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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ashanti_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ashanti_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Ashanti Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ashanti_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_industrialized_nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_industrialized_nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Other industrialized nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_industrialized_nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Karl_Marx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Marx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Karl Marx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Marx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leon_Trotsky" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leon_Trotsky"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Leon Trotsky</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leon_Trotsky-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Stuart_Mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>John Stuart Mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Max_Weber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Max_Weber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Max Weber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Max_Weber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Woodrow_Wilson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Woodrow_Wilson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Woodrow Wilson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Woodrow_Wilson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ludwig_von_Mises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ludwig_von_Mises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Ludwig von Mises</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ludwig_von_Mises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_K._Merton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_K._Merton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Robert K. Merton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_K._Merton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elliott_Jaques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elliott_Jaques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Elliott Jaques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elliott_Jaques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureaucracy_and_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaucracy_and_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bureaucracy and democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaucracy_and_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bureaucracy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بيروقراطية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بيروقراطية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocracia" title="Burocracia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Burocracia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrokratiya" title="Bürokratiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bürokratiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="আমলাতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আমলাতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Бюракратыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бюракратыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрокрация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бюрокрация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Бюрократи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Бюрократи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocr%C3%A0cia" title="Burocràcia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Burocràcia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrokracie" title="Byrokracie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Byrokracie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biwrocratiaeth" title="Biwrocratiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Biwrocratiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaukrati" title="Bureaukrati – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bureaukrati" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokratiija" title="Birokratiija – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Birokratiija" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrokratie" title="Bürokratie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bürokratie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrokraatia" title="Bürokraatia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bürokraatia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γραφειοκρατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γραφειοκρατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocracia" title="Burocracia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Burocracia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burokratio" title="Burokratio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Burokratio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burokrazia" title="Burokrazia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Burokrazia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="دیوان‌سالاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیوان‌سالاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratie" title="Bureaucratie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bureaucratie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burokrasy" title="Burokrasy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Burokrasy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocracia" title="Burocracia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Burocracia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%80%EB%A3%8C%EC%A0%9C" title="관료제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="관료제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Բյուրոկրատիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բյուրոկրատիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80" title="अफसरशाही – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अफसरशाही" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokracija" title="Birokracija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Birokracija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokrasi" title="Birokrasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Birokrasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrifr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Skrifræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skrifræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocrazia" title="Burocrazia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Burocrazia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94" title="בירוקרטיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בירוקרטיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიუროკრატია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიუროკრატია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрократия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бюрократия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрократия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бюрократия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokr%C4%81tija" title="Birokrātija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Birokrātija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biurokratija" title="Biurokratija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Biurokratija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrokr%C3%A1cia" title="Bürokrácia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bürokrácia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Бирократија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бирократија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ഉദ്യോഗസ്ഥഭരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉദ്യോഗസ്ഥഭരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიუროკრატია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიუროკრატია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokrasi" title="Birokrasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Birokrasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratie" title="Bureaucratie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bureaucratie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E5%88%B6" title="官僚制 