bradshaw&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrady1991" class="citation journal cs1">Brady, Thomas A. Jr. (1991). "People's Religions in Reformation Europe". The Historical Journal. 24 (1): 173–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00013984">10.1017/S0018246X00013984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639713">2639713</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162991792">162991792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=People%27s+Religions+in+Reformation+Europe&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=173-182&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162991792%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639713%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00013984&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Boer2009" class="citation journal cs1">de Boer, Wietse (2009). "An Uneasy Reunion The Catholic World in Reformation Studies". <a href="/wiki/Archiv_f%C3%BCr_Reformationsgeschichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte">Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte</a>. 100 (1): 366–387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14315%2Farg-2009-100-1-366">10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-366</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170395778">170395778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Reformationsgeschichte&rft.atitle=An+Uneasy+Reunion+The+Catholic+World+in+Reformation+Studies&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=366-387&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14315%2Farg-2009-100-1-366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170395778%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=de+Boer&rft.aufirst=Wietse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickensTonkin1985" class="citation book cs1">Dickens, A.G.; Tonkin, John M., eds. (1985). The Reformation in Historical Thought. Harvard University Press,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation+in+Historical+Thought&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"> 443 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Historical-G-Dickens/dp/0674753119/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritze2005" class="citation journal cs1">Fritze, Ronald H. (2005). "The English Reformation: Obedience, Destruction and Cultural Adaptation". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Ecclesiastical_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Ecclesiastical History">Journal of Ecclesiastical History</a>. 56 (1): 107–115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022046904002106">10.1017/S0022046904002106</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162920265">162920265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ecclesiastical+History&rft.atitle=The+English+Reformation%3A+Obedience%2C+Destruction+and+Cultural+Adaptation&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107-115&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022046904002106&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162920265%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fritze&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Aidan_Gasquet" title="Francis Aidan Gasquet">Gasquet, F. A.</a> (1900) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50328">The Eve of the Reformation</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh1982" class="citation journal cs1">Haigh, Christopher (1982). "The recent historiography of the English Reformation". The Historical Journal. 25 (4): 995–1007. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0018246x00021385">10.1017/s0018246x00021385</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638647">2638647</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154848886">154848886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+recent+historiography+of+the+English+Reformation&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=995-1007&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154848886%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2638647%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0018246x00021385&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh1990" class="citation journal cs1">Haigh, Christopher (1990). "The English Reformation: A Premature Birth, a Difficult Labour and a Sickly Child". The Historical Journal. 33 (2): 449–459. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0018246x0001342x">10.1017/s0018246x0001342x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639467">2639467</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162341988">162341988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+English+Reformation%3A+A+Premature+Birth%2C+a+Difficult+Labour+and+a+Sickly+Child&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=449-459&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162341988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639467%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0018246x0001342x&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh2002" class="citation journal cs1">Haigh, Christopher (2002). "Catholicism in Early Modern England: Bossy and Beyond". The Historical Journal. 45 (2): 481–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X02002479">10.1017/S0018246X02002479</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3133654">3133654</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163117077">163117077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Catholicism+in+Early+Modern+England%3A+Bossy+and+Beyond&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=481-494&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163117077%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3133654%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X02002479&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeininenCzaika2010" class="citation web cs1">Heininen, Simo; Czaika, Otfried (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012080109">"Wittenberg Influences on the Reformation in Scandinavia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>. 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Historical Journal. 51 (2): 497–528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X08006808">10.1017/S0018246X08006808</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10036%2F69938">10036/69938</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20175171">20175171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Reformation+and+%27The+Disenchantment+of+the+World%27+Reassessed&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=497-528&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10036%2F69938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20175171%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X08006808&rft.aulast=Walsham&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0018246X08006808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Walsham, Alexandra. 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Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte. 100 (1): 350–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14315%2Farg-2009-100-1-350">10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-350</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192966856">192966856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+Reformationsgeschichte&rft.atitle=Gender+and+the+Reformation&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=350-365&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14315%2Farg-2009-100-1-350&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192966856%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wiesner-Hanks&rft.aufirst=Merry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reformation&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reformation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Reformation">Reformation</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.hanover.edu/early/prot.html">Internet Archive of Related Texts and Documents</a> Hannover U.