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href="#Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_in_photography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Circle of confusion diameter limit in photography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_in_photography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Circle of confusion diameter limit in photography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_in_photography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_based_on_d/1500" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_based_on_d/1500"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Circle of confusion diameter limit based on <i>d</i>/1500</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_based_on_d/1500-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjusting_the_circle_of_confusion_diameter_for_a_lens's_DoF_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjusting_the_circle_of_confusion_diameter_for_a_lens's_DoF_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Adjusting the circle of confusion diameter for a lens's DoF scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjusting_the_circle_of_confusion_diameter_for_a_lens's_DoF_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determining_a_circle_of_confusion_diameter_from_the_object_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determining_a_circle_of_confusion_diameter_from_the_object_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Determining a circle of confusion diameter from the object field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determining_a_circle_of_confusion_diameter_from_the_object_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Henry_Coddington_1829" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_Coddington_1829"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Henry Coddington 1829</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_Coddington_1829-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge_1832" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge_1832"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1832</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge_1832-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-T.H._1866" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#T.H._1866"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>T.H. 1866</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-T.H._1866-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dallmeyer_and_Abney" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dallmeyer_and_Abney"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Dallmeyer and Abney</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dallmeyer_and_Abney-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wall_1889" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wall_1889"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Wall 1889</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wall_1889-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="mw-page-title-main">Circle of confusion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercle_de_confusi%C3%B3" title="Cercle de confusió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cercle de confusió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zerstreuungskreis" title="Zerstreuungskreis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zerstreuungskreis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%ADrculo_de_confusi%C3%B3n" title="Círculo de confusión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Círculo de confusión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%BA%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="دایره اغتشاش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دایره اغتشاش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercle_de_confusion" title="Cercle de confusion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cercle de confusion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingkaran_gamang" title="Lingkaran gamang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lingkaran gamang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circolo_di_confusione" title="Circolo di confusione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Circolo di confusione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A9" title="עיגול הטשטוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עיגול הטשטוש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B4%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ആശയക്കുഴപ്പത്തിന്റെ വൃത്തം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആശയക്കുഴപ്പത്തിന്റെ വൃത്തം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%85%C5%BCek_rozmycia" title="Krążek rozmycia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krążek rozmycia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Пятно рассеяния – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пятно рассеяния" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osk%C3%A4rpecirkel" title="Oskärpecirkel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oskärpecirkel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B3_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="గందరగోళ వృత్తం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గందరగోళ వృత్తం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Кружок розсіювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кружок розсіювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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Consider transferring direct quotations to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Circle_of_confusion" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Circle of confusion">Wikiquote</a> or excerpts to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Circle_of_confusion" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Circle of confusion">Wikisource</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg/220px-Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg/330px-Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg/440px-Circles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing circles of confusion for point source too close, in focus, and too far</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, a <b>circle of confusion</b> (CoC) is an optical spot caused by a cone of light <a href="/wiki/Ray_(optics)" title="Ray (optics)">rays</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> not coming to a perfect <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a> when imaging a <a href="/wiki/Point_source#Light" title="Point source">point source</a>. It is also known as <b>disk of confusion</b>, <b>circle of indistinctness</b>, <b>blur circle</b>, or <b>blur spot</b>. </p><p>In photography, the circle of confusion is used to determine the <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>, the part of an image that is acceptably sharp. A standard