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<li id="toc-500_BC_to_500_AD:_Earliest_written_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#500_BC_to_500_AD:_Earliest_written_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 500 BC to 500 AD: Earliest written observations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-500_BC_to_500_AD:_Earliest_written_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-500_to_1000:_Earliest_experiments,_study_of_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#500_to_1000:_Earliest_experiments,_study_of_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-500_to_1000:_Earliest_experiments,_study_of_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1000_to_1400:_Optical_and_astronomical_tool,_entertainment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1000_to_1400:_Optical_and_astronomical_tool,_entertainment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1000_to_1400:_Optical_and_astronomical_tool,_entertainment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1450_to_1600:_Depiction,_lenses,_drawing_aid,_mirrors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1450_to_1600:_Depiction,_lenses,_drawing_aid,_mirrors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 1450 to 1600: Depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1450_to_1600:_Depiction,_lenses,_drawing_aid,_mirrors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1600_to_1650:_Name_coined,_camera_obscura_telescopy,_portable_drawing_aid_in_tents_and_boxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1600_to_1650:_Name_coined,_camera_obscura_telescopy,_portable_drawing_aid_in_tents_and_boxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1600_to_1650:_Name_coined,_camera_obscura_telescopy,_portable_drawing_aid_in_tents_and_boxes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1650_to_1800:_Introduction_of_the_magic_lantern,_popular_portable_box-type_drawing_aid,_painting_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1650_to_1800:_Introduction_of_the_magic_lantern,_popular_portable_box-type_drawing_aid,_painting_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1650_to_1800:_Introduction_of_the_magic_lantern,_popular_portable_box-type_drawing_aid,_painting_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_the_modern_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_the_modern_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Role in the modern age </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_the_modern_age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Role in the modern age subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_the_modern_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digital_cameras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_cameras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Digital cameras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_cameras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Camera obscura</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" > 61 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A9" title="حجرة مظلمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حجرة مظلمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1mara_escura" title="Cámara escura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cámara escura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamera-obskura" title="Kamera-obskura – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kamera-obskura" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="ক্যামেরা অবস্কিউরা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্যামেরা অবস্কিউরা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера-абскура – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Камера-абскура" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера обскура – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Камера обскура" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambra_obscura" title="Cambra obscura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cambra obscura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Σκοτεινός θάλαμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σκοτεινός θάλαμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1mara_oscura" title="Cámara oscura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cámara oscura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senluma_kamero" title="Senluma kamero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Senluma kamero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamera_ilun" title="Kamera ilun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kamera ilun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="دوربین تاریکخانه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوربین تاریکخانه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambre_noire" title="Chambre noire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chambre noire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamera_obskura" title="Kamera obskura – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kamera obskura" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cjamare_scure" title="Cjamare scure – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Cjamare scure" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1mara_escura" title="Cámara escura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cámara escura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%A9%94%EB%9D%BC_%EC%98%B5%EC%8A%A4%EC%BF%A0%EB%9D%BC" title="카메라 옵스쿠라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카메라 옵스쿠라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igwefoto_gbara_%E1%BB%8Dch%E1%BB%8Bch%E1%BB%8Br%E1%BB%8B" title="Igwefoto gbara ọchịchịrị – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Igwefoto gbara ọchịchịrị" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamera_obscura" title="Kamera obscura – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kamera obscura" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscur" title="Camera obscur – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Camera obscur" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_oscura" title="Camera oscura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Camera oscura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%94" title="קמרה אובסקורה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קמרה אובסקורה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера-обскура – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Камера-обскура" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_scura" title="Camera scura – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Camera scura" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера опскура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Камера опскура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura_(optica)" title="Camera obscura (optica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Camera obscura (optica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%A1%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AA%E3%83%96%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AF%E3%83%A9" title="カメラ・オブスクラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カメラ・オブスクラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambra_escura" title="Cambra escura – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cambra escura" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stansia_sombra" title="Stansia sombra – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Stansia sombra" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2mera_escura" title="Câmera escura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Câmera escura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camer%C4%83_obscur%C4%83" title="Cameră obscură – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cameră obscură" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера-обскура – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Камера-обскура" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0mmira_oscura" title="Càmmira oscura – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Càmmira oscura" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера опскура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Камера опскура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE" title="కెమెరా అబ్స్క్యూరా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కెమెరా అబ్స్క్యూరా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2" title="กล้องทาบเงา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กล้องทาบเงา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Камера-обскура – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Камера-обскура" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Camera obscura" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%AE%B1" title="暗箱 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="暗箱" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Optical device</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1755_james_ayscough.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1755_james_ayscough.jpg/220px-1755_james_ayscough.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1755_james_ayscough.jpg/330px-1755_james_ayscough.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1755_james_ayscough.jpg/440px-1755_james_ayscough.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4456" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the camera obscura principle from <a href="/wiki/James_Ayscough" title="James Ayscough">James Ayscough</a>'s A short account of the eye and nature of vision (1755 fourth edition)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg/220px-Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg/330px-Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg/440px-Camera_obscura_Prague.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>An image of the New Royal Palace at <a href="/wiki/Prague_Castle" title="Prague Castle">Prague Castle</a> projected onto an <a href="/wiki/Attic" title="Attic">attic</a> wall by a hole in the tile roofing</figcaption></figure> A camera obscura (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr> camerae obscurae or camera obscuras; from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/camera_obscura#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:camera obscura">camera obscūra</a> 'dark chamber')<a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a> is the natural phenomenon in which the rays of light passing through a <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">small hole</a> into a dark space form an image where they strike a surface, resulting in an inverted (upside down) and reversed (left to right) <a href="/wiki/Projector" title="Projector">projection</a> of the view outside.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Camera obscura can also refer to analogous constructions such as a darkened room, box or tent in which an exterior image is projected inside or onto a translucent screen viewed from outside. Camera obscuras with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century and became popular as aids for drawing and painting. The technology was developed further into the photographic <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</a> in the first half of the 19th century, when camera obscura boxes were used to <a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">expose</a> <a href="/wiki/Photosensitivity" title="Photosensitivity">light-sensitive</a> materials to the projected image. The image (or the principle of its projection) of lensless camera obscuras is also referred to as a "<a href="/wiki/Pinhole_(optics)" title="Pinhole (optics)">pinhole</a> image".<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The camera obscura was used to study eclipses without the risk of damaging the eyes by looking directly into the Sun. As a drawing aid, it allowed tracing the projected image to produce a highly accurate representation, and was especially appreciated as an easy way to achieve proper <a href="/wiki/Graphical_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical perspective">graphical perspective</a>. Before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, other terms were used to refer to the devices: cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum, and locus obscurus.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> A camera obscura without a lens but with a very small hole is sometimes referred to as a "<a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole camera</a>", although this more often refers to simple (homemade) lensless cameras where photographic film or photographic paper is used. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_explanation">Physical explanation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical explanation">edit</a>]</div> Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lighted objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a barrier admits only the rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side, and these rays form an image of that scene where they reach a surface opposite from the opening.<a href="#cite_note-amateur_work-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</a> (and that of many other animals) works much like a camera obscura, with rays of light entering an opening (<a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupil</a>), getting focused through a convex <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> and passing a dark chamber before forming an inverted image on a smooth surface (<a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>). The analogy appeared early in the 16th century and would in the 17th century find common use to illustrate Western theological ideas about God creating the universe as a machine, with a predetermined purpose (just like humans create machines). This had a huge influence on behavioral science, especially on the study of perception and cognition. In this context, it is noteworthy that the projection of inverted images is actually a physical principle of optics that predates the emergence of life (rather than a biological or technological invention) and is not characteristic of all biological vision.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg/220px-Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg/330px-Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg/440px-Camera_Obscura_box18thCentury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>A camera obscura box with mirror, with an upright projected image at the top</figcaption></figure> A camera obscura consists of a box, tent, or room with a small hole in one side or the top. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted (upside-down) and reversed (left to right), but with color and <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">perspective</a> preserved.<a href="#cite_note-mass-10">[10]</a> To produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture is typically smaller than 1/100th the distance to the screen. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but dimmer. With too small of a pinhole, sharpness is lost because of <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>. Optimum sharpness is attained with an aperture diameter approximately equal to the <a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">geometric mean</a> of the wavelength of light and the distance to the screen.<a href="#cite_note-physics-11">[11]</a> In practice, camera obscuras use a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus.<a href="#cite_note-amateur_work-8">[8]</a> If the image is caught on a translucent screen, it can be viewed from the back so that it is no longer reversed (but still upside-down). Using mirrors, it is possible to project a right-side-up image. The projection can also be displayed on a horizontal surface (e.g., a table). The 18th-century overhead version in tents used mirrors inside a kind of periscope on the top of the tent.<a href="#cite_note-amateur_work-8">[8]</a> The box-type camera obscura often has an angled mirror projecting an upright image onto <a href="/wiki/Tracing_paper" title="Tracing paper">tracing paper</a> placed on its glass top. Although the image is viewed from the back, it is reversed by the mirror.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory_to_500_BC:_Possible_inspiration_for_prehistoric_art_and_possible_use_in_religious_ceremonies,_gnomons">Prehistory to 500 BC: Possible inspiration for prehistoric art and possible use in religious ceremonies, gnomons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prehistory to 500 BC: Possible inspiration for prehistoric art and possible use in religious ceremonies, gnomons">edit</a>]</div> There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects (through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide) inspired <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a>. Distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave artworks might be inspired by distortions seen when the surface on which an image was projected was not straight or not in the right angle.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> It is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> structures.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12,_fi,_20.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG/220px-Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG/330px-Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG/440px-Osservazione_del_solstizio_21.06.12%2C_fi%2C_20.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>The gnomon projection of the sun's shape on the floor of <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cathedral" title="Florence Cathedral">Florence Cathedral</a> during the solstice on 21 June 2012</figcaption></figure> Perforated <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomons</a> projecting a pinhole image of the sun were described in the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Zhoubi_Suanjing" title="Zhoubi Suanjing">Zhoubi Suanjing</a> writings (1046 BC–256 BC with material added until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 220 AD).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Middle Eastern and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a> around 1000 AD.