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="官僚制" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byr%C3%A5krati" title="Byråkrati – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Byråkrati" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byr%C3%A5krati" title="Byråkrati – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Byråkrati" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocracia" title="Burocracia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Burocracia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byurokratiya" title="Byurokratiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Byurokratiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biurokracja" title="Biurokracja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biurokracja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burocracia" title="Burocracia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Burocracia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birocra%C8%9Bie_(sistem_administrativ)" title="Birocrație (sistem administrativ) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Birocrație (sistem administrativ)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Бюрокрація – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Бюрокрація" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрократия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бюрократия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрократия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Бюрократия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burokracia" title="Burokracia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Burokracia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bur%C3%B2crati" title="Buròcrati – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Buròcrati" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bureaucracy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrokracia_(organiza%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_%C5%A1trukt%C3%BAra)" title="Byrokracia (organizačná štruktúra) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Byrokracia (organizačná štruktúra)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokracija" title="Birokracija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Birokracija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="بیرۆکراسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بیرۆکراسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Бирократија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бирократија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokratija" title="Birokratija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Birokratija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birokrasi" title="Birokrasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Birokrasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrokratia" title="Byrokratia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Byrokratia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byr%C3%A5krati" title="Byråkrati – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Byråkrati" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அதிகாரத்துவம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அதிகாரத்துவம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2" title="อำมาตยาธิปไตย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อำมาตยาธิปไตย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Бюрократия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бюрократия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCrokrasi" title="Bürokrasi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bürokrasi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Бюрократія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бюрократія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA" title="دفتری حکومت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دفتری حکومت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_m%C3%A1y_quan_li%C3%AAu" title="Bộ máy quan liêu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ máy quan liêu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E5%88%B6" title="官僚制 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="官僚制" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E5%88%B6" title="官僚制 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="官僚制" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ביוראקראטיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביוראקראטיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="官僚組織 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="官僚組織" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E5%88%B6" title="官僚制 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="官僚制" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q72468#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Bureaucracy" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); 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title="Category:Law">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Justice_scale_silhouette,_medium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/125px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/188px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/250px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="865" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Foundations and Philosophy</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of law">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Legal theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_law" title="Positive law">Positive law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Methodological background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">Normative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Legal_debate" title="Legal debate">Legal debate</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judicial_opinions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial opinions">judicial opinions</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law_sidebar" title="Template:Law sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law_sidebar" title="Template talk:Law sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bureaucracy</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ʊəˈr/: 'ur' in 'plurality'">ʊəˈr</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">bure-<span style="font-size:90%">OK</span>-rə-see</i></a>) is a system of <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> where laws or regulatory authority are implemented by civil servants, non-elected officials.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a> in many jurisdictions is an example of bureaucracy, as is any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution, including <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">societies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">nonprofit organizations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_club" title="Social club">clubs</a>. </p><p>There are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy. The first dilemma relates to whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second dilemma relates to bureaucrats' responsibility to follow preset rules, and what degree of latitude they may have to determine appropriate solutions for circumstances that are unaccounted for in advance.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various commentators have argued for the necessity of bureaucracies in modern society. The German sociologist <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, maximize <a href="/wiki/Efficiency" title="Efficiency">efficiency</a>, and eliminate favoritism. On the other hand, Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to <a href="/wiki/Individual_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual freedom">individual freedom</a>, with the potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal "<a href="/wiki/Iron_cage" title="Iron cage">iron cage</a>" of rule-based, rational control.