value of CoC is often associated with each <a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">image format</a>, but the most appropriate value depends on <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a>, viewing conditions, and the amount of enlargement. Usages in context include <i>maximum permissible circle of confusion</i>, <i>circle of confusion diameter limit</i>, and the <i>circle of confusion criterion</i>. </p><p>Real lenses <a href="/wiki/Defocus" class="mw-redirect" title="Defocus">do not focus</a> all rays perfectly, so that even at best focus, a point is imaged as a spot rather than a point. The smallest such spot that a lens can produce is often referred to as the <b>circle of least confusion</b>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two_uses">Two uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Two uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two important uses of this term and concept need to be distinguished: </p> <div><ol><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg/220px-Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg/330px-Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg/440px-Convex_lens_-_perfect.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>In a perfect lens <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span>, all the rays pass through a focal point <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">F</span>. However at other distances from the lens the rays form a circle.</figcaption></figure> <p>For describing the largest blur spot that is indistinguishable from a point. A lens can precisely focus objects at only one distance; objects at other distances are <i><a href="/wiki/Defocus" class="mw-redirect" title="Defocus">defocused</a></i>. Defocused object points are imaged as <i>blur spots</i> rather than points; the greater the distance an object is from the plane of focus, the greater the size of the blur spot. Such a blur spot has the same shape as the lens aperture, but for simplicity, is usually treated as if it were circular. In practice, objects at considerably different distances from the camera can still appear sharp;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200050_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay200050-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the range of object distances over which objects appear sharp is the <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a> (DoF). The common criterion for "acceptable sharpness" in the final image (e.g., print, projection screen, or electronic display) is that the blur spot be indistinguishable from a point. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></li><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg/220px-Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg/330px-Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg/440px-Convex_lens_-_circle_of_confusion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="645" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>In an imperfect lens <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span>, not all rays pass through a focal point. The smallest circle that they pass through <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">C</span> is called the circle of least confusion.</figcaption></figure> For describing the blur spot achieved by a lens, at its best focus or more generally. Recognizing that real lenses do not focus all rays perfectly under even the best conditions, the term <i>circle of least confusion</i> is often used for the smallest blur spot a lens can make,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcuzYl4hx-B8CpgPA89_89]_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcuzYl4hx-B8CpgPA89_89]-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example by picking a best focus position that makes a good compromise between the varying effective <a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">focal lengths</a> of different lens zones due to spherical or other <a href="/wiki/Aberration_in_optical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberration in optical systems">aberrations</a>. The term <i>circle of confusion</i> is applied more generally, to the size of the out-of-focus spot to which a lens images an object point. <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a> effects from wave optics and the finite <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a> of a lens determine the circle of least confusion;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the more general usage of 'circle of confusion' for out-of-focus points can be computed purely in terms of ray (geometric) optics.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></div> <p>In idealized ray optics, where rays are assumed to converge to a point when perfectly focused, the shape of a defocus blur spot from a lens with a circular aperture is a hard-edged circle of light. A more general blur spot has soft edges due to diffraction and aberrations,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokseth19691317_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokseth19691317-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerklinger199245–46_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerklinger199245–46-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may be non-circular due to the aperture shape. Therefore, the diameter concept needs to be carefully defined in order to be meaningful. Suitable definitions often use the concept of <a href="/wiki/Encircled_energy" title="Encircled energy">encircled energy</a>, the fraction of the total optical energy of the spot that is within the specified diameter. Values of the fraction (e.g., 80%, 90%) vary with application. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_in_photography">Circle of confusion diameter limit in photography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Circle of confusion diameter limit in photography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, the circle of confusion diameter limit (<i>CoC limit</i> or <i>CoC criterion</i>) is often defined as the largest blur spot that will still be perceived by the human eye as a point, when viewed on a final image from a standard viewing distance. The CoC limit can be specified on a final image (e.g. a print) or on the original image (on film or image sensor). </p><p>With this definition, the CoC limit in the original image (the image on the film or electronic sensor) can be set based on several factors: </p> <div><ol><li>Visual acuity. For most people, the closest comfortable viewing distance, termed the <i>near distance for distinct vision</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200052_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay200052-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is approximately 25 cm. At this distance, a person with good vision can usually distinguish an <a href="/wiki/Image_resolution" title="Image resolution">image resolution</a> of 5 line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm), equivalent to a CoC of 0.2 mm in the final image.