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="500_BC_to_500_AD:_Earliest_written_observations">500 BC to 500 AD: Earliest written observations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 500 BC to 500 AD: Earliest written observations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG/220px-IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG/330px-IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG/440px-IMG_1650_zonsverduistering_Malta.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Holes in the leaf canopy project images of a <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">solar eclipse</a> on the ground</figcaption></figure> One of the earliest known written records of a pinhole image is found in the Chinese text called <a href="/wiki/Mozi_(book)" title="Mozi (book)">Mozi</a>, dated to the 4th century BC, traditionally ascribed to and named for <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> (circa 470 BC-circa 391 BC), a <a href="/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Science and Technology in China">Chinese</a> philosopher and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohist School of Logic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-needham4_98-18">[18]</a> These writings explain how the image in a "collecting-point" or "treasure house"<a href="#cite_note-19">[note 1]</a> is inverted by an intersecting point (pinhole) that collects the (rays of) light. Light coming from the foot of an illuminated person gets partly hidden below (i.e., strikes below the pinhole) and partly forms the top of the image. Rays from the head are partly hidden above (i.e., strike above the pinhole) and partly form the lower part of the image.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> Another early account is provided by <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC), or possibly a follower of his ideas. Similar to the later 11th-century Middle Eastern scientist <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>, Aristotle is also thought to have used camera obscura for observing <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">solar eclipses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-needham4_98-18">[18]</a> The formation of pinhole images is touched upon as a subject in the work <a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a> – Book XV, asking: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Why is it that when the sun passes through quadri-laterals, as for instance in wickerwork, it does not produce a figure rectangular in shape but circular?</blockquote> and further on: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Why is it that an eclipse of the sun, if one looks at it through a sieve or through leaves, such as a plane-tree or other broadleaved tree, or if one joins the fingers of one hand over the fingers of the other, the rays are crescent-shaped where they reach the earth? Is it for the same reason as that when light shines through a rectangular peep-hole, it appears circular in the form of a cone?</blockquote> In an attempt to explain the phenomenon, the author described how the light formed two cones; one between the Sun and the aperture and one between the aperture and the Earth. However, the roundness of the image was attributed to the idea that parts of the rays of light (assumed to travel in straight lines) are cut off at the angles in the aperture become so weak that they cannot be noticed.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg-22">[21]</a> Many philosophers and scientists of the Western world would ponder the contradiction between light travelling in straight lines and the formation of round spots of light behind differently shaped apertures, until it became generally accepted that the circular and crescent-shapes described in the "problem" were pinhole image projections of the sun. In his book <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics">Optics</a> (circa 300 BC, surviving in later manuscripts from around 1000 AD), Euclid proposed mathematical descriptions of vision with "lines drawn directly from the eye pass through a space of great extent" and "the form of the space included in our vision is a cone, with its apex in the eye and its base at the limits of our vision."<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Later versions of the text, like <a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Danti" title="Ignazio Danti">Ignazio Danti</a>'s 1573 annotated translation, would add a description of the camera obscura principle to demonstrate Euclid's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="500_to_1000:_Earliest_experiments,_study_of_light">500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg/220px-555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg/330px-555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg/440px-555_anthemius_of_tralles_-_light-diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Anthemius of Tralles's diagram of light-rays reflected with plane mirror through hole (B)</figcaption></figure> In the 6th century, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine-Greek</a> mathematician and architect <a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius of Tralles</a> (most famous as a co-architect of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>) experimented with effects related to the camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-Crombie1990-25">[24]</a> Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light-ray diagram he constructed in 555 AD.<a href="#cite_note-renner2012-26">[25]</a> In his optical treatise De Aspectibus, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (c. 801–873) wrote about pinhole images to prove that light travels in straight lines.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg-22">[21]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/10th_century" title="10th century">10th century</a> Yu Chao-Lung supposedly projected images of pagoda models through a small hole onto a screen to study directions and divergence of rays of light.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1000_to_1400:_Optical_and_astronomical_tool,_entertainment">1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg/220px-Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg/330px-Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg/440px-Light_behaviour_through_pinhole.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>A diagram depicting <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>'s observations of light's behaviour through a pinhole</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinhole-camera.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/220px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/330px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Pinhole-camera.svg/440px-Pinhole-camera.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">Pinhole camera</a>. Light enters a dark box through a small hole and creates an inverted image on the wall opposite the hole.<a href="#cite_note-physics_worldview-28">[27]</a></figcaption></figure> Middle Eastern <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (known in the West by the Latinised Alhazen) (965–1040) extensively studied the camera obscura phenomenon in the early 11th century. In his treatise "On the shape of the eclipse" he provided the first experimental and mathematical analysis of the phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> He understood the relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focal point</a> and the pinhole.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moon-sickle. The image of the sun shows this peculiarity only when the hole is very small. When the hole is enlarged, the picture changes, and the change increases with the added width. When the aperture is very wide, the sickle-form image will disappear, and the light will appear round when the hole is round, square if the hole is square, and if the shape of the opening is irregular, the light on the wall will take on this shape, provided that the hole is wide and the plane on which it is thrown is parallel to it.</blockquote> In his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> (circa 1027), Ibn al-Haytham explained that rays of light travel in straight lines and are distinguished by the body that reflected the rays, writing:<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Evidence that light and color do not mingle in air or (other) transparent bodies is (found in) the fact that, when several candles are at various distinct locations in the same area, and when they all face an aperture that opens into a dark recess, and when there is a white wall or (other white) opaque body in the dark recess facing that aperture, the (individual) lights of those candles appear individually upon that body or wall according to the number of those candles; and each of those lights (spots of light) appears directly opposite one (particular) candle along a straight line passing through that window. Moreover, if one candle is shielded, only the light opposite that candle is extinguished, but if the shielding object is lifted, the light will return.</blockquote> Latin translations of the Book of Optics from about 1200 onward seemed very influential in Europe. Among those Ibn al-Haytham is thought to have inspired are <a href="/wiki/Witelo" class="mw-redirect" title="Witelo">Witelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> However, On the shape of the eclipse remained exclusively available in Arabic until the 20th century and no comparable explanation was found in Europe before Kepler addressed it. It were actually al-Kindi's work and especially the widely circulated pseudo-<a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclidean</a> De Speculis that were cited by the early scholars who were interested in pinhole images.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg-22">[21]</a> In his 1088 book, <a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> Chinese scientist <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) compared the focal point of a concave burning-mirror and the "collecting" hole of camera obscura phenomena to an oar in a rowlock to explain how the images were inverted:<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"When a bird flies in the air, its shadow moves along the ground in the same direction. But if its image is collected (shu)(like a belt being tightened) through a small hole in a window, then the shadow moves in the direction opposite of that of the bird.[...] This is the same principle as the burning-mirror. Such a mirror has a concave surface, and reflects a finger to give an upright image if the object is very near, but if the finger moves farther and farther away it reaches a point where the image disappears and after that the image appears inverted. Thus the point where the image disappears is like the pinhole of the window. So also the oar is fixed at the rowlock somewhere at its middle part, constituting, when it is moved, a sort of 'waist' and the handle of the oar is always in the position inverse to the end (which is in the water)."</blockquote> Shen Kuo also responded to a statement of <a href="/wiki/Duan_Chengshi" title="Duan Chengshi">Duan Chengshi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Miscellaneous_Morsels_from_Youyang" title="Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang">Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang</a> written in about 840 that the inverted image of a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_pagoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese pagoda">Chinese pagoda</a> tower beside a seashore, was inverted because it was reflected by the sea: "This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole."<a href="#cite_note-needham4_98-18">[18]</a> English statesman and <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> (c. 1175 – 9 October 1253) was one of the earliest Europeans who commented on the camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1292(or_earlier)_roger_bacon_-_image006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/1292%28or_earlier%29_roger_bacon_-_image006.jpg/220px-1292%28or_earlier%29_roger_bacon_-_image006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/1292%28or_earlier%29_roger_bacon_-_image006.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="223" /></a><figcaption>Three-tiered camera obscura, 13th century, attributed to Roger Bacon</figcaption></figure> English philosopher and Franciscan friar <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (c. 1219/20 – c. 1292) falsely stated in his De Multiplicatione Specerium (1267) that an image projected through a square aperture was round because light would travel in spherical waves and therefore assumed its natural shape after passing through a hole. He is also credited with a manuscript that advised to study solar eclipses safely by observing the rays passing through some round hole and studying the spot of light they form on a surface.<a href="#cite_note-Mannoni1-36">[35]</a> A picture of a three-tiered camera obscura (see illustration) has been attributed to Bacon,<a href="#cite_note-Doble-37">[36]</a> but the source for this attribution is not given. A very similar picture is found in <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ars_Magna_Lucis_et_Umbrae" title="Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae">Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae</a> (1646).<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> Polish friar, theologian, physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher <a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a> wrote about the camera obscura in his influential treatise Perspectiva (circa 1270–1278), which was largely based on Ibn al-Haytham's work. English archbishop and scholar <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> (circa 1230 – 1292) wrote about the camera obscura in his Tractatus de Perspectiva (circa 1269–1277) and Perspectiva communis (circa 1277–79), falsely arguing that light gradually forms the circular shape after passing through the aperture.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> His writings were influenced by Bacon. At the end of the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a> is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> French astronomer Guillaume de Saint-Cloud suggested in his 1292 work Almanach Planetarum that the eccentricity of the Sun could be determined with the camera obscura from the inverse proportion between the distances and the apparent solar diameters at apogee and perigee.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī">Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī</a> (1267–1319) described in his 1309 work Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of the Optics) how he experimented with a glass sphere filled with water in a camera obscura with a controlled aperture and found that the colors of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> French Jewish philosopher, mathematician, physicist and astronomer/astrologer <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Levi ben Gershon</a> (1288–1344) (also known as Gersonides or Leo de Balneolis) made several astronomical observations using a camera obscura with a <a href="/wiki/Jacob%27s_staff" title="Jacob's staff">Jacob's staff</a>, describing methods to measure the angular diameters of the Sun, the Moon and the bright planets Venus and Jupiter. He determined the eccentricity of the Sun based on his observations of the summer and winter solstices in 1334. Levi also noted how the size of the aperture determined the size of the projected image. He wrote about his findings in Hebrew in his treatise Sefer Milhamot Ha-Shem (The Wars of the Lord) Book V Chapters 5 and 9.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1450_to_1600:_Depiction,_lenses,_drawing_aid,_mirrors">1450 to 1600: Depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1450 to 1600: Depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_(from_notebooks_71)_0071-q75-644x596.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg/220px-Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg/330px-Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg/440px-Da_vinci_-_camera_obscura_%28from_notebooks_71%29_0071-q75-644x596.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Da Vinci: Let a b c d e be the object illuminated by the sun and o r the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at n m. Let s t be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the images of these objects upside down, because the rays being straight, a on the right hand becomes k on the left, and e on the left becomes f on the right<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></figcaption></figure> Italian polymath <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> (1452–1519), familiar with the work of Alhazen in Latin translation<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> and having extensively studied the physics and physiological aspects of optics, wrote the oldest known clear description of the camera obscura, in 1502 (found in the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Atlanticus" title="Codex Atlanticus">Codex Atlanticus</a>, translated from Latin): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">If the facade of a building, or a place, or a landscape is illuminated by the sun and a small hole is drilled in the wall of a room in a building facing this, which is not directly lighted by the sun, then all objects illuminated by the sun will send their images through this aperture and will appear, upside down, on the wall facing the hole. You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above-mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a></blockquote> These descriptions, however, would remain unknown until Venturi deciphered and published them in 1797.