<sup id="cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GRitzer_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRitzer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_usage">Etymology and usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>bureaucracy</i> originated in the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French language</a>: it combines the French word <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">bureau</i></span> – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">desk</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">office</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> – with the Greek word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κράτος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">kratos</i></span>) – <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">rule</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or '<a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-merriam-webster1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-webster1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French economist <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Claude_Marie_Vincent_de_Gournay" title="Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay">Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay</a> coined the word in the mid-18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gournay never wrote the term down but a letter from a contemporary later quoted him: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The late M. de Gournay... sometimes used to say: "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Baron_von_Grimm" class="mw-redirect" title="Baron von Grimm">Baron von Grimm</a> (1723–1807)<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The first known <a href="/wiki/English-language" class="mw-redirect" title="English-language">English-language</a> use dates to 1818<sup id="cite_ref-merriam-webster1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-webster1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Irish novelist <a href="/wiki/Sydney,_Lady_Morgan" title="Sydney, Lady Morgan">Lady Morgan</a> referring to the apparatus used by the British government to subjugate Ireland as "the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed".<sup id="cite_ref-lady_morgan_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lady_morgan-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-19th century the word appeared in a more neutral sense, referring to a system of <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a> in which offices were held by unelected career officials. In this context <i>bureaucracy</i> was seen as a distinct form of <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>, often subservient to a <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s the German sociologist <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> expanded the definition to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weber saw bureaucracy as a relatively positive development; however, by 1944 the <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrian</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> opined in the context of his experience in the <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> regime that the term <i>bureaucracy</i> was "always applied with an opprobrious connotation",<sup id="cite_ref-Mises_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mises-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by 1957 the American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert Merton</a> suggested that the term <i><a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrat</a></i> had become an "<a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a>, a <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Schimpfwort</i></span>" in some circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Merton_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merton-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>bureaucracy</i> is also used in politics and government with a disapproving tone to disparage official rules that appear to make it difficult—by insistence on procedure and compliance to rule, regulation, and law—to get things done. In workplaces, the word is used very often to blame complicated rules, processes, and written work that are interpreted as obstacles rather than safeguards and accountability assurances.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socio-bureaucracy would then refer to certain social influences that may affect the function of a society.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern usage, modern bureaucracy has been defined as comprising four features:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>hierarchy (clearly defined spheres of competence and divisions of labor)</li> <li>continuity (a structure where administrators have a full-time salary and advance within the structure)</li> <li>impersonality (prescribed rules and operating rules rather than arbitrary actions)</li> <li>expertise (officials are chosen according to merit, have been trained, and hold access to knowledge)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civilserviceexam1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civilserviceexam1.jpg/220px-Civilserviceexam1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civilserviceexam1.jpg/330px-Civilserviceexam1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civilserviceexam1.jpg/440px-Civilserviceexam1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4187" data-file-height="3140" /></a><figcaption>Students competed in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> to receive a position in the bureaucracy of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the term <i>bureaucracy</i> first originated in the mid-18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems existed much earlier. The development of writing (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3500 BC) and the use of documents was a critical component of such systems. The first definitive example of bureaucracy occurred in ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, where an emergent class of <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> used <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> to document and carry out various administrative functions, such as the management of taxes, workers, and public goods/resources like granaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Scribes_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scribes-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> had a hereditary class of scribes that administered a <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil-service</a> bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Scribal_training_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scribal_training-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221–206 BC) unified China under the <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WIP:ESA36_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIP:ESA36-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this system, the government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. The <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – 220 AD) established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, who emphasized the importance of <a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Confucian)">ritual</a> in family, relationships, and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Confucius2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Confucius2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With each subsequent dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. In 165 BC, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen</a> introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu</a> (r. 141–87 BC) cemented the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> into mainstream governance by installing a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as <i><a href="/wiki/Xiaolian" title="Xiaolian">xiaolian</a></i>, and a national academy<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the <a href="/wiki/Confucian_classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian classics">Confucian classics</a>, from which Emperor Wu would select officials.