</li><li>Viewing conditions. If the final image is viewed at approximately 25 cm, a final-image CoC of 0.2 mm often is appropriate. A comfortable viewing distance is also one at which the angle of view is approximately 60°;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200052_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERay200052-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at a distance of 25 cm, this corresponds to about 30 cm, approximately the diagonal of an <a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">8-inch × 10-inch image</a> (for comparison, <a href="/wiki/A4_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="A4 paper">A4 paper</a> is 8.3 in × 11.7 in, 210 mm × 297 mm; <a href="/wiki/Letter_(paper_size)" title="Letter (paper size)">US Letter paper</a> is 8.5 in × 11 in, 216 mm × 279 mm). It often may be reasonable to assume that, for whole-image viewing, a final image larger than 8 in × 10 in will be viewed at a distance correspondingly greater than 25 cm, and for which a larger CoC may be acceptable; the original-image CoC is then the same as that determined from the standard final-image size and viewing distance. But if the larger final image will be viewed at the normal distance of 25 cm, a smaller original-image CoC will be needed to provide acceptable sharpness.</li><li>Enlargement from the original image to the final image. If there is no enlargement (e.g., a contact print of an 8×10 original image), the CoC for the original image is the same as that in the final image. But if, for example, the long dimension of a 35 mm original image is enlarged to 25 cm (10 inches), the enlargement factor is approximately 7, and the CoC for the original image is 0.2 mm / 7, or 0.029 mm.</li></ol></div> <p>The common values for CoC limit may not be applicable if reproduction or viewing conditions differ significantly from those assumed in determining those values. If the original image will be given greater enlargement, or viewed at a closer distance, then a smaller CoC will be required. All three factors above are accommodated with this formula: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent">CoC (in mm) = (viewing distance (in cm) / 25 cm ) / (desired final-image resolution in lp/mm for a 25 cm viewing distance) / enlargement</div> <p>For example, to support a final-image resolution equivalent to 5 lp/mm for a 25 cm viewing distance when the anticipated viewing distance is 50 cm and the anticipated enlargement is 8: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent">CoC = (50 / 25) / 5 / 8 = 0.05 mm</div> <p>Since the final-image size is not usually known at the time of taking a photograph, it is common to assume a standard size such as 25 cm width, along with a conventional final-image CoC of 0.2 mm, which is 1/1250 of the image width. Conventions in terms of the diagonal measure are also commonly used. The DoF computed using these conventions will need to be adjusted if the original image is cropped before enlarging to the final image size, or if the size and viewing assumptions are altered. </p><p>For full-frame 35 mm format (24 mm × 36 mm, 43 mm diagonal), a widely used CoC limit is <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">d</span>/1500, or 0.029 mm for full-frame 35 mm format, which corresponds to resolving 5 lines per millimeter on a print of 30 cm diagonal. Values of 0.030 mm and 0.033 mm are also common for full-frame 35 mm format. </p><p>Criteria relating CoC to the lens focal length have also been used. Kodak recommended 2 minutes of arc (the <a href="/wiki/Snellen_chart" title="Snellen chart">Snellen</a> criterion of 30 cycles/degree for normal vision) for critical viewing, yielding a CoC of about <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span>/1720, where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span> is the lens focal length.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKodak19725_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKodak19725-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a 50 mm lens on full-frame 35 mm format, the corresponding CoC is 0.0291 mm. This criterion evidently assumed that a final image would be viewed at perspective-correct distance (i.e., the angle of view would be the same as that of the original image): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent">Viewing distance = focal length of taking lens × enlargement</div> <p>However, images seldom are viewed at the so-called 'correct' distance; the viewer usually does not know the focal length of the taking lens, and the "correct" distance may be uncomfortably short or long. Consequently, criteria based on lens focal length have generally given way to criteria (such as <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">d</span>/1500) related to the camera format. </p><p>If an image is viewed on a low-resolution display medium such as a computer monitor, the detectability of blur will be limited by the display medium rather than by human vision. For example, the optical blur will be more difficult to detect in an 8 in × 10 in image displayed on a computer monitor than in an 8×10 print of the same original image viewed at the same distance. If the image is to be viewed only on a low-resolution device, a larger CoC may be appropriate; however, if the image may also be viewed in a high-resolution medium such as a print, the criteria discussed above will govern. </p><p>Depth of field formulas derived from <a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">geometrical optics</a> imply that any arbitrary DoF can be achieved by using a sufficiently small CoC. Because of <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, however, this is not quite true. Using a smaller CoC requires increasing the lens <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-number</a> to achieve the same DoF, and if the lens is stopped down sufficiently far, the reduction in defocus blur is offset by the increased blur from diffraction. See the <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a> article for a more detailed discussion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_based_on_d/1500"><span id="Circle_of_confusion_diameter_limit_based_on_d.2F1500"></span>Circle of confusion diameter limit based on <i>d</i>/1500</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Circle of confusion diameter limit based on d/1500"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"> <caption>CoC diameter based on <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">d</span>/1500 for several image formats </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Image Format</a> </th> <th scope="col">Format class </th> <th scope="col">Frame size<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th scope="col">CoC </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor_format#Table_of_sensor_formats_and_sizes" title="Image sensor format">1" sensor (Nikon 1, Sony RX10, Sony RX100)</a> </th> <td rowspan="7">Small format </td> <td>8.8 mm × 13.2 mm </td> <td>0.011 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Four_Thirds_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Thirds System">Four Thirds System</a> </th> <td>13.5 mm × 18 mm </td> <td>0.015 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System" title="Advanced Photo System">APS-C</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>15.0 mm × 22.5 mm </td> <td>0.018 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System" title="Advanced Photo System">APS-C Canon</a> </th> <td>14.8 mm × 22.2 mm </td> <td>0.018 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System" title="Advanced Photo System">APS-C Nikon/Pentax/Sony</a> </th> <td>15.7 mm × 23.6 mm </td> <td>0.019 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System" title="Advanced Photo System">APS-H Canon</a> </th> <td>19.0 mm × 28.7 mm </td> <td>0.023 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/135_film" title="135 film">35 mm</a> </th> <td>24 mm × 36 mm </td> <td>0.029 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">645 (6×4.5) </th> <td rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Medium_format_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium format (film)">Medium Format</a> </td> <td>56 mm × 42 mm </td> <td>0.047 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6×6 </th> <td>56 mm × 56 mm </td> <td>0.053 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6×7 </th> <td>56 mm × 69 mm </td> <td>0.059 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6×9 </th> <td>56 mm × 84 mm </td> <td>0.067 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6×12 </th> <td>56 mm × 112 mm </td> <td>0.083 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6×17 </th> <td>56 mm × 168 mm </td> <td>0.12 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">4×5 </th> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">Large Format</a> </td> <td>102 mm × 127 mm </td> <td>0.11 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">5×7 </th> <td>127 mm × 178 mm </td> <td>0.15 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8×10 </th> <td>203 mm × 254 mm </td> <td>0.22 mm </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjusting_the_circle_of_confusion_diameter_for_a_lens's_DoF_scale"><span id="Adjusting_the_circle_of_confusion_diameter_for_a_lens.27s_DoF_scale"></span>Adjusting the circle of confusion diameter for a lens's DoF scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adjusting the circle of confusion diameter for a lens's DoF scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The f-number determined from a lens DoF scale can be adjusted to reflect a CoC different from the one on which the DoF scale is based. It is shown in the <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field#Close-up_2" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a> article that </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {DoF} ={\frac {2Nc\left(m+1\right)}{m^{2}-\left({\frac {Nc}{f}}\right)^{2}}}\,,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">D</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">F</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>N</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>m</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mi>f</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {DoF} ={\frac {2Nc\left(m+1\right)}{m^{2}-\left({\frac {Nc}{f}}\right)^{2}}}\,,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e9a22923416364479c4a00cb51218d6e0714d774" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.005ex; width:22.196ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {DoF} ={\frac {2Nc\left(m+1\right)}{m^{2}-\left({\frac {Nc}{f}}\right)^{2}}}\,,}"></span> </p><p>where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">N</span> is the lens f-number, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span> is the CoC, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> is the magnification, and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span> is the lens focal length. Because the f-number and CoC occur only as the product <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">Nc</span>, an increase in one is equivalent to a corresponding decrease in the other. For example, if it is known that a lens DoF scale is based on a CoC of 0.035 mm, and the actual conditions require a CoC of 0.025 mm, the CoC must be decreased by a factor of <span class="nowrap">0.035 / 0.025 = 1.4</span>; this can be accomplished by increasing the f-number determined from the DoF scale by the same factor, or about 1 stop, so the lens can simply be closed down 1 stop from the value indicated on the scale. </p><p>The same approach can usually be used with a DoF calculator on a view camera. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determining_a_circle_of_confusion_diameter_from_the_object_field">Determining a circle of confusion diameter from the object field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Determining a circle of confusion diameter from the object field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg/400px-Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg/600px-Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg/800px-Circle_of_confusion_calculation_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>Lens and ray diagram for calculating the circle of confusion diameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span> for an out-of-focus subject at distance <span class="texhtml"><i>S</i><sub>2</sub></span> when the camera is focused at <span class="texhtml"><i>S</i><sub>1</sub></span>. The auxiliary blur circle <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">C</span> in the object plane (dashed line) makes the calculation easier.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Long_Short_Focus_1866.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Long_Short_Focus_1866.jpg/400px-Long_Short_Focus_1866.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="2206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Long_Short_Focus_1866.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="2758" /></a><figcaption>An early calculation of CoC diameter ("indistinctness") by "T.H." in 1866.