<a href="#cite_note-Repstad-49">[48]</a> Da Vinci was clearly very interested in the camera obscura: over the years he drew approximately 270 diagrams of the camera obscura in his notebooks. He systematically experimented with various shapes and sizes of apertures and with multiple apertures (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, 24, 28 and 32). He compared the working of the eye to that of the camera obscura and seemed especially interested in its capability of demonstrating basic principles of optics: the inversion of images through the pinhole or pupil, the non-interference of images and the fact that images are "all in all and all in every part".<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg/220px-1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg/330px-1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg/440px-1545_gemma_frisius_-_camera-obscura-sonnenfinsternis_1545-650x337.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>First published picture of camera obscura, in Gemma Frisius' 1545 book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica</figcaption></figure> The oldest known published drawing of a camera obscura is found in Dutch physician, mathematician and instrument maker <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Frisius" title="Gemma Frisius">Gemma Frisius</a>’ 1545 book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica, in which he described and illustrated how he used the camera obscura to study the solar eclipse of 24 January 1544<a href="#cite_note-Repstad-49">[48]</a> Italian polymath <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> described using a glass disc – probably a <a href="/wiki/Biconvex_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Biconvex lens">biconvex lens</a> – in a camera obscura in his 1550 book De subtilitate, vol. I, Libri IV. He suggested to use it to view "what takes place in the street when the sun shines" and advised to use a very white sheet of paper as a projection screen so the colours would not be dull.<a href="#cite_note-Ilardi-51">[50]</a> Sicilian mathematician and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maurolico" title="Francesco Maurolico">Francesco Maurolico</a> (1494–1575) answered Aristotle's problem how sunlight that shines through rectangular holes can form round spots of light or crescent-shaped spots during an eclipse in his treatise Photismi de lumine et umbra (1521–1554). However this wasn't published before 1611,<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> after Johannes Kepler had published similar findings of his own. Italian polymath <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta" title="Giambattista della Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a> described the camera obscura, which he called "camera obscura", in the 1558 first edition of his book series <a href="/wiki/Magia_Naturalis" title="Magia Naturalis">Magia Naturalis</a>. He suggested to use a convex lens to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. Della Porta compared the human eye to the camera obscura: "For the image is let into the eye through the eyeball just as here through the window". The popularity of Della Porta's books helped spread knowledge of the camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-Larsen-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> In his 1567 work La Pratica della Perspettiva Venetian nobleman <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Barbaro" title="Daniele Barbaro">Daniele Barbaro</a> (1513-1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle.<a href="#cite_note-Ilardi-51">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg/220px-1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg/330px-1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg/440px-1646_Athanasius_Kircher_-_Camera_obscura.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2604" data-file-height="1487" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of "portable" camera obscura (similar to Risner's proposal) in Kircher's Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae (1645)</figcaption></figure> In his influential and meticulously annotated Latin edition of the works of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo, Opticae thesauru (1572), German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Risner" title="Friedrich Risner">Friedrich Risner</a> proposed a portable camera obscura drawing aid; a lightweight wooden hut with lenses in each of its four walls that would project images of the surroundings on a paper cube in the middle. The construction could be carried on two wooden poles.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-55">[54]</a> A very similar setup was illustrated in 1645 in <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s influential book Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Around 1575 Italian Dominican priest, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer <a href="/wiki/Ignazio_Danti" title="Ignazio Danti">Ignazio Danti</a> designed a camera obscura gnomon and a meridian line for the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria_Novella" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Santa Maria Novella">Basilica of Santa Maria Novella</a>, Florence, and he later had a massive gnomon built in the <a href="/wiki/San_Petronio_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="San Petronio Basilica">San Petronio Basilica</a> in Bologna. The gnomon was used to study the movements of the Sun during the year and helped in determining the new Gregorian calendar for which Danti took place in the commission appointed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregorius XIII</a> and instituted in 1582.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> In his 1585 book Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> Venetian mathematician <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Benedetti" title="Giambattista Benedetti">Giambattista Benedetti</a> proposed to use a mirror in a 45-degree angle to project the image upright. This leaves the image reversed, but would become common practice in later camera obscura boxes.<a href="#cite_note-Ilardi-51">[50]</a> Giambattista della Porta added a "lenticular crystal" or biconvex lens to the camera obscura description in the 1589 second edition of Magia Naturalis. He also described use of the camera obscura to project hunting scenes, banquets, battles, plays, or anything desired on white sheets. Trees, forests, rivers, mountains "that are really so, or made by Art, of Wood, or some other matter" could be arranged on a plain in the sunshine on the other side of the camera obscura wall. Little children and animals (for instance handmade deer, wild boars, rhinos, elephants, and lions) could perform in this set. "Then, by degrees, they must appear, as coming out of their dens, upon the Plain: The Hunter he must come with his hunting Pole, Nets, Arrows, and other necessaries, that may represent hunting: Let there be Horns, Cornets, Trumpets sounded: those that are in the Chamber shall see Trees, Animals, Hunters Faces, and all the rest so plainly, that they cannot tell whether they be true or delusions: Swords drawn will glister in at the hole, that they will make people almost afraid." Della Porta claimed to have shown such spectacles often to his friends. They admired it very much and could hardly be convinced by della Porta's explanations that what they had seen was really an optical trick.<a href="#cite_note-Larsen-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1600_to_1650:_Name_coined,_camera_obscura_telescopy,_portable_drawing_aid_in_tents_and_boxes">1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur,_1604_-_158093_F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg/220px-Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg/330px-Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg/440px-Kepler_-_Ad_Vitellionem_paralipomena_quibus_astronomiae_pars_optica_traditur%2C_1604_-_158093_F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="1396" /></a><figcaption>The first use of the term camera obscura was by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, in his first treatise about optics, Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur (1604)<a href="#cite_note-Dupre-61">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1619_Scheiner_-_Oculus_hoc_est_(frontispiece).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/1619_Scheiner_-_Oculus_hoc_est_%28frontispiece%29.jpg/220px-1619_Scheiner_-_Oculus_hoc_est_%28frontispiece%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/1619_Scheiner_-_Oculus_hoc_est_%28frontispiece%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="296" data-file-height="278" /></a><figcaption>Detail of Scheiner's Oculus hoc est (1619) frontispiece with a camera obscura's projected image reverted by a lens</figcaption></figure> The earliest use of the term camera obscura is found in the 1604 book Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dupre-61">[60]</a> Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many-cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book. He also realized that images are "painted" inverted and reversed on the retina of the eye and figured that this is somehow corrected by the brain.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> In 1607, Kepler studied the Sun in his camera obscura and noticed a <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspot</a>, but he thought it was Mercury transiting the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-aps-63">[62]</a> In his 1611 book Dioptrice, Kepler described how the projected image of the camera obscura can be improved and reverted with a lens. It is believed he later used a telescope with three lenses to revert the image in the camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-Ilardi-51">[50]</a> In 1611, Frisian/German astronomers <a href="/wiki/David_Fabricius" title="David Fabricius">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fabricius" title="Johannes Fabricius">Johannes Fabricius</a> (father and son) studied sunspots with a camera obscura, after realizing looking at the Sun directly with the telescope could damage their eyes.<a href="#cite_note-aps-63">[62]</a> They are thought to have combined the telescope and the camera obscura into camera obscura telescopy.<a href="#cite_note-aps-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> In 1612, Italian mathematician <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli" title="Benedetto Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a> wrote to his mentor, the Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> about projecting images of the Sun through a <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> (invented in 1608) to study the recently discovered sunspots. Galilei wrote about Castelli's technique to the German Jesuit priest, physicist, and astronomer Christoph Scheiner.<a href="#cite_note-Whitehouse-65">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg/220px-Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg/330px-Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg/440px-Scheiner_Viewing_Sunspots_1625.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4061" data-file-height="2121" /></a><figcaption>Scheiner's helioscope as illustrated in his book Rosa Ursina sive Sol (1626–30)</figcaption></figure> From 1612 to at least 1630, <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner" title="Christoph Scheiner">Christoph Scheiner</a> would keep on studying sunspots and constructing new telescopic solar-projection systems. He called these "Heliotropii Telioscopici", later contracted to <a href="/wiki/Helioscope" title="Helioscope">helioscope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Whitehouse-65">[64]</a> For his helioscope studies, Scheiner built a box around the viewing/projecting end of the telescope, which can be seen as the oldest known version of a box-type camera obscura. Scheiner also made a portable camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> In his 1613 book Opticorum Libri Sex<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist, and architect <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27Aguilon" title="François d'Aguilon">François d'Aguilon</a> described how some charlatans cheated people out of their money by claiming they knew <a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">necromancy</a> and would raise the specters of the devil from hell to show them to the audience inside a dark room. The image of an assistant with a devil's mask was projected through a lens into the dark room, scaring the uneducated spectators.<a href="#cite_note-Mannoni1-36">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1858_-_Gagniet_(d)_Quarteley_(g)_-_Cours_de_Physique_(A._Ganot).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg/220px-1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg/330px-1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg/440px-1858_-_Gagniet_%28d%29_Quarteley_%28g%29_-_Cours_de_Physique_%28A._Ganot%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1740" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>A camera obscura drawing aid tent in an illustration for an 1858 book on physics</figcaption></figure> By 1620 Kepler used a portable camera obscura tent with a modified telescope to draw landscapes. It could be turned around to capture the surroundings in parts.<a href="#cite_note-:0-68">[67]</a> Dutch inventor <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Drebbel" title="Cornelis Drebbel">Cornelis Drebbel</a> is thought to have constructed a box-type camera obscura which corrected the inversion of the projected image. In 1622, he sold one to the Dutch poet, composer, and diplomat <a href="/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens" title="Constantijn Huygens">Constantijn Huygens</a> who used it to paint and recommended it to his artist friends.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-55">[54]</a> Huygens wrote to his parents (translated from French):<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I have at home Drebbel's other instrument, which certainly makes admirable effects in painting from reflection in a dark room; it is not possible for me to reveal the beauty to you in words; all painting is dead by comparison, for here is life itself or something more elevated if one could articulate it. The figure and the contour and the movements come together naturally therein and in a grandly pleasing fashion.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_(scioptic_ball).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_%28scioptic_ball%29.jpg/220px-1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_%28scioptic_ball%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_%28scioptic_ball%29.jpg/330px-1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_%28scioptic_ball%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/1636_Daniel_Schwenter_-_Deliciae_Physico-Mathematicae_%28scioptic_ball%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a scioptic ball with a lens from Daniel Schwenter's Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae (1636)</figcaption></figure> German <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">Orientalist</a>, mathematician, inventor, poet, and librarian <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schwenter" title="Daniel Schwenter">Daniel Schwenter</a> wrote in his 1636 book Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae about an instrument that a man from <a href="/wiki/Pappenheim" title="Pappenheim">Pappenheim</a> had shown him, which enabled movement of a lens to project more from a scene through a camera obscura. It consisted of a ball as big as a fist, through which a hole (AB) was made with a lens attached on one side (B). This ball was placed inside two-halves of part of a hollow ball that were then glued together (CD), in which it could be turned around. This device was attached to a wall of the camera obscura (EF).<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Universal_joint" title="Universal joint">universal joint</a> mechanism was later called a <a href="/wiki/Scioptic_ball" title="Scioptic ball">scioptic ball</a>. In his 1637 book Dioptrique French philosopher, mathematician and scientist <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> suggested placing an eye of a recently dead man (or if a dead man was unavailable, the eye of an ox) into an opening in a darkened room and scraping away the flesh at the back until one could see the inverted image formed on the retina.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg/220px-1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg/330px-1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg/440px-1642_Mario_Bettini_-_Apiaria_universae_philosophiae_mathematica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="782" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a twelve-hole camera obscura from Bettini's Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae (1642)</figcaption></figure> Italian Jesuit philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bettinus" title="Mario Bettinus">Mario Bettini</a> wrote about making a camera obscura with twelve holes in his Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae (1642). When a foot soldier would stand in front of the camera, a twelve-person army of soldiers making the same movements would be projected. French mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Minim_(religious_order)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minim (religious order)">Minim friar</a>, and painter of <a href="/wiki/Anamorphosis" title="Anamorphosis">anamorphic art</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Niceron" title="Jean François Niceron">Jean-François Nicéron</a> (1613–1646) wrote about the camera obscura with convex lenses. He explained how the camera obscura could be used by painters to achieve perfect perspective in their work. He also complained how charlatans abused the camera obscura to fool witless spectators and make them believe that the projections were magic or occult science. These writings were published in a posthumous version of La Perspective Curieuse (1652).<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1650_to_1800:_Introduction_of_the_magic_lantern,_popular_portable_box-type_drawing_aid,_painting_aid">1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid">edit</a>]</div> The use of the camera obscura to project special shows to entertain an audience seems to have remained very rare. A description of what was most likely such a show in 1656 in France, was penned by the poet <a href="/wiki/Jean_Loret" title="Jean Loret">Jean Loret</a>, who expressed how rare and novel it was.