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618) and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907) the <i>shi</i> class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">civil service examination system</a>, of partial recruitment of those who passed <a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">standard exams</a> and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey_1999_145_146_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey_1999_145_146-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) the bureaucracy became <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> reforms, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">competitive examinations</a> took place to determine which candidates qualified to hold given positions.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight1983_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight1983-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> collapsed, marking the end of China's traditional bureaucratic system.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A hierarchy of regional <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsuls</a> and their deputies administered the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reforms of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (Emperor from 284 to 305) doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion of Roman bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Christian author <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 325) claimed that Diocletian's reforms led to widespread economic stagnation, since "the provinces were divided into minute portions, and many presidents and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each territory."<sup id="cite_ref-Lactantius_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lactantius-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Empire split, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> developed a notoriously <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine bureaucracy">complicated administrative hierarchy</a>, and in the 20th century the term <i>Byzantine</i> came to refer to any complex bureaucratic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persia">Persia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Persia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Langx" title="Template:Langx">langx</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Uzun_Hasan" title="Uzun Hasan">Uzun Hasan's</a> conquest of most of mainland Iran shifted the seat of power to the east, where the <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> adopted Iranian customs for administration and culture. In the Iranian areas, Uzun Hasan preserved the previous bureaucratic structure along with its secretaries, who belonged to families that had in a number of instances served under different dynasties for several generations. The four top civil posts of the Aq Qoyunlu were all occupied by Iranians, which under Uzun Hasan included: the vizier, who led the great council (<i><a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">divan</a></i>); the <i>mostawfi al-mamalek</i>, high-ranking financial accountants; the <i>mohrdar</i>, who affixed the state seal; and the <i>marakur</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">stable master</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, who supervised the royal court. Through the use of his increasing revenue, Uzun Hasan was able to buy the approval of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a></i> (clergy) and the mainly Iranian urban elite, while also taking care of the impoverished rural inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a> state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">sayyid</a>, or descendant of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Every office had a deputy or superintendent, whose job was to keep records of all actions of the state officials and report directly to the Shah. The Shah himself exercised his own measures for keeping his ministers under control by fostering an atmosphere of rivalry and competitive surveillance. And since the Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt the pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #36c; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Category:Conservatism in Russia">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#154E9D; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Conservatism in Russia</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/90px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/135px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/180px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="568" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duginism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duginism">Duginism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#Russia" title="Christian nationalism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">Pochvennichestvo</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist conservatism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_autocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Russia">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism#Praise" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">Economic interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#Russia" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_irredentism" title="Russian irredentism">Irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Orthodoxy" title="Nuclear Orthodoxy">Nuclear Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></i></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Russia" title="Culture of Russia">Russian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">Sobornost</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_democracy" title="Sovereign democracy">Sovereign democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black Hundreds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russia" title="Great Russia">Great Russia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy,_Autocracy,_and_Nationality" title="Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality">Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">White émigré</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zemstvo" title="Zemstvo">Zemstvo</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Aksakov" title="Konstantin Aksakov">Aksakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Boot" title="Alexander Boot">Boot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Chudinova" title="Elena Chudinova">Chudinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Frank" title="Semyon Frank">Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ilyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Katkov" title="Mikhail Katkov">Katkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Leontiev" title="Konstantin Leontiev">Leontiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serge_Obolensky" title="Serge Obolensky">Obolensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Pobedonostsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhanov" title="Alexander Prokhanov">Prokhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Rozanov" title="Vasily Rozanov">Rozanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Semyonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Semyonov">Semyonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Shafarevich" title="Igor Shafarevich">Shafarevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shcherbatov" title="Mikhail Shcherbatov">Shcherbatov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Strakhov" title="Nikolay Strakhov">Strakhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Surkov" title="Vladislav Surkov">Surkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Tikhomirov" title="Lev Tikhomirov">Tikhomirov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_(Shevkunov)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikhon (Shevkunov)">Tikhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaevich_Trubetskoy" title="Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy">Trubetskoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Vikulov" title="Sergey Vikulov">Vikulov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel" title="Pyotr Wrangel">von Wrangel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Yuryev" title="Mikhail Yuryev">Yuryev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/St_Petersburg_Dialogues" title="St Petersburg Dialogues">St Petersburg Dialogues</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1821)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Organic_Theory_of_Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Organic Theory of Societies">The Organic Theory of Societies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1873)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Revolution" title="Sociology of Revolution">Sociology of Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">1925</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1973)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Geopolitics" title="Foundations of Geopolitics">Foundations of Geopolitics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1997)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Notre_Dame_de_Paris_Mosque" title="The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque">The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Fourth_Political_Theory" title="The Fourth Political Theory">The Fourth Political Theory</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Butina" title="Maria Butina">Butina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dubrovin" title="Alexander Dubrovin">Dubrovin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Durnovo" title="Ivan Durnovo">Durnovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Gryzlov" title="Boris Gryzlov">Gryzlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kolchak" title="Alexander Kolchak">Kolchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov" title="Lavr Kornilov">Kornilov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yury_Luzhkov" title="Yury Luzhkov">Luzhkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Malyshkin" title="Oleg Malyshkin">Malyshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yelena_Mizulina" title="Yelena Mizulina">Mizulina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pikhno" title="Dmitry Pikhno">Pikhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pobedonostsev" title="Konstantin Pobedonostsev">Pobedonostsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Rodzianko" title="Mikhail Rodzianko">Rodzianko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Rogozin" title="Dmitry Rogozin">Rogozin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Rostopchin" title="Fyodor Rostopchin">Rostopchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Sadovnichiy" title="Viktor Sadovnichiy">Sadovnichiy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Shulgin" title="Vasily Shulgin">Shulgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Slutsky_(politician)" title="Leonid Slutsky (politician)">Slutsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Surkov" title="Vladislav Surkov">Surkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Tolstoy" title="Dmitry Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_von_Ungern-Sternberg" title="Roman von Ungern-Sternberg">von Ungern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_Vladimir_Alexandrovich_of_Russia" title="Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia">Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Volodin" title="Vyacheslav Volodin">Volodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Yuryev" title="Mikhail Yuryev">Yuryev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Zhirinovsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>Active</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia_Party" title="Eurasia Party">Eurasia Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Russia_(political_party)" title="Great Russia (political party)">Great Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_Russia" title="Liberal Democratic Party of Russia">Liberal Democratic Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchist_Party_of_Russia" title="Monarchist Party of Russia">Monarchist Party of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodina_(political_party)" title="Rodina (political party)">Rodina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_All-People%27s_Union" title="Russian All-People's Union">Russian All-People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Right_Forces" title="Union of Right Forces">Union of Right Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Russia" title="United Russia">United Russia</a></li></ul> <p><b>Defunct</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/For_Truth" title="For Truth">For Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union">Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Union_(Russia)" title="People's Union (Russia)">People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamyat" title="Pamyat">Pamyat Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Russian_People" title="Union of the Russian People">Union of the Russian People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-Russia_People%27s_Front" title="All-Russia People's Front">All-Russia People's Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izborsky_Club" title="Izborsky Club">Izborsky Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krepostniki" title="Krepostniki">Krepostniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_of_Russian_Solidarists" title="National Alliance of Russian Solidarists">National Alliance of Russian Solidarists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Russian_People_(2005)" title="Union of the Russian People (2005)">Union of the Russian People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Elementy" title="Elementy">Elementy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Defunct)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kievlyanin" title="Kievlyanin">Kievlyanin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kozma_Minin_(newspaper)" title="Kozma Minin (newspaper)">Kozma Minin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nash_Sovremennik" title="Nash Sovremennik">Nash Sovremennik</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russkoye_Znamya" title="Russkoye Znamya">Russkoye Znamya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zavtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zavtra">Zavtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Znamya_(newspaper)" title="Znamya (newspaper)">Znamya</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Islamism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Islamism">Anti-Islamism</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Anti-national sentiments</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_Russia" title="Anti-American sentiment in Russia">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Russia" title="Antisemitism in Russia">Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia#Russia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment#Russia" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment#Russia" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Russia" title="Politics of Russia">Politics of Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Liberalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_for_Russians" title="Russia for Russians">Russia for Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin" title="Russia under Vladimir Putin">Russia under Vladimir Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Serfdom in Russia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silovik" title="Silovik">Silovik</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Template:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Template talk:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism in Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Russian <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a> survived the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a> and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimacy</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyar</a> faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments (<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">prikazy</i></span>; sing., <i><a href="/wiki/Prikaz" title="Prikaz">prikaz</a></i> ) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a>, the central government, through <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">provincial</a> governors, was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_bureaucracy" title="Tsarist bureaucracy">tsarist bureaucracy</a>, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">military</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Judicial system of the Russian Empire">judiciary</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, played a major role in solidifying and maintaining the rule of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian rulers">Tsars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> (1547–1721) and in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (1721–1917). In the 19th century, the forces of change brought on by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> propelled many countries, especially in Europe, to significant social changes. However, due to the conservative nature of the Tsarist regime and its desire to maintain power and control, social change in Russia lagged behind that of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russian-speakers referred to bureaucrats as <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">chinovniki</i></span> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">чиновники</span></span>) because of the rank or <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">chin</i></span> (<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">чин</span></span>) which they held.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ashanti_Empire">Ashanti Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ashanti Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The government of the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti Empire</a> was built upon a sophisticated bureaucracy in <a href="/wiki/Kumasi" title="Kumasi">Kumasi</a>, with separate <a href="/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">ministries</a> which saw to the handling of state affairs. Ashanti's Foreign Office was based in Kumasi. Despite the small size of the office, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The Office was divided into departments that handled Ashanti relations separately with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a>. Scholars of Ashanti history, such as Larry Yarak and <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Wilks" title="Ivor Wilks">Ivor Wilkes</a>, disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the <a href="/wiki/Asantehene" class="mw-redirect" title="Asantehene">Asantehene</a>. However, both scholars agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg/220px-London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg/330px-London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/London_customs_house_18th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>The 18th century <a href="/wiki/HM_Customs_and_Excise" title="HM Customs and Excise">Department of Excise</a> developed a sophisticated bureaucracy. Pictured, the <a href="/wiki/Custom_House,_City_of_London" title="Custom House, City of London">Custom House</a> in the <a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">City of London</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Instead of the inefficient and often corrupt system of <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a> that prevailed in <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutist</a> states such as France, the <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">Exchequer</a> was able to exert control over the entire system of tax revenue and government expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 18th century, the ratio of fiscal bureaucracy to population in Britain was approximately 1 in 1300, almost four times larger than the second most heavily bureaucratized nation, France.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_Meadows" title="Thomas Taylor Meadows">Thomas Taylor Meadows</a>, Britain's consul in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, argued in his <i>Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China</i> (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only", and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution <a href="/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bodde_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodde-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the ancient Chinese <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northcote%E2%80%93Trevelyan_Report" title="Northcote–Trevelyan Report">Northcote–Trevelyan Report</a> of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bodde_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodde-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to implementation of <a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="His Majesty's Civil Service">His Majesty's Civil Service</a> as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the British civil service, just as it was in China, entrance to the civil service was usually based on a general education in ancient classics, which similarly gave bureaucrats greater prestige. The Cambridge-Oxford ideal of the civil service was identical to the Confucian ideal of a general education in world affairs through humanism.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Well into the 20th century, classics, literature, history and language remained heavily favoured in British civil service examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the period of 1925–1935, 67 percent of British civil service entrants consisted of such graduates.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the Chinese model's consideration of personal values, the British model also took personal physique and character into account.<sup id="cite_ref-rung_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rung-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a>, the old nobility had neither power nor political influence, their only privilege being exemption from taxes. The dissatisfied noblemen complained about this "unnatural" state of affairs, and discovered similarities between <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> and bureaucratic <a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">despotism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacoby1973_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacoby1973-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the translation of <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> texts during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the traditional <i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien regime">ancien regime</a></i> of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-EE_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western perception of China even in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy; <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a> advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-EE1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The governments of China, Egypt, Peru and Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II">Catherine II</a> were regarded as models of Enlightened Despotism, admired by such figures as Diderot, D'Alembert and Voltaire.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacoby1973_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacoby1973-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Napoleonic France adopted this meritocracy system <sup id="cite_ref-EE_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EE-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and soon saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government, accompanied by the rise of the French civil service and its complex systems of bureaucracy. This phenomenon became known as "bureaumania". In the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> attempted to reform the bureaucracies of France and other territories under his control by the imposition of the standardized <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a>. But paradoxically, that led to even further growth of the bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.<sup id="cite_ref-rung_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rung-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_industrialized_nations">Other industrialized nations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other industrialized nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the mid-19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the industrialized world. Thinkers like <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> began to theorize about the economic