</figcaption></figure> <p>To calculate the diameter of the circle of confusion in the image plane for an out-of-focus subject, one method is to first calculate the diameter of the blur circle in a virtual image in the object plane, which is simply done using similar triangles, and then multiply by the magnification of the system, which is calculated with the help of the lens equation. </p><p>The blur circle, of diameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">C</span>, in the focused object plane at distance <span class="texhtml"><i>S</i><sub>1</sub></span>, is an unfocused virtual image of the object at distance <span class="texhtml"><i>S</i><sub>2</sub></span> as shown in the diagram. It depends only on these distances and the aperture diameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">A</span>, via similar triangles, independent of the lens focal length: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8aacbbc9e64a4cca651231bff66292744786a4a2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:17.57ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}"></span> </p><p>The circle of confusion in the image plane is obtained by multiplying by magnification <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span>: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c=Cm\,,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c=Cm\,,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7b01c772f812fe949c19b2d283f3e7939c19be09" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.946ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c=Cm\,,}"></span> </p><p>where the magnification <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> is given by the ratio of focus distances: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m={f_{1} \over S_{1}}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m={f_{1} \over S_{1}}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f68eae2cf842747bb45475a84303694f67a357ac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.488ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m={f_{1} \over S_{1}}\,.}"></span> </p><p>Using the lens equation we can solve for the auxiliary variable <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i><sub>1</sub></span>: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {1 \over f}={1 \over f_{1}}+{1 \over S_{1}}\,,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>f</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {1 \over f}={1 \over f_{1}}+{1 \over S_{1}}\,,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5027993d477e67b823594613e8766a1084db6793" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:15.432ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {1 \over f}={1 \over f_{1}}+{1 \over S_{1}}\,,}"></span> </p><p>which yields </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f_{1}={fS_{1} \over S_{1}-f}\,,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f_{1}={fS_{1} \over S_{1}-f}\,,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/324c20216f6c80925610a494a90849c86c1fe0a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.76ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f_{1}={fS_{1} \over S_{1}-f}\,,}"></span> </p><p>and express the magnification in terms of focused distance and focal length: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m={f \over S_{1}-f}\,,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>f</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m={f \over S_{1}-f}\,,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/14df7746ab417da34bab11392cacc86e86cc1e4f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.607ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m={f \over S_{1}-f}\,,}"></span> </p><p>which gives the final result: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f \over S_{1}-f}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>f</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f \over S_{1}-f}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/27ea8ba1424021fcafaeaa51e39704259d4aa326" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:24.245ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c=A{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f \over S_{1}-f}\,.}"></span> </p><p>This can optionally be expressed in terms of the <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-number</a> <span class="texhtml"><i>N</i> = <i>f/A</i></span> as: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c={|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c={|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61f2fe96ade9e85c3ad9a476a94208e4d97d2cdf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:26.375ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c={|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}{f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}"></span> </p><p>This formula is exact for a simple <a href="/wiki/Paraxial" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraxial">paraxial</a> thin lens or a symmetrical lens, in which the entrance pupil and exit pupil are both of diameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">A</span>. More complex lens designs with a non-unity pupil magnification will need a more complex analysis, as addressed in <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a>. </p><p>More generally, this approach leads to an exact paraxial result for all optical systems if <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">A</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Entrance_pupil" title="Entrance pupil">entrance pupil</a> diameter, the subject distances are measured from the entrance pupil, and the magnification is known: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c=Am{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c=Am{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa468392c54b64bdf7ab1a458c4c3c1f34286742" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:18.851ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c=Am{|S_{2}-S_{1}| \over S_{2}}\,.}"></span> </p><p>If either the focus distance or the out-of-focus subject distance is infinite, the equations can be evaluated in the limit. For infinite focus distance: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{2}}={f^{2} \over NS_{2}}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{2}}={f^{2} \over NS_{2}}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/96f97da2539ac15df403317b92bea341ce70ee6e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:17.474ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{2}}={f^{2} \over NS_{2}}\,.}"></span> </p><p>And for the blur circle of an object at infinity when the focus distance is finite: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{1}-f}={f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{1}-f}={f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/153f56557c1cc275df5a0a0adf4d18cc3a967825" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:26.979ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S_{1}-f}={f^{2} \over N(S_{1}-f)}\,.}"></span> </p><p>If the <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span> value is fixed as a circle of confusion diameter limit, either of these can be solved for subject distance to get the <a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>, with approximately equivalent results. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_Coddington_1829">Henry Coddington 1829</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Henry Coddington 1829"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before it was applied to photography, the concept of circle of confusion was applied to optical instruments such as telescopes. <a href="#CITEREFCoddington1829">Coddington (1829</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WI45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54">54</a>) quantifies both a <i>circle of least confusion</i> and a <i>least circle of confusion</i> for a spherical reflecting surface. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This we may consider as the nearest approach to a simple focus, and term the <i>circle of least confusion</i>.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge_1832">Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1832</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1832"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="#CITEREFSociety_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge1832">Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1832</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fxsAAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA11">11</a>) applied it to third-order aberrations: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This spherical aberration produces an indistinctness of vision, by spreading out every mathematical point of the object into a small spot in its picture; which spots, by mixing with each other, confuse the whole. The diameter of this circle of confusion, at the focus of the central rays F, over which every point is spread, will be L K (fig. 17.); and when the aperture of the reflector is moderate it equals the cube of the aperture, divided by the square of the radius (...): this circle is called the aberration of latitude.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="T.H._1866">T.H. 1866</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: T.H. 1866"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Circle-of-confusion calculations: An early precursor to <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a> calculations is the <a href="#CITEREFTH1866">TH (1866</a>, p. 138) calculation of a circle-of-confusion diameter from a subject distance, for a lens focused at infinity; this article was pointed out by <a href="#CITEREFvon_Rohr1899">von Rohr (1899)</a>. The formula he comes up with for what he terms "the indistinctness" is equivalent, in modern terms, to </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>f</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> <mi>S</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c={fA \over S}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8c1e0fb3aba455f21882b9a66dd76fbc8f8c7653" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:7.963ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c={fA \over S}}"></span> </p><p>for focal length <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">f</span>, aperture diameter <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">A</span>, and subject distance <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">S</span>. But he does not invert this to find the <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">S</span> corresponding to a given <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span> criterion (i.e. he does not solve for the <a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">hyperfocal distance</a>), nor does he consider focusing at any other distance than infinity. </p><p>He finally observes "long-focus lenses have usually a larger aperture than short ones, and <i>on this account</i> have less depth of focus" [his italic emphasis]. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dallmeyer_and_Abney">Dallmeyer and Abney</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dallmeyer and Abney"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="#CITEREFDallmeyer1892">Dallmeyer (1892</a>, p. 24), in an expanded re-publication of his father <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Dallmeyer" title="John Henry Dallmeyer">John Henry Dallmeyer</a>'s 1874 (<a href="#CITEREFDallmeyer1874">Dallmeyer 1874</a>) pamphlet <i>On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses</i> (in material that is not in the 1874 edition and appears to have been added from a paper by J.H.D. "On the Use of Diaphragms or Stops" of unknown date), says: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Thus every point in an object out of focus is represented in the picture by a disc, or circle of confusion, the size of which is proportionate to the aperture in relation to the focus of the lens employed. If a point in the object is 1/100 of an inch out of focus, it will be represented by a circle of confusion measuring but 1/100 part of the aperture of the lens.</p></blockquote> <p>This latter statement is clearly incorrect, or misstated, being off by a factor of focal distance (focal length). He goes on: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>and when the circles of confusion are sufficiently small the eye fails to see them as such; they are then seen as points only, and the picture appears sharp. At the ordinary distance of vision, of from twelve to fifteen inches, circles of confusion are seen as points, if the angle subtended by them does not exceed one minute of arc, or roughly, if they do not exceed the 1/100 of an inch in diameter.</p></blockquote> <p>Numerically, 1/100 inch at 12–15 inches is closer to two minutes of arc. This choice of CoC limit remains (for a large print) the most widely used even today. <a href="#CITEREFAbney1881">Abney (1881</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3QpNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA208">207–08</a>) takes a similar approach based on a visual acuity of one minute of arc, and chooses a circle of confusion of 0.025 cm for viewing at 40–50 cm, essentially making the same factor-of-two error in metric units. It is unclear whether Abney or Dallmeyer was earlier to set the CoC standard thereby. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wall_1889">Wall 1889</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wall 1889"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The common 1/100 inch CoC limit has been applied to blur other than defocus blur. For example, <a href="#CITEREFWall1889">Wall (1889</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AkTTOsZEGLMC&pg=PA92">92</a>) says: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To find how quickly a shutter must act to take an object in motion that there may be a circle of confusion less than 1/100 in. in diameter, divide the distance of the object by 100 times the focus of the lens, and divide the rapidity of motion of object in inches per second by the results, when you have the longest duration of exposure in fraction of a second.