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> The Parisian society were presented with upside-down images of palaces, ballet dancing and battling with swords. Loret felt somewhat frustrated that he did not know the secret that made this spectacle possible. There are several clues that this may have been a camera obscura show, rather than a very early <a href="/wiki/Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">magic lantern</a> show, especially in the upside-down image and Loret's surprise that the energetic movements made no sound.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> German Jesuit scientist <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Schott" title="Gaspar Schott">Gaspar Schott</a> heard from a traveler about a small camera obscura device he had seen in Spain, which one could carry under one arm and could be hidden under a coat. He then constructed his own sliding box camera obscura, which could focus by sliding a wooden box part fitted inside another wooden box part. He wrote about this in his 1657 Magia universalis naturæ et artis (volume 1 – book 4 "Magia Optica" pages 199–201). By 1659 the <a href="/wiki/Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">magic lantern</a> was introduced and partly replaced the camera obscura as a projection device, while the camera obscura mostly remained popular as a drawing aid. The magic lantern can be regarded as a (box-type) camera obscura device that projects images rather than actual scenes. In 1668, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> described the difference for an installation to project the delightful "various apparitions and disappearances, the motions, changes and actions" by means of a broad convex-glass in a camera obscura setup: "if the picture be transparent, reflect the rays of the sun so as that they may pass through it towards the place where it is to be represented; and let the picture be encompassed on every side with a board or cloth that no rays may pass beside it. If the object be a statue or some living creature, then it must be very much enlightened by casting the sun beams on it by refraction, reflexion, or both." For models that can't be inverted, like living animals or candles, he advised: "let two large glasses of convenient spheres be placed at appropriate distances".<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> The 17th century <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Masters">Dutch Masters</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Vermeer" title="Johannes Vermeer">Johannes Vermeer</a>, were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of the camera obscura,<a href="#cite_note-:0-68">[67]</a> but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of fierce contention, recently revived by the <a href="/wiki/Hockney%E2%80%93Falco_thesis" title="Hockney–Falco thesis">Hockney–Falco thesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-55">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg/220px-1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg/330px-1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg/440px-1676_Johann_Sturm_-_Camerae_Obscurae_Portatilis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a portable camera obscura device from <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sturm" title="Johann Sturm">Johann Sturm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Experimentale" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium Experimentale">Collegium Experimentale</a> (1676)</figcaption></figure> German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sturm" title="Johann Sturm">Johann Sturm</a> published an illustrated article about the construction of a portable camera obscura box with a 45° mirror and an oiled paper screen in the first volume of the proceedings of the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Curiosum" title="Collegium Curiosum">Collegium Curiosum</a>, Collegium Experimentale, sive Curiosum (1676).<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Zahn" title="Johann Zahn">Johann Zahn</a>'s Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium, published in 1685, contains many descriptions, diagrams, illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and the <a href="/wiki/Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">magic lantern</a>. A hand-held device with a mirror-reflex mechanism was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Zahn" title="Johann Zahn">Johann Zahn</a> in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone-shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> From the beginning of the 18th century, craftsmen and opticians would make camera obscura devices in the shape of books, which were much appreciated by lovers of optical devices.<a href="#cite_note-Mannoni1-36">[35]</a> One chapter in the Conte <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Algarotti" title="Francesco Algarotti">Algarotti's</a> Saggio sopra Pittura (1764) is dedicated to the use of a camera obscura ("optic chamber") in painting.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> By the 18th century, following developments by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, more easily portable models in boxes became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels, but they were also employed by professionals, including <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sandby" title="Paul Sandby">Paul Sandby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Joshua Reynolds</a>, whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Museum (London)">Science Museum in London</a>. Such cameras were later adapted by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nicephore_Niepce" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Nicephore Niepce">Joseph Nicephore Niepce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Daguerre" title="Louis Daguerre">Louis Daguerre</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Fox_Talbot" class="mw-redirect" title="William Fox Talbot">William Fox Talbot</a> for creating the first photographs. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camera_obscura.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Camera_obscura.png/170px-Camera_obscura.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Camera_obscura.png/255px-Camera_obscura.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Camera_obscura.png/340px-Camera_obscura.png 2x" data-file-width="3530" data-file-height="5600" /></a><figcaption>camera obscura in <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers</a>. 18th century</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_the_modern_age">Role in the modern age</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Role in the modern age">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camerae-obscurae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Camerae-obscurae.jpg/220px-Camerae-obscurae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Camerae-obscurae.jpg/330px-Camerae-obscurae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Camerae-obscurae.jpg/440px-Camerae-obscurae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1974" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption>Cameras obscura for <a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">daguerreotype</a> called "grand photographe" produced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Chevalier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Chevalier (page does not exist)">Charles Chevalier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers" title="Musée des Arts et Métiers">Musée des Arts et Métiers</a>).</figcaption></figure> While the technical principles of the camera obscura have been known since antiquity, the broad use of the technical concept in producing images with a <a href="/wiki/Linear_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear perspective">linear perspective</a> in paintings, maps, theatre setups, and architectural, and, later, photographic images and movies started in the Western Renaissance and the scientific revolution. Although <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> (Ibn al-Haytham) had already observed an optical effect and developed a pioneering theory of the refraction of light, he was less interested in producing images with it (compare <a href="/wiki/Hans_Belting" title="Hans Belting">Hans Belting</a> 2005); the society he lived in was even hostile (compare <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">Aniconism in Islam</a>) toward personal images.<a href="#cite_note-belt-80">[79]</a> Western artists and philosophers used the Middle Eastern findings in new frameworks of epistemic relevance.<a href="#cite_note-jim-81">[80]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> used the camera obscura as a model of the eye, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> for eye and mind, and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> started to use the camera obscura as a metaphor of human understanding per se.<a href="#cite_note-pt-82">[81]</a> The modern use of the camera obscura as an epistemic machine had important side effects for science.<a href="#cite_note-beh-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-id-84">[83]</a> While the use of the camera obscura has waxed and waned, one can still be built using a few simple items: a box, tracing paper, tape, foil, a box cutter, a pencil, and a blanket to keep out the light.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> Homemade camera obscura are popular primary- and secondary-school science or art projects. In 1827, critic Vergnaud complained about the frequent use of camera obscura in producing many of the paintings at that year's Salon exhibition in Paris: "Is the public to blame, the artists, or the jury, when history paintings, already rare, are sacrificed to genre painting, and what genre at that!... that of the camera obscura."<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> (translated from French) British photographer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Learoyd" title="Richard Learoyd">Richard Learoyd</a> has specialized in making pictures of his models and motifs with a camera obscura instead of a modern camera, combining it with the <a href="/wiki/Ilfochrome" title="Ilfochrome">ilfochrome</a> process which creates large grainless prints.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> Other contemporary visual artists who have explicitly used camera obscura in their artworks include <a href="/wiki/James_Turrell" title="James Turrell">James Turrell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abelardo_Morell" title="Abelardo Morell">Abelardo Morell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnie_Weisz" title="Minnie Weisz">Minnie Weisz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Calafiore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Calafiore (page does not exist)">Robert Calafiore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vera_Lutter" title="Vera Lutter">Vera Lutter</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marja_Piril%C3%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marja Pirilä (page does not exist)">Marja Pirilä</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shi_Guorui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shi Guorui (page does not exist)">Shi Guorui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_cameras">Digital cameras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Digital cameras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg/220px-Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg/330px-Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg/440px-Pikaraitiotie_15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">A tram</a> photographed with a pinhole objective attached to the <a href="/wiki/Lens_mount" title="Lens mount">lens mount</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital camera</a> </figcaption></figure> Camera obscura principle pinhole objectives <a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">machined</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> are commercially available.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> As the luminosity of the image is very weak in the phenomenon, long exposure times or high sensitivity must be used in digital photography. The resulting image appears hazy and the image is not that sharp, even if the objective is attached to a <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_art" title="State of the art">state of the art</a> camera body. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonnington_Pavilion" title="Bonnington Pavilion">Bonnington Pavilion</a> – the first Scottish camera obscura, dating from 1708</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_glass" title="Claude glass">Black mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifton_Observatory" title="Clifton Observatory">Clifton Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lucida" title="Camera lucida">Camera lucida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="History of cinema">History of cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper%27s_ghost" title="Pepper's ghost">Pepper's ghost</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In the Mozi passage, a camera obscura is described as a "collecting-point" or "treasure house" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BA%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:庫">庫</a>); the 18th-century scholar Bi Yuan (<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%95%A2%E6%B2%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="畢沅 (page does not exist)">畢沅</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%95%A2%E6%B2%85" class="extiw" title="zh:畢沅">zh</a>]) suggested this was a misprint for "screen" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%A2%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:㢓">㢓</a>). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 28em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/introduction-camera-obscura/">"Introduction to the Camera Obscura"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_and_Media_Museum" title="National Science and Media Museum">National Science and Media Museum</a>. 28 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211111045003/https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/introduction-camera-obscura/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Camera+Obscura&rft.pub=National+Science+and+Media+Museum&rft.date=2011-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk%2Fintroduction-camera-obscura%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoffregen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Stoffregen, Thomas A. (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10407413.2013.839896">"On the Physical Origins of Inverted Optic Images"</a>. Ecological Psychology. 25 (4): 369–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10407413.2013.839896">10.1080/10407413.2013.839896</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-7413">1040-7413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Psychology&rft.atitle=On+the+Physical+Origins+of+Inverted+Optic+Images&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=369-382&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10407413.2013.839896&rft.issn=1040-7413&rft.aulast=Stoffregen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F10407413.2013.839896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.essentialvermeer.com/camera_obscura/co_one.html">"Vermeer and the Camera Obscura, Part One"</a>. www.essentialvermeer.com. 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Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+World&rft.atitle=Camera+Obscura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceworld.ca%2Fresource%2Fcamera-obscura%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorenstein1989" class="citation book cs1">Horenstein, Henry (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O_jU1FIgKgcC&q=%22pinhole+image%22+%22camera+obscura%22">The Photographer's Source: A Complete Catalogue</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-64591-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-64591-5"><bdi>978-0-671-64591-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061237/https://books.google.com/books?id=O_jU1FIgKgcC&q=%22pinhole+image%22+%22camera+obscura%22">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Photographer%27s+Source%3A+A+Complete+Catalogue&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-671-64591-5&rft.aulast=Horenstein&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO_jU1FIgKgcC%26q%3D%2522pinhole%2Bimage%2522%2B%2522camera%2Bobscura%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldman2002" class="citation book cs1">Waldman, Gary (1 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PbsoAXWbnr4C&dq=%22pinhole+image%22&pg=PA37">Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color</a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42118-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42118-6"><bdi>978-0-486-42118-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061237/https://books.google.com/books?id=PbsoAXWbnr4C&dq=%22pinhole+image%22&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q=%22pinhole%20image%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. 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Comstock Publishing Company. <q>obscurum cubiculum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optic+projection%2C+principles%2C+installation%2C+and+use+of+the+magic+lantern%2C+projection+microscope%2C+reflecting+lantern%2C+moving+picture+machine&rft.pub=Comstock+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Phelps+Gage&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fopticprojection01gagegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-amateur_work-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amateur_work_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amateur_work_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amateur_work_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStandage1773" class="citation book cs1">Standage, H. C. 