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history/16th-century">16th Century Reformation Reading Room</a>: Extensive online resources, Tyndale Seminary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/195.html">The Reformation Collection</a> From the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/">Rare Book and Special Collections Division</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/lutheran-fed-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_2013_dal-conflitto-alla-comunione_en.html">An ecumenical official valuation by Lutherans and Catholics 500 years later</a>, Vatican.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyscoper.com/protestantscope.html">TLW's Protestantscope™ (Protestant Historyscope)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robinson, James Harvey (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Reformation,_The">"Reformation, The" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). pp. 4–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reformation%2C+The&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=4-22&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=James+Harvey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReformation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Martin_Luther" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Martin_Luther" title="Template:Martin Luther"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Martin_Luther" title="Template talk:Martin Luther"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Martin_Luther" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Martin Luther"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Martin_Luther" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_bibliography" title="Martin Luther bibliography">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resources_about_Martin_Luther" title="Resources about Martin Luther">Resources about Martin Luther</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> (1517)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_Indulgences_and_Grace" title="Sermon on Indulgences and Grace">Sermon on Indulgences and Grace</a> (1518)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/To_the_Christian_Nobility_of_the_German_Nation" title="To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation">To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Babylonian_Captivity_of_the_Church" title="On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church">On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Freedom_of_a_Christian" title="On the Freedom of a Christian">On the Freedom of a Christian</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Henry,_King_of_the_English" title="Against Henry, King of the English">Against Henry, King of the English</a> (1522)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a> (1522, 1534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adoration_of_the_Sacrament" title="The Adoration of the Sacrament">The Adoration of the Sacrament</a> (1523)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_missae" title="Formula missae">Formula missae</a> (1523)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_prayer" title="Flood prayer">Flood prayer</a> (1523)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_the_Murderous,_Thieving_Hordes_of_Peasants" title="Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants">Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants</a> (1525)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Bondage_of_the_Will" title="On the Bondage of the Will">On the Bondage of the Will</a> (1525)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sacrament_of_the_Body_and_Blood_of_Christ%E2%80%94Against_the_Fanatics" title="The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics">The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics</a> (1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Messe" title="Deutsche Messe">Deutsche Messe</a> (1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confession_Concerning_Christ%27s_Supper" title="Confession Concerning Christ's Supper">Confession Concerning Christ's Supper</a> (1528)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_War_Against_the_Turk" title="On War Against the Turk">On War Against the Turk</a> (1529)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Small_Catechism" title="Luther's Small Catechism">Small Catechism</a> (1529)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Schwabach" title="Articles of Schwabach">Articles of Schwabach</a> (1529)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_Large_Catechism" title="Luther's Large Catechism">Large Catechism</a> (1529)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smalcald_Articles" title="Smalcald Articles">Smalcald Articles</a> (1537)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Councils_and_the_Church" title="On the Councils and the Church">On the Councils and the Church</a> (1539)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Jews_and_Their_Lies" title="On the Jews and Their Lies">On the Jews and Their Lies</a> (1543)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vom_Schem_Hamphoras" title="Vom Schem Hamphoras">Vom Schem Hamphoras</a> (1543)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_Talk_(Luther)" title="Table Talk (Luther)">Luther's Table Talk</a> (1566)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_edition_of_Martin_Luther%27s_works" title="Weimar edition of Martin Luther's works">Weimar edition of Luther's works</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hymns_by_Martin_Luther" title="List of hymns by Martin Luther">List of hymns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Lutheran_hymnal" title="First Lutheran hymnal">First Lutheran hymnal</a> (1524)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Enchiridion" title="Erfurt Enchiridion">Erfurt Enchiridion</a> (1524)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyn_geystlich_Gesangk_Buchleyn" title="Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn">Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn</a> (1524)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Es_spricht_der_Unweisen_Mund_wohl" title="Es spricht der Unweisen Mund wohl">Es spricht der Unweisen Mund wohl</a>" (1524)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Gott_sei_gelobet_und_gebenedeiet" title="Gott sei gelobet und gebenedeiet">Gott sei gelobet und gebenedeiet</a>" (1524)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Mighty_Fortress_Is_Our_God" title="A Mighty Fortress Is Our God">A Mighty Fortress Is Our God</a>" (1529)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Sie_ist_mir_lieb,_die_werte_Magd" title="Sie ist mir lieb, die werte Magd">Sie ist mir lieb, die werte Magd</a>" (1535)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Christ_unser_Herr_zum_Jordan_kam" title="Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam">Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam</a>" (1543)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Disputation" title="Heidelberg Disputation">Heidelberg Disputation, 1518</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig_Debate" title="Leipzig Debate">Leipzig Debate, 1519</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine, 1520</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms, 1521</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificem" title="Decet Romanum Pontificem">Decet Romanum Pontificem, 1521</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_Colloquy" title="Marburg Colloquy">Marburg Colloquy, 1529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession, 1530</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther%27s_canon" title="Luther's canon">Luther's canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology of Martin Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_Cross" title="Theology of the Cross">Theology of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">Priesthood of all believers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">Sola fide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">Sola scriptura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">Two kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beerwolf" title="Beerwolf">Beerwolf</a> (1539)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel#Martin_Luther_and_Lutheran_theologians" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Mariology" title="Lutheran Mariology">Marian theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_Lutheranism" title="Eucharist in Lutheranism">Eucharist in Lutheranism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Sacramental union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_of_Institution#Lutheran_Churches" title="Words of Institution">Words of Institution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_and_antisemitism" title="Martin Luther and antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Propaganda during the Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_L%C3%BCgend_von_S._Johanne_Chrysostomo" title="Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo">Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo (1537 edition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Hans and Margarethe Luther (parents)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katharina_von_Bora" title="Katharina von Bora">Katharina von Bora</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalena_Luther" title="Magdalena Luther">Magdalena Luther</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Luther" title="Paul Luther">Paul Luther</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Brandenburg" title="Albert of Brandenburg">Albert of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomaeus_Arnoldi" title="Bartholomaeus Arnoldi">Bartholomaeus Arnoldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_R%C3%B6rer" title="Georg Rörer">Georg Rörer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Cochlaeus" title="Johann Cochlaeus">Johann Cochlaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin#Influence_on_Luther" title="Johann Reuchlin">Johann Reuchlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_von_Staupitz" title="Johann von Staupitz">Johann von Staupitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_Jonas" title="Justus Jonas">Justus Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Miltitz" title="Karl von Miltitz">Karl von Miltitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Karlstadt" title="Andreas Karlstadt">Andreas Karlstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Philip Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick the Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_VII_von_Mansfeld" title="Albrecht VII von Mansfeld">Albrecht VII von Mansfeld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Luther sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Wittenberg" title="All Saints' Church, Wittenberg">All Saints' Church, Wittenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadtkirche_Wittenberg" title="Stadtkirche Wittenberg">Stadtkirche Wittenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutherhaus" title="Lutherhaus">Lutherhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutherstadt" title="Lutherstadt">Lutherstädte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther%27s_Birth_House" title="Martin Luther's Birth House">Martin Luther's Birth House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther%27s_Death_House" title="Martin Luther's Death House">Martin Luther's Death House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanchthonhaus_(Wittenberg)" title="Melanchthonhaus (Wittenberg)">Melanchthonhaus (Wittenberg)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine%27s_Monastery_(Erfurt)" title="St. Augustine's Monastery (Erfurt)">St. Augustine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veste_Coburg" title="Veste Coburg">Veste Coburg (Fortress)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartburg" title="Wartburg">Wartburg Castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_Martin_Luther" title="List of films about Martin Luther">Film</a> and theatre</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_(1923_film)" title="Martin Luther (1923 film)">Martin Luther (1923 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_(1928_film)" title="Luther (1928 film)">Luther (1928 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_(1953_film)" title="Martin Luther (1953 film)">Martin Luther (1953 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_(play)" title="Luther (play)">Luther (1961 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_(1964_film)" title="Luther (1964 film)">Luther (1964 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_(1974_film)" title="Luther (1974 film)">Luther (1974 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther,_Heretic" title="Martin Luther, Heretic">Martin Luther, Heretic (1983 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_(2003_film)" title="Luther (2003 film)">Luther (2003 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luther_and_I&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luther and I (page does not exist)">Luther and I (2017 film)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument" title="Luther Monument">Luther Monuments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Luther Monument (Washington, D.C.)">Luther Monument</a>, Washington D.C.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Monument_(Worms)" title="Luther Monument (Worms)">Luther Monument</a>, Worms</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luther_rose" title="Luther rose">Luther rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theologia_Germanica" title="Theologia Germanica">Theologia Germanica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_Christian_University" title="Martin Luther Christian University">Martin Luther Christian University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_University_Halle-Wittenberg" title="Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Template talk:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Catholic Church"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a> (30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a> (180–451) <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman state church</a> (380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protestant Reformation</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five solae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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