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">Airy disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism_(optical_systems)#Third-order_astigmatism" title="Astigmatism (optical systems)">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration#Minimizing_chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_cloud" title="Focal cloud">Focal cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orb_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orb (optics)">Orb (optics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_spread_function" title="Point spread function">Point spread function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeiss_formula" title="Zeiss formula">Zeiss formula</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERay200050-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200050_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRay2000">Ray 2000</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERay2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcuzYl4hx-B8CpgPA89_89]-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcuzYl4hx-B8CpgPA89_89]_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRay2002">Ray 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuzYl4hx-B8C&pg=PA89">89</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJ.-A._Beraldin2006" class="citation book cs1">J.-A. Beraldin; et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZahHZwpM55YC&pg=PA145">"Virtual reconstruction of heritage sites: opportunities and challenges created by 3D technologies"</a>. In Manos Baltsavias; Armin Gruen; Luc Van Gool; Maria Pateraki (eds.). <i>Recording, modeling and visualization of cultural heritage</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39208-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39208-2"><bdi>978-0-415-39208-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtual+reconstruction+of+heritage+sites%3A+opportunities+and+challenges+created+by+3D+technologies&rft.btitle=Recording%2C+modeling+and+visualization+of+cultural+heritage&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39208-2&rft.au=J.-A.+Beraldin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZahHZwpM55YC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Bulkeley_Coventry1901" class="citation book cs1">Walter Bulkeley Coventry (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zWkOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9"><i>The technics of the hand camera</i></a>. Sands & Co. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+technics+of+the+hand+camera&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Sands+%26+Co.&rft.date=1901&rft.au=Walter+Bulkeley+Coventry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzWkOAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStokseth19691317-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStokseth19691317_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStokseth1969">Stokseth 1969</a>, p. 1317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerklinger199245–46-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMerklinger199245–46_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMerklinger1992">Merklinger 1992</a>, pp. 45–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERay200052-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200052_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERay200052_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRay2000">Ray 2000</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKodak19725-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKodak19725_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKodak1972">Kodak 1972</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The frame size is an average of cameras that take photographs of this format. For example, not all 6×7 cameras take frames that are exactly <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998560000000000000♠"></span>56 mm</span> × <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998690000000000000♠"></span>69 mm</span>. Check with the specifications of a particular camera if this level of exactness is needed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="/wiki/APS-C" title="APS-C">APS-C</a>" is a common format for digital SLRs. Dimensions vary slightly among different manufacturers; for example, Canon’s APS-C format is nominally <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998150000000000000♠"></span>15.0 mm</span> × <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998225000000000000♠"></span>22.5 mm</span>, while Nikon’s <a href="/wiki/Nikon_DX_format" title="Nikon DX format">DX format</a> is nominally <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998160000000000000♠"></span>16 mm</span> × <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6998240000000000000♠"></span>24 mm</span>. Exact dimensions sometimes vary slightly among models with the same nominal format from a given manufacturer.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbney1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Abney" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Abney">Abney, Sir William de Wiveleslie</a> (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3QpNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3"><i>A Treatise on Photography</i></a>. London: Longmans, Green and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+Photography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Abney&rft.aufirst=Sir+William+de+Wiveleslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3QpNAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoddington1829" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Coddington" title="Henry Coddington">Coddington, Henry</a> (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WI45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54"><i>A Treatise on the Reflection and Refraction of light: being Part I. of a System of Optics</i></a>. Cambridge: J. Smith.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+the+Reflection+and+Refraction+of+light%3A+being+Part+I.+of+a+System+of+Optics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=J.+Smith&rft.date=1829&rft.aulast=Coddington&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWI45AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallmeyer1874" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Dallmeyer" title="John Henry Dallmeyer">Dallmeyer, John Henry</a> (1874). <i>On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses</i>. New York: E. and H.T. Anthony and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Choice+and+Use+of+Photographic+Lenses&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=E.+and+H.T.+Anthony+and+Co&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Dallmeyer&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallmeyer1892" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rudolphus_Dallmeyer" title="Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer">Dallmeyer, Thomas R</a> (1892). <i>On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses</i>. London: J. Pitcher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Choice+and+Use+of+Photographic+Lenses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Pitcher&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Dallmeyer&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKodak1972" class="citation book cs1">Eastman Kodak Company (1972). <i>Optical Formulas and Their Application, Kodak Publication No. AA-26, Rev. 11-72-BX</i>. Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optical+Formulas+and+Their+Application%2C+Kodak+Publication+No.+AA-26%2C+Rev.+11-72-BX&rft.place=Rochester%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Eastman+Kodak+Company&rft.date=1972&rft.au=Eastman+Kodak+Company&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerklinger1992" class="citation book cs1">Merklinger, Harold M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/TIAOOFe.pdf"><i>The INs and OUTs of FOCUS: An Alternative Way to Estimate Depth-of-Field and Sharpness in the Photographic Image</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Bedford, N.S.: H.M. Merklinger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9695025-0-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-9695025-0-8"><bdi>0-9695025-0-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+INs+and+OUTs+of+FOCUS%3A+An+Alternative+Way+to+Estimate+Depth-of-Field+and+Sharpness+in+the+Photographic+Image&rft.place=Bedford%2C+N.S.&rft.pub=H.M.+Merklinger&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-9695025-0-8&rft.aulast=Merklinger&rft.aufirst=Harold+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trenholm.org%2Fhmmerk%2FTIAOOFe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2000" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Sidney F. (2000). "The geometry of image formation". In Ralph E. Jacobson; Sidney F. Ray; Geoffrey G. Atteridge; Norman R. Axford (eds.). <i>The Manual of Photography: Photographic and Digital Imaging</i> (9th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-51574-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-240-51574-9"><bdi>0-240-51574-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+geometry+of+image+formation&rft.btitle=The+Manual+of+Photography%3A+Photographic+and+Digital+Imaging&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-240-51574-9&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Sidney+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2002" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Sidney F. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuzYl4hx-B8C&pg=PP1"><i>Applied Photographic Optics</i></a> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-240-51540-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-240-51540-4"><bdi>0-240-51540-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Photographic+Optics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Focal&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-240-51540-4&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Sidney+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuzYl4hx-B8C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge1832" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Diffusion_of_Useful_Knowledge" title="Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge">Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge</a> (1832). <i>Natural Philosophy: With an Explanation of Scientific Terms, and an Index</i>. London: Baldwin and Cradock, Paternoster-Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Philosophy%3A+With+an+Explanation+of+Scientific+Terms%2C+and+an+Index&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Baldwin+and+Cradock%2C+Paternoster-Row&rft.date=1832&rft.au=Society+for+the+Diffusion+of+Useful+Knowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokseth1969" class="citation journal cs1">Stokseth, Per A. (October 1969). "Properties of a Defocused Optical System". <i>Journal of the Optical Society of America</i>. <b>59</b> (10): 1314. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969JOSA...59.1314S">1969JOSA...59.1314S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSA.59.001314">10.1364/JOSA.59.001314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Optical+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=Properties+of+a+Defocused+Optical+System&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1314&rft.date=1969-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FJOSA.59.001314&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969JOSA...59.1314S&rft.aulast=Stokseth&rft.aufirst=Per+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTH1866" class="citation journal cs1">T.H. [pseud.] (1866). "Long and Short Focus". <i>British Journal of Photography</i> (13).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Photography&rft.atitle=Long+and+Short+Focus&rft.issue=13&rft.date=1866&rft.au=T.H.+%5Bpseud.%5D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Rohr1899" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moritz_von_Rohr" title="Moritz von Rohr">von Rohr, Moritz</a> (1899). <i>Photographische Objektiv</i>. Berlin: Verlag Julius Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photographische+Objektiv&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Verlag+Julius+Springer&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=von+Rohr&rft.aufirst=Moritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall1889" class="citation book cs1">Wall, Edward John (1889). <i>A Dictionary of Photography for the Amateur and Professional Photographer</i>. New York: E. and H. T. Anthony and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Photography+for+the+Amateur+and+Professional+Photographer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=E.+and+H.+T.+Anthony+and+Co&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Wall&rft.aufirst=Edward+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACircle+of+confusion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Circle_of_confusion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dofmaster.com/digital_coc.html">Circles of Confusion for Digital Cameras</a> – DOFMaster</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.largeformatphotography.info/articles/DoFinDepth.pdf">Depth of Field in Depth (PDF)</a> – includes discussion of circle of confusion criteria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fcalc.net/manual/coc.html">What Is the "Circle of Confusion"</a> – ƒ/Calc manual</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="Photography477" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography477" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_photography" class="mw-redirect" title="Film photography">Film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic<br />processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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