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Ecological Psychology. 25 (4): 369–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10407413.2013.839896">10.1080/10407413.2013.839896</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-7413">1040-7413</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145193148">145193148</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220623125112/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10407413.2013.839896">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2022. 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Longman. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801300073" title="Special:BookSources/9780801300073"><bdi>9780801300073</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061238/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ywe4AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Mass+Communication&rft.pages=65&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780801300073&rft.au=Melvin+Lawrence+DeFleur&rft.au=Sandra+Ball-Rokeach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYwe4AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physics-11"><a href="#cite_ref-physics_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinrich_F._Beyer_and_Viateheslav_P._Shevelko2016" class="citation book cs1">Heinrich F. Beyer and Viateheslav P. Shevelko (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5enLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions</a>. CRC Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420034097" title="Special:BookSources/9781420034097"><bdi>9781420034097</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061238/https://books.google.com/books?id=5enLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Physics+of+Highly+Charged+Ions&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781420034097&rft.au=Heinrich+F.+Beyer+and+Viateheslav+P.+Shevelko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5enLBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteadman2002" class="citation book cs1">Steadman, Philip (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xu6lJc2Nt8C">Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth Behind the Masterpieces</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192803023" title="Special:BookSources/9780192803023"><bdi>9780192803023</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061238/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xu6lJc2Nt8C">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vermeer%27s+Camera%3A+Uncovering+the+Truth+Behind+the+Masterpieces&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780192803023&rft.aulast=Steadman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Xu6lJc2Nt8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181112032902/http://paleo-camera.com/paleolithic/">"Paleolithic"</a>. paleo-camera. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleo-camera.com/paleolithic/">the original</a> on 12 November 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paleolithic&rft.pub=paleo-camera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleo-camera.com%2Fpaleolithic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171202122409/http://paleo-camera.com/neolithic/">"Neolithic"</a>. paleo-camera. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleo-camera.com/neolithic/">the original</a> on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neolithic&rft.pub=paleo-camera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleo-camera.com%2Fneolithic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennifer_Ouellette2016" class="citation web cs1">Jennifer Ouellette (29 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gizmodo.com/did-prehistoric-people-watch-the-stars-through-this-6-0-1782759791">"deadspin-quote-carrot-aligned-w-bgr-2"</a>. Gizmodo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918021216/https://gizmodo.com/did-prehistoric-people-watch-the-stars-through-this-6-0-1782759791">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gizmodo&rft.atitle=deadspin-quote-carrot-aligned-w-bgr-2&rft.date=2016-06-29&rft.au=Jennifer+Ouellette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Fdid-prehistoric-people-watch-the-stars-through-this-6-0-1782759791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulger1969" class="citation book cs1">Boulger, Demetrius Charles (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyssAQAAIAAJ&q=%22pierced+gnomon%22">The Asiatic Review</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061239/https://books.google.com/books?id=CyssAQAAIAAJ&q=%22pierced+gnomon%22">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Asiatic+Review&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Boulger&rft.aufirst=Demetrius+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCyssAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522pierced%2Bgnomon%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohr2012" class="citation book cs1">Rohr, René R.J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=msaqctAH8OkC&pg=PA6">Sundials: History, Theory, and Practice</a>. Courier Corporation. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-15170-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-15170-0"><bdi>978-0-486-15170-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061238/https://books.google.com/books?id=msaqctAH8OkC&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sundials%3A+History%2C+Theory%2C+and+Practice&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-486-15170-0&rft.aulast=Rohr&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9+R.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmsaqctAH8OkC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham4_98-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham4_98_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham4_98_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham4_98_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703010030/https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology</a> (PDF). p. 98. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%2C+vol.+IV%2C+part+1%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology&rft.pages=98&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F7%2F70%2FNeedham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181101020319/http://paleo-camera.com/ancient-greece/">"Ancient Greece"</a>. paleo-camera. 9 March 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleo-camera.com/ancient-greece/">the original</a> on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greece&rft.pub=paleo-camera&rft.date=2010-03-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleo-camera.com%2Fancient-greece%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuffles2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruffles, Tom (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BIL2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">Ghost Images: Cinema of the Afterlife</a>. McFarland. pp. 15–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786420056" title="Special:BookSources/9780786420056"><bdi>9780786420056</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061748/https://books.google.com/books?id=BIL2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. 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Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 5 (2): 154–176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00327249">10.1007/BF00327249</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519">0003-9519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133285">41133285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122370983">122370983</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022022542/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133285">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bonnerweb.de/bilder/pinhole/sonnentaler/sonnentaler.htm">the original</a> on 11 November 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kleine+Geschichte+der+Lochkamera+oder+Camera+Obscura&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bonnerweb.de%2Fbilder%2Fpinhole%2Fsonnentaler%2Fsonnentaler.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crombie1990-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Crombie1990_25-0">^</a> G. Huxley (1959) Anthemius of Tralles: a study of later Greek Geometry pp. 6–8, pp.44–46 as cited in (<a href="#CITEREFCrombie1990">Crombie 1990</a>), p.205 </li> <li id="cite_note-renner2012-26"><a href="#cite_ref-renner2012_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenner2012" class="citation book cs1">Renner, Eric (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170212091054/http://foto.art.br/alternativa/PinholePhoto.pdf">Pinhole Photography: From Historic Technique to Digital Application</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://foto.art.br/alternativa/PinholePhoto.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 February 2017. 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Taylor & Francis. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852744512" title="Special:BookSources/9780852744512"><bdi>9780852744512</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061749/https://books.google.com/books?id=W-ZTAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Yu+Chao-Lung%22">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+camera+obscura%3A+a+chronicle&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780852744512&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW-ZTAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Yu%2BChao-Lung%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physics_worldview-28"><a href="#cite_ref-physics_worldview_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkpatrickFrancis2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_D._Kirkpatrick" title="Larry D. Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick, Larry D.</a>; Francis, Gregory E. (2007). "Light". Physics: A World View (6 ed.). Belmont, California: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01088-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01088-3"><bdi>978-0-495-01088-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Light&rft.btitle=Physics%3A+A+World+View&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.pages=339&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-01088-3&rft.aulast=Kirkpatrick&rft.aufirst=Larry+D.&rft.au=Francis%2C+Gregory+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaynaud2016" class="citation book cs1">Raynaud, Dominique (2016). A Critical Edition of Ibn al-Haytham's On the Shape of the Eclipse. The First Experimental Study of the Camera Obscura. New York: Springer International.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Edition+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+On+the+Shape+of+the+Eclipse.+The+First+Experimental+Study+of+the+Camera+Obscura&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer+International&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Raynaud&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703010030/http://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology</a> (PDF). p. 98. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016. <q>it seems that, like Shen Kua, he had predecessors in its study, since he did not claim it as any new finding of his own. But his treatment of it was competently geometrical and quantitative for the first time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%2C+vol.+IV%2C+part+1%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology&rft.pages=98&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F7%2F70%2FNeedham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703010030/http://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology</a> (PDF). p. 99. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016. <q>The genius of Shen Kua's insight into the relation of focal point and pinhole can better be appreciated when we read in Singer that this was first understood in Europe by Leonardo da Vinci (+ 1452 to + 1519), almost five hundred years later. A diagram showing the relation occurs in the Codice Atlantico, Leonardo thought that the lens of the eye reversed the pinhole effect, so that the image did not appear inverted on the retina; though in fact it does. Actually, the analogy of focal-point and pin-point must have been understood by Ibn al-Haitham, who died just about the time when Shen Kua was born.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%2C+vol.+IV%2C+part+1%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology&rft.pages=99&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F7%2F70%2FNeedham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> A. Mark Smith, ed. & trans., “Alhacen’s Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen’s De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn Al-Haytham’s Kitāb Al-Manāẓir,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014319/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">Archived</a> 21 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357">5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190819120246/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357">Archived</a> 19 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2001): i–clxxxi, 1–337, 339–819 at 379, paragraph 6.85. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlott1984" class="citation book cs1">Plott, John C. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ErMRGiNcxJIC&q=euclid+inverted+image&pg=PA460">Global History of Philosophy: The Period of scholasticism (part one)</a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 460. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780895816788" title="Special:BookSources/9780895816788"><bdi>9780895816788</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061753/https://books.google.com/books?id=ErMRGiNcxJIC&q=euclid+inverted+image&pg=PA460#v=snippet&q=euclid%20inverted%20image&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+History+of+Philosophy%3A+The+Period+of+scholasticism+%28part+one%29&rft.pages=460&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780895816788&rft.aulast=Plott&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DErMRGiNcxJIC%26q%3Deuclid%2Binverted%2Bimage%26pg%3DPA460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170703010030/https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology</a> (PDF). pp. 97–98. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%2C+vol.+IV%2C+part+1%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology&rft.pages=97-98&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F7%2F70%2FNeedham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1970" class="citation journal cs1">Lindberg, David C. (1 January 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00327235">"A reconsideration of Roger Bacon's theory of pinhole images"</a>. Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 6 (3): 214–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00327235">10.1007/BF00327235</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11615487">11615487</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45315239">45315239</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061744/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00327235">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2021 – via Springer Link.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+reconsideration+of+Roger+Bacon%27s+theory+of+pinhole+images&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=214-223&rft.date=1970-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45315239%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11615487&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00327235&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF00327235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mannoni1-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mannoni1_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mannoni1_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mannoni1_36-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMannoni2000" class="citation book cs1">Mannoni, Laurent (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_cSAQAAMAAJ">The great art of light and shadow</a>. University of Exeter Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780859895675" title="Special:BookSources/9780859895675"><bdi>9780859895675</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061750/https://books.google.com/books?id=t_cSAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+great+art+of+light+and+shadow&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780859895675&rft.aulast=Mannoni&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_cSAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doble-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Doble_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoble2012" class="citation book cs1">Doble, Rick (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zt-mCwAAQBAJ&q=roger+bacon+camera+obscura&pg=PT206">15 Years of Essay-Blogs About Contemporary Art & Digital Photography</a>. Lulu.com. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781300198550" title="Special:BookSources/9781300198550"><bdi>9781300198550</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=15+Years+of+Essay-Blogs+About+Contemporary+Art+%26+Digital+Photography&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781300198550&rft.aulast=Doble&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZt-mCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Droger%2Bbacon%2Bcamera%2Bobscura%26pg%3DPT206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKircher1646" class="citation book cs1">Kircher, Athanasius (1646). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xggfro5KeRoC&pg=PA130">Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061750/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xggfro5KeRoC&pg=PA130#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ars+Magna+Lucis+et+Umbrae&rft.date=1646&rft.aulast=Kircher&rft.aufirst=Athanasius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXggfro5KeRoC%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergPecham1972" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C.; Pecham, John (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UytDAAAAIAAJ&q=camera&pg=PA15">Tractatus de perspectiva</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061751/https://books.google.com/books?id=UytDAAAAIAAJ&q=camera&pg=PA15#v=snippet&q=camera&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tractatus+de+perspectiva&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Pecham%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUytDAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dcamera%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns" class="citation web cs1">Burns, Paul T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231080921/http://www.precinemahistory.net/900.htm">"The History of the Discovery of Cinematography"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.precinemahistory.net/900.htm">the original</a> on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Discovery+of+Cinematography&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.precinemahistory.net%2F900.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.camera-obscura.org.uk/Camera_Obscura/Timeline.html">"A Look into Camera Obscuras"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141029030133/http://www.camera-obscura.org.uk/Camera_Obscura/Timeline.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Look+into+Camera+Obscuras&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.camera-obscura.org.uk%2FCamera_Obscura%2FTimeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMancha2006" class="citation book cs1">Mancha, J.L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=02KQgQNL-P4C&q=%22william+of+saint-cloud%22+camera&pg=PA37">Studies in Medieval Astronomy and Optics</a>. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 275–297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860789963" title="Special:BookSources/9780860789963"><bdi>9780860789963</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110061751/https://books.google.com/books?id=02KQgQNL-P4C&q=%22william+of+saint-cloud%22+camera&pg=PA37#v=snippet&q=%22william%20of%20saint-cloud%22%20camera&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Medieval+Astronomy+and+Optics&rft.pages=275-297&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780860789963&rft.aulast=Mancha&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D02KQgQNL-P4C%26q%3D%2522william%2Bof%2Bsaint-cloud%2522%2Bcamera%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Nader El-Bizri, "Optics", in Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, ed. Josef W. Meri (New York – London: Routledge, 2005), Vol. II, pp. 578–580 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Nader El-Bizri, "Al-Farisi, Kamal al-Din," in The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy, ed. Oliver Leaman (London – New York: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006), Vol. I, pp. 131–135 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2012" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Bernard R. (6 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ETOtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79">The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson</a>. Springer. pp. 140–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401133425" title="Special:BookSources/9789401133425"><bdi>9789401133425</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062242/https://books.google.com/books?id=ETOtBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Astronomy+of+Levi+ben+Gerson&rft.pages=140-143&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012-12-06&rft.isbn=9789401133425&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DETOtBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean_Paul_Richter1880" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul_Richter" title="Jean Paul Richter">Jean Paul Richter</a>, ed. (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fromoldbooks.org/Richter-NotebooksOfLeonardo/section-2/item-71.html">"The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci"</a>. FromOldBooks.org. p. 71. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160924192917/http://www.fromoldbooks.org/Richter-NotebooksOfLeonardo/section-2/item-71.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Notebooks+of+Leonardo+da+Vinci&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=FromOldBooks.org&rft.date=1880&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fromoldbooks.org%2FRichter-NotebooksOfLeonardo%2Fsection-2%2Fitem-71.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZewailThomas2010" class="citation cs2">Zewail, Ahmed H.; Thomas, John Meurig (2010), 4D Electron Microscopy: Imaging in Space and Time, World Scientific, p. 5, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848163904" title="Special:BookSources/9781848163904"><bdi>9781848163904</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=4D+Electron+Microscopy%3A+Imaging+in+Space+and+Time&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781848163904&rft.aulast=Zewail&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+H.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+John+Meurig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988">: "The Latin translation of Alhazen's work influenced scientists and philosophers such as (Roger) Bacon and da Vinci, and formed the foundation for the work by mathematicians like Kepler, Descartes and Huygens..." </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Josef Maria Eder History of Photography translated by Edward Epstean Hon. F.R.P.S Copyright Columbia University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-Repstad-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Repstad_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Repstad_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrepstad2015" class="citation web cs1">Grepstad, Jon (20 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jongrepstad.com/pinhole-photography/pinhole-photography-history-images-cameras-formulas/">"Pinhole Photography – History, Images, Cameras, Formulas"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160917104024/https://jongrepstad.com/pinhole-photography/pinhole-photography-history-images-cameras-formulas/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pinhole+Photography+%E2%80%93+History%2C+Images%2C+Cameras%2C+Formulas&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.aulast=Grepstad&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjongrepstad.com%2Fpinhole-photography%2Fpinhole-photography-history-images-cameras-formulas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918063919/http://www.sumscorp.com/leonardo_studies/news_98.html">"Leonardo and the Camera Obscura / Kim Veltman"</a>. Sumscorp.com. 2 December 1986. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sumscorp.com/leonardo_studies/news_98.html">the original</a> on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leonardo+and+the+Camera+Obscura+%2F+Kim+Veltman&rft.pub=Sumscorp.com&rft.date=1986-12-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sumscorp.com%2Fleonardo_studies%2Fnews_98.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ilardi-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ilardi_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ilardi_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ilardi_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ilardi_51-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlardi2007" class="citation book cs1">Ilardi, Vincent (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_peIL7hVQUmwC">Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes</a>. American Philosophical Society. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_peIL7hVQUmwC/page/n231">220</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871692597" title="Special:BookSources/9780871692597"><bdi>9780871692597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Vision+from+Spectacles+to+Telescopes&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780871692597&rft.aulast=Ilardi&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_peIL7hVQUmwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurolico1611" class="citation book cs1">Maurolico, Francesco (1611). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug6ywn-D9BgC&pg=PP9">Photismi de lumine et umbra</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062244/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug6ywn-D9BgC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photismi+de+lumine+et+umbra&rft.date=1611&rft.aulast=Maurolico&rft.aufirst=Francesco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUg6ywn-D9BgC%26pg%3DPP9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larsen-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Larsen_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larsen_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsen" class="citation web cs1">Larsen, Kenneth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160707173823/http://www.williamshakespeare-sonnets.com/sonnet-24">"Sonnet 24"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.williamshakespeare-sonnets.com/sonnet-24">the original</a> on 7 July 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sonnet+24&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.williamshakespeare-sonnets.com%2Fsonnet-24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurbin2012" class="citation book cs1">Durbin, P.T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R2OSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">Philosophy of Technology</a>. Springer. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400923034" title="Special:BookSources/9789400923034"><bdi>9789400923034</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062244/https://books.google.com/books?id=R2OSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Technology&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789400923034&rft.aulast=Durbin&rft.aufirst=P.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR2OSBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snyder-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2015" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Laura J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EQJ-BAAAQBAJ&q=friedrich+risner+camera+obscura&pg=PT110">Eye of the Beholder</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393246520" title="Special:BookSources/9780393246520"><bdi>9780393246520</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062305/https://books.google.com/books?id=EQJ-BAAAQBAJ&q=friedrich+risner+camera+obscura&pg=PT110#v=snippet&q=friedrich%20risner%20camera%20obscura&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eye+of+the+Beholder&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780393246520&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Laura+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEQJ-BAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfriedrich%2Brisner%2Bcamera%2Bobscura%26pg%3DPT110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKircher1645" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kircher, Athanasius (1645). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYlDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA806">"Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae"</a> (in Latin). p. 806b. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062300/https://books.google.com/books?id=wYlDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA806#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ars+Magna+Lucis+Et+Umbrae&rft.pages=806b&rft.date=1645&rft.aulast=Kircher&rft.aufirst=Athanasius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYlDAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassini" class="citation web cs1">Cassini. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stelle.bo.astro.it/archivio/2005-anno-cassiniano/meridian_ing.htm">"1655–2005: 350 Years of the Great Meridian Line"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160728113319/http://stelle.bo.astro.it/archivio/2005-anno-cassiniano/meridian_ing.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1655%E2%80%932005%3A+350+Years+of+the+Great+Meridian+Line&rft.au=Cassini&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstelle.bo.astro.it%2Farchivio%2F2005-anno-cassiniano%2Fmeridian_ing.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedetti1585" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Benedetti, Giambattista (1585). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2CJFAAAAcAAJ&q=%22Diversarum%20Speculationum%20Mathematicarum%22&pg=PP1">Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum</a> (in Latin). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062301/https://books.google.com/books?id=2CJFAAAAcAAJ&q=%22Diversarum%20Speculationum%20Mathematicarum%22&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=%22Diversarum%20Speculationum%20Mathematicarum%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diversarum+Speculationum+Mathematicarum&rft.date=1585&rft.aulast=Benedetti&rft.aufirst=Giambattista&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2CJFAAAAcAAJ%26q%3D%2522Diversarum%2520Speculationum%2520Mathematicarum%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiovanni_Battista_della_Porta1658" class="citation book cs1">Giovanni Battista della Porta (1658). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A55484.0001.001/1:20?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">Natural Magick (Book XVII, Chap. V + VI)</a>. pp. 363–365. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200516072234/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A55484.0001.001/1:20?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Magick+%28Book+XVII%2C+Chap.+V+%2B+VI%29&rft.pages=363-365&rft.date=1658&rft.au=Giovanni+Battista+della+Porta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fe%2Feebo%2FA55484.0001.001%2F1%3A20%3Frgn%3Ddiv1%3Bview%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorta1589" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Porta, Giovan Battista Della (1589). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L2kjTEvXAdUC&pg=PT282">Magia Naturalis</a> (in Latin). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062248/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2kjTEvXAdUC&pg=PT282#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magia+Naturalis&rft.date=1589&rft.aulast=Porta&rft.aufirst=Giovan+Battista+Della&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL2kjTEvXAdUC%26pg%3DPT282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dupre-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dupre_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dupre_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupre2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dupre, Sven (2008). "Inside the "Camera Obscura": Kepler's Experiment and Theory of Optical Imagery". Early Science and Medicine. 13 (3): 219–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338208X285026">10.1163/157338208X285026</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F33285">1874/33285</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20617729">20617729</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170316526">170316526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Science+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Inside+the+%22Camera+Obscura%22%3A+Kepler%27s+Experiment+and+Theory+of+Optical+Imagery&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=219-244&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F33285&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170316526%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20617729%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157338208X285026&rft.aulast=Dupre&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1981" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8A_auBvyFoC&q=kepler+camera+obscura+eye&pg=PA186">Theories of Vision from Al-kindi to Kepler</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226482354" title="Special:BookSources/9780226482354"><bdi>9780226482354</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062247/https://books.google.com/books?id=-8A_auBvyFoC&q=kepler+camera+obscura+eye&pg=PA186#v=snippet&q=kepler%20camera%20obscura%20eye&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Vision+from+Al-kindi+to+Kepler&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780226482354&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8A_auBvyFoC%26q%3Dkepler%2Bcamera%2Bobscura%2Beye%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aps-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aps_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aps_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aps_63-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201503/physicshistory.cfm">"This Month in Physics History"</a>. www.aps.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211209142919/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201503/physicshistory.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aps.org&rft.atitle=This+Month+in+Physics+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F201503%2Fphysicshistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Surdin, V., and M. Kartashev. "Light in a dark room." Quantum 9.6 (1999): 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitehouse-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whitehouse_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitehouse_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouse2004" class="citation book cs1">Whitehouse, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4eHgCgAAQBAJ&q=castelli&pg=PT82">The Sun: A Biography</a>. Orion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474601092" title="Special:BookSources/9781474601092"><bdi>9781474601092</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062750/https://books.google.com/books?id=4eHgCgAAQBAJ&q=castelli&pg=PT82">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sun%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781474601092&rft.aulast=Whitehouse&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4eHgCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcastelli%26pg%3DPT82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaxecker2006" class="citation news cs1">Daxecker, Franz (2006). 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280302-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280302-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280302-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vermeer%27s+camera+%3A+uncovering+the+truth+behind+the+masterpieces&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280302-3&rft.au=Steadman%2C+Philip&rft.au=Vermeer%2C+Johannes%2C+1632%E2%80%931675&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvermeerscameraun0000stea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelock2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wheelock, Arthur K. Jr. (2013). "Constantijn huygens and early attitudes towards the camera obscura". History of Photography. 1 (2): 93–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03087298.1977.10442893">10.1080/03087298.1977.10442893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Photography&rft.atitle=Constantijn+huygens+and+early+attitudes+towards+the+camera+obscura&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=93-103&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03087298.1977.10442893&rft.aulast=Wheelock&rft.aufirst=Arthur+K.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwenter1636" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schwenter, Daniel (1636). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=EWM_AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en_GB&pg=GBS.PA255">Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae</a> (in German). Endter. p. 255. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301122936/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=EWM_AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en_GB&pg=GBS.PA255">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deliciae+Physico-Mathematicae&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Endter&rft.date=1636&rft.aulast=Schwenter&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3DEWM_AAAAcAAJ%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26output%3Dreader%26hl%3Den_GB%26pg%3DGBS.PA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsNisbet2012" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Jane; Nisbet, Andrew (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YSUUONfamiEC&pg=PA36">Theatre and Performance Design: A Reader in Scenographyy</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136344527" title="Special:BookSources/9781136344527"><bdi>9781136344527</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062812/https://books.google.com/books?id=YSUUONfamiEC&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theatre+and+Performance+Design%3A+A+Reader+in+Scenographyy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136344527&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Nisbet%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYSUUONfamiEC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicéron1652" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nicéron, Jean François (1652). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7xMOAAAAQAAJ">La Perspective curieuse</a> (in French). Chez la veufue F. 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Loret</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220620083038/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k62124533">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+muze+historique%2C+ou+Recueil+des+lettres+en+vers+contenant+les+nouvelles+du+temps+%3A+%C3%A9crites+%C3%A0+Son+Altesse+Mademoizelle+de+Longueville%2C+depuis+duchesse+de+Nemours+%281650-1665%29.+Tome+2+%2F+par+J.+Loret&rft.date=1857%2F1891&rft.aulast=Loret&rft.aufirst=Jean+%281595%3F-1665%29+Auteur+du+texte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k62124533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrangle" class="citation cs2">Crangle, Richard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.magiclantern.org.uk/new-magic-lantern-journal/pdfs/4008787a.pdf">'A Quite Rare Entertainment': An optical show in Paris in 1656</a> (PDF), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220609025239/http://www.magiclantern.org.uk/new-magic-lantern-journal/pdfs/4008787a.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27A+Quite+Rare+Entertainment%27%3A+An+optical+show+in+Paris+in+1656&rft.aulast=Crangle&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.magiclantern.org.uk%2Fnew-magic-lantern-journal%2Fpdfs%2F4008787a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Hooke1809" class="citation book cs1">Robert Hooke (1809). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92lnIw3oKGMC&q=It+produces+Effects+not+only+very+delightful%2C+but+to+such+as+know+the+contrivance%2C+very+wonderful%3B+so+that+Spectators%2C+not+well+versed+in+Opticks%2C&pg=PA269">The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, from Their Commencement, in 1665, to the Year 1800</a>. R. Baldwin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062752/https://books.google.com/books?id=92lnIw3oKGMC&q=It+produces+Effects+not+only+very+delightful%2C+but+to+such+as+know+the+contrivance%2C+very+wonderful%3B+so+that+Spectators%2C+not+well+versed+in+Opticks%2C&pg=PA269#v=snippet&q=It%20produces%20Effects%20not%20only%20very%20delightful%2C%20but%20to%20such%20as%20know%20the%20contrivance%2C%20very%20wonderful%3B%20so%20that%20Spectators%2C%20not%20well%20versed%20in%20Opticks%2C&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London%2C+from+Their+Commencement%2C+in+1665%2C+to+the+Year+1800&rft.pub=R.+Baldwin&rft.date=1809&rft.au=Robert+Hooke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92lnIw3oKGMC%26q%3DIt%2Bproduces%2BEffects%2Bnot%2Bonly%2Bvery%2Bdelightful%252C%2Bbut%2Bto%2Bsuch%2Bas%2Bknow%2Bthe%2Bcontrivance%252C%2Bvery%2Bwonderful%253B%2Bso%2Bthat%2BSpectators%252C%2Bnot%2Bwell%2Bversed%2Bin%2BOpticks%252C%26pg%3DPA269&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm1676" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sturm, Johann (1676). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMWAAAAQAAJ">Collegium experimentale, sive curiosum</a> (in Latin). pp. 161–163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062754/https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMWAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collegium+experimentale%2C+sive+curiosum&rft.pages=161-163&rft.date=1676&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Johann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnbMWAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Gernsheim, pp. 5–6 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Wenczel, pg. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlgarotti1764" class="citation book cs1">Algarotti, Francesco (1764). Presso Marco Coltellini, Livorno (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SNY9AAAAcAAJ">Saggio sopra la pittura</a>. pp. 59–63. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110062754/https://books.google.com/books?id=SNY9AAAAcAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 23 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saggio+sopra+la+pittura&rft.pages=59-63&rft.date=1764&rft.aulast=Algarotti&rft.aufirst=Francesco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSNY9AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-belt-80"><a href="#cite_ref-belt_80-0">^</a> Hans Belting Das echte Bild. Bildfragen als Glaubensfragen. München 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-53460-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-53460-0">3-406-53460-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jim-81"><a href="#cite_ref-jim_81-0">^</a> An Anthropological Trompe L'Oeil for a Common World: An Essay on the Economy of Knowledge, Alberto Corsin Jimenez, Berghahn Books, 15 June 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-pt-82"><a href="#cite_ref-pt_82-0">^</a> Philosophy of Technology: Practical, Historical and Other Dimensions P.T. Durbin Springer Science & Business Media </li> <li id="cite_note-beh-83"><a href="#cite_ref-beh_83-0">^</a> Contesting Visibility: Photographic Practices on the East African Coast Heike Behrend transcript, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-id-84"><a href="#cite_ref-id_84-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Don_Ihde" title="Don Ihde">Don Ihde</a> Art Precedes Science: or Did the Camera Obscura Invent Modern Science? In Instruments in Art and Science: On the Architectonics of Cultural Boundaries in the 17th Century Helmar Schramm, Ludger Schwarte, Jan Lazardzig, Walter de Gruyter, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.camera-obscura.co.uk/">"Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh - fun for all the family"</a>. Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211209142911/https://www.camera-obscura.co.uk/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Camera+Obscura+and+World+of+Illusions+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=Camera+Obscura+and+World+of+Illusions+Edinburgh+-+fun+for+all+the+family&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.camera-obscura.co.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinson2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pinson, Stephen (1 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/345">"Daguerre, expérimentateur du visuel"</a>. Études photographiques (in French) (13): 110–135. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1270-9050">1270-9050</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200522223015/https://journals.openedition.org/etudesphotographiques/345">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+photographiques&rft.atitle=Daguerre%2C+exp%C3%A9rimentateur+du+visuel&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=110-135&rft.date=2003-07-01&rft.issn=1270-9050&rft.aulast=Pinson&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fetudesphotographiques%2F345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk/about/news-blog/2021/april/richard-learoyd-interview/">"Exuberant and tragic poppies: An interview with Richard Learoyd"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219101404/https://www.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk/about/news-blog/2021/april/richard-learoyd-interview/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exuberant+and+tragic+poppies%3A+An+interview+with+Richard+Learoyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dulwichpicturegallery.org.uk%2Fabout%2Fnews-blog%2F2021%2Fapril%2Frichard-learoyd-interview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hyperallergic.com/160003/photography-without-negatives/">"Photography Without Negatives"</a>. 3 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211220164101/https://hyperallergic.com/160003/photography-without-negatives/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Photography+Without+Negatives&rft.date=2014-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhyperallergic.com%2F160003%2Fphotography-without-negatives%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irequireart.com/blog/2019/02/14/contemporary-photographers-and-the-camera-obscura-by-laura-gardner-heyrman/">"Contemporary Photographers and the Camera Obscura"</a>. I Require Art. 14 February 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182754/https://www.irequireart.com/blog/2019/02/14/contemporary-photographers-and-the-camera-obscura-by-laura-gardner-heyrman/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=I+Require+Art&rft.atitle=Contemporary+Photographers+and+the+Camera+Obscura&rft.date=2019-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irequireart.com%2Fblog%2F2019%2F02%2F14%2Fcontemporary-photographers-and-the-camera-obscura-by-laura-gardner-heyrman%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thingyfy.com/collections/pinhole-lens">"Pinhole Lens"</a>. Thingyfy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604173554/https://thingyfy.com/collections/pinhole-lens">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pinhole+Lens&rft.pub=Thingyfy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthingyfy.com%2Fcollections%2Fpinhole-lens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrombie1990" class="citation cs2">Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zWrH7h9jNgUC">Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought</a>, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 205, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-79-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-79-8"><bdi>978-0-907628-79-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 22 August 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+optics%2C+and+music+in+medieval+and+early+modern+thought&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-907628-79-8&rft.aulast=Crombie&rft.aufirst=Alistair+Cameron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzWrH7h9jNgUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelleyMiloneAveni2005" class="citation cs2">Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, A. F. (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zNkgyyPr7kwC">Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy</a>, Birkhäuser, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95310-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95310-6"><bdi>978-0-387-95310-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/213887290">213887290</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Ancient+Skies%3A+An+Encyclopedic+Survey+of+Archaeoastronomy&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F213887290&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95310-6&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rft.au=Milone%2C+E.+F.&rft.au=Aveni%2C+A.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzNkgyyPr7kwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Routledge Hill">Hill, Donald R.</a> (1993), "Islamic Science and Engineering", <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>, page 70.</li> <li>Lindberg, D.C. (1976), "Theories of Vision from Al Kindi to Kepler", <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Chicago Press">The University of Chicago Press</a>, Chicago and London.</li> <li>Nazeef, Mustapha (1940), "Ibn Al-Haitham As a Naturalist Scientist", (in Arabic), published proceedings of the Memorial Gathering of Al-Hacan Ibn Al-Haitham, 21 December 1939, Egypt Printing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</li> <li>Omar, S.B. (1977). "Ibn al-Haitham's Optics", Bibliotheca Islamica, Chicago.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaynaud2016" class="citation cs2">Raynaud, D. (2016), A Critical Edition of Ibn al-Haytham's On the Shape of the Eclipse. The First Experimental Study of the Camera Obscura, New York: Springer International, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319479910" title="Special:BookSources/9783319479910"><bdi>9783319479910</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Edition+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+On+the+Shape+of+the+Eclipse.+The+First+Experimental+Study+of+the+Camera+Obscura&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer+International&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783319479910&rft.aulast=Raynaud&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWadeFinger2001" class="citation cs2">Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", Perception, 30 (10): 1157–1177, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp3210">10.1068/p3210</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11721819">11721819</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8185797">8185797</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perception&rft.atitle=The+eye+as+an+optical+instrument%3A+from+camera+obscura+to+Helmholtz%27s+perspective&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1157-1177&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8185797%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11721819&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1068%2Fp3210&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rft.au=Finger%2C+Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACamera+obscura" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lefèvre, Wolfgang (ed.) Inside the Camera Obscura: Optics and Art under the Spell of the Projected Image. Max Planck Institut Fur Wissenschaftgesichte. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P333.PDF">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burkhard_Walther&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burkhard Walther (page does not exist)">Burkhard Walther</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Przemek_Zajfert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Przemek Zajfert (page does not exist)">Przemek Zajfert</a>: Camera Obscura Heidelberg. Black-and-white photography and texts. Historical and contemporary literature. edition merid, Stuttgart, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-9810820-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-9810820-0-1">3-9810820-0-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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aria-labelledby="Mathematics_and_art" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Paraboloid">Paraboloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">Perspective</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lucida" title="Camera lucida">Camera lucida</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Camera obscura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_ratio" title="Plastic ratio">Plastic ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projective_geometry" title="Projective geometry">Projective geometry</a></li> <li>Proportion <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proportion_(architecture)" title="Proportion (architecture)">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_proportions" title="Body proportions">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry" title="Symmetry">Symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">Tessellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallpaper_group" title="Wallpaper group">Wallpaper group</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:FWF_Samuel_Monnier_(vertical_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fibonacci word: detail of artwork by Samuel Monnier, 2009"><img alt="Fibonacci word: detail of artwork by Samuel Monnier, 2009" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg/75px-FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg/113px-FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg/150px-FWF_Samuel_Monnier_%28vertical_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="700" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_art" title="Algorithmic art">Algorithmic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anamorphosis" title="Anamorphosis">Anamorphic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_architecture" title="Mathematics and architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesic_dome" title="Geodesic dome">Geodesic dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_art" title="Computer art">Computer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_fiber_arts" title="Mathematics and fiber arts">Fiber arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art" title="Fourth dimension in art">4D art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractal_art" title="Fractal art">Fractal art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Islamic geometric patterns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Girih" title="Girih">Girih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jali" title="Jali">Jali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knot" title="Knot">Knotting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Celtic knot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_interlace" title="Croatian interlace">Croatian interlace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">Interlace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_and_mathematics" title="Music and mathematics">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origami" title="Origami">Origami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_paper_folding" title="Mathematics of paper folding">Mathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sculpture" title="Mathematical sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_art" title="String art">String art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">Tiling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artworks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_designed_with_the_golden_ratio" title="List of works designed with the golden ratio">List of works designed with the golden ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_(sculpture)" title="Continuum (sculpture)">Continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathemalchemy" title="Mathemalchemy">Mathemalchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematica:_A_World_of_Numbers..._and_Beyond" title="Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond">Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octacube_(sculpture)" title="Octacube (sculpture)">Octacube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_(art_project)" title="Pi (art project)">Pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_in_the_Sky" title="Pi in the Sky">Pi in the Sky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_architecture" title="Mathematics and architecture">Buildings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Mary_of_the_Assumption_(San_Francisco)" title="Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption (San Francisco)">Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Pyramid of Khufu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagrada_Fam%C3%ADlia" title="Sagrada Família">Sagrada Família</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists" title="List of mathematical artists">Artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Renaissance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Uccello" title="Paolo Uccello">Paolo Uccello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca" title="Piero della Francesca">Piero della Francesca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvian_Man" title="Vitruvian Man">Vitruvian Man</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmigianino" title="Parmigianino">Parmigianino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-portrait_in_a_Convex_Mirror" title="Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror">Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th–20th Century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Ancient_of_Days" title="The Ancient of Days">The Ancient of Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)" title="Newton (Blake)">Newton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Jean Metzinger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dancer_in_a_Caf%C3%A9" title="Dancer in a Café">Danseuse au café</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Oiseau_bleu_(Metzinger)" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Oiseau bleu (Metzinger)">L'Oiseau bleu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Giorgio de Chirico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Ray" title="Man Ray">Man Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._C._Escher" title="M. C. Escher">M. C. Escher</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circle_Limit_III" title="Circle Limit III">Circle Limit III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_Gallery_(M._C._Escher)" title="Print Gallery (M. C. Escher)">Print Gallery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_(M._C._Escher)" title="Relativity (M. C. Escher)">Relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptiles_(M._C._Escher)" title="Reptiles (M. C. Escher)">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall_(M._C._Escher)" title="Waterfall (M. C. Escher)">Waterfall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte" title="René Magritte">René Magritte</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Condition_(Magritte)" title="The Human Condition (Magritte)">La condition humaine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD" title="Salvador Dalí">Salvador Dalí</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_(Corpus_Hypercubus)" title="Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus)">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Swallow%27s_Tail" title="The Swallow's Tail">The Swallow's Tail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crockett_Johnson" title="Crockett Johnson">Crockett Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bill" title="Max Bill">Max Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Demaine" title="Martin Demaine">Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erik_Demaine" title="Erik Demaine">Erik Demaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Draves" title="Scott Draves">Scott Draves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Dibbets" title="Jan Dibbets">Jan Dibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ernest" title="John Ernest">John Ernest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helaman_Ferguson" title="Helaman Ferguson">Helaman Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Forakis" title="Peter Forakis">Peter Forakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Goldstine" title="Susan Goldstine">Susan Goldstine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathsheba_Grossman" title="Bathsheba Grossman">Bathsheba Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Hart" title="George W. Hart">George W. Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Paul_Henry" title="Desmond Paul Henry">Desmond Paul Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hill_(artist)" title="Anthony Hill (artist)">Anthony Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Jencks" title="Charles Jencks">Charles Jencks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Cosmic_Speculation" title="Garden of Cosmic Speculation">Garden of Cosmic Speculation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Lomas" title="Andy Lomas">Andy Lomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Longhurst" title="Robert Longhurst">Robert Longhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanette_McLeod" title="Jeanette McLeod">Jeanette McLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_Naderi_Yeganeh" title="Hamid Naderi Yeganeh">Hamid Naderi Yeganeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Orosz" title="István Orosz">István Orosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinke_Osinga" title="Hinke Osinga">Hinke Osinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pevsner" title="Antoine Pevsner">Antoine Pevsner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Robbin" title="Tony Robbin">Tony Robbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alba_Rojo_Cama" title="Alba Rojo Cama">Alba Rojo Cama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Sarhangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Reza Sarhangi">Reza Sarhangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Sin" title="Oliver Sin">Oliver Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Sugimoto" title="Hiroshi Sugimoto">Hiroshi Sugimoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daina_Taimi%C5%86a" title="Daina Taimiņa">Daina Taimiņa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Verostko" title="Roman Verostko">Roman Verostko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Wertheim" title="Margaret Wertheim">Margaret Wertheim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polykleitos" title="Polykleitos">Polykleitos</a> <ul><li>Canon</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Renaissance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Filippo Brunelleschi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_pictura" title="De pictura">De pictura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_aedificatoria" title="De re aedificatoria">De re aedificatoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_della_Francesca" title="Piero della Francesca">Piero della Francesca</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_prospectiva_pingendi" title="De prospectiva pingendi">De prospectiva pingendi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Pacioli" title="Luca Pacioli">Luca Pacioli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divina_proportione" title="Divina proportione">De divina proportione</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Painting" title="A Treatise on Painting">A Treatise on Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a> <ul><li>Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastiano_Serlio" title="Sebastiano Serlio">Sebastiano Serlio</a> <ul><li>Regole generali d'architettura</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Palladio" title="Andrea Palladio">Andrea Palladio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_quattro_libri_dell%27architettura" title="I quattro libri dell'architettura">I quattro libri dell'architettura</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romantic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Colman" title="Samuel Colman">Samuel Colman</a> <ul><li>Nature's Harmonic Unity</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Macody_Lund" title="Frederik Macody Lund">Frederik Macody Lund</a> <ul><li>Ad Quadratum</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Hambidge" title="Jay Hambidge">Jay Hambidge</a> <ul><li>The Greek Vase</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Jones_(architect)" title="Owen Jones (architect)">Owen Jones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Jones_(architect)#The_Grammar_of_Ornament" title="Owen Jones (architect)">The Grammar of Ornament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hanbury_Hankin" title="Ernest Hanbury Hankin">Ernest Hanbury Hankin</a> <ul><li>The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._H._Hardy" title="G. H. Hardy">G. H. Hardy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Mathematician%27s_Apology" title="A Mathematician's Apology">A Mathematician's Apology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_David_Birkhoff" title="George David Birkhoff">George David Birkhoff</a> <ul><li>Aesthetic Measure</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del,_Escher,_Bach" title="Gödel, Escher, Bach">Gödel, Escher, Bach</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikos_Salingaros" title="Nikos Salingaros">Nikos Salingaros</a> <ul><li>The 'Life' of a Carpet</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Mathematics_and_the_Arts" title="Journal of Mathematics and the Arts">Journal of Mathematics and the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumen_Naturae" title="Lumen Naturae">Lumen Naturae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Making_Mathematics_with_Needlework" title="Making Mathematics with Needlework">Making Mathematics with Needlework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_of_Structure" title="Rhythm of Structure">Rhythm of Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoints:_Mathematical_Perspective_and_Fractal_Geometry_in_Art" title="Viewpoints: Mathematical Perspective and Fractal Geometry in Art">Viewpoints: Mathematical Perspective and Fractal Geometry in Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ars_Mathematica_(organization)" title="Ars Mathematica (organization)">Ars Mathematica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bridges_Organization" title="The Bridges Organization">The Bridges Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Society_for_Mathematics_and_the_Arts" title="European Society for Mathematics and the Arts">European Society for Mathematics and the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goudreau_Museum_of_Mathematics_in_Art_and_Science" title="Goudreau Museum of Mathematics in Art and Science">Goudreau Museum of Mathematics in Art and Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_For_Figuring" title="Institute For Figuring">Institute For Figuring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathemalchemy" title="Mathemalchemy">Mathemalchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Mathematics" title="National Museum of Mathematics">National Museum of Mathematics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Droste_effect" title="Droste effect">Droste effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_geometry" title="Sacred geometry">Sacred geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mathematics_and_art" title="Category:Mathematics and art">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Photography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photography" title="Template:Photography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photography" title="Template talk:Photography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Photography" title="Category:Photography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_photography" title="Outline of photography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Precursors_of_film" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Precursors_of_film" title="Template:Precursors of film"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Precursors_of_film" title="Template talk:Precursors of film"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Precursors_of_film" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Precursors of film"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Precursors_of_film" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Precursors_of_film" title="Precursors of film">Precursors of film</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alethoscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Alethoscope">Alethoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorthoscope" title="Anorthoscope">Anorthoscope</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatrope" title="Chromatrope">Chromatrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronophotography" title="Chronophotography">Chronophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmorama" title="Cosmorama">Cosmorama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrotachyscope" title="Electrotachyscope">Electrotachyscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flip_book" title="Flip book">Flip book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpanorama" title="Kaiserpanorama">Kaiserpanorama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematoscope" title="Kinematoscope">Kinematoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetoscope" title="Kinetoscope">Kinetoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">Magic lantern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalethoscope" title="Megalethoscope">Megalethoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutoscope" title="Mutoscope">Mutoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peep_show" title="Peep show">Peep show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantasmagoria" title="Phantasmagoria">Phantasmagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenakistiscope" title="Phenakistiscope">Phenakistiscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxinoscope" title="Praxinoscope">Praxinoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raree_show" title="Raree show">Raree show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_play" title="Shadow play">Shadow play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscope" title="Stereoscope">Stereoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumatrope" title="Thaumatrope">Thaumatrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Optique" title="Théâtre Optique">Théâtre Optique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoetrope" title="Zoetrope">Zoetrope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zograscope" title="Zograscope">Zograscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoopraxiscope" title="Zoopraxiscope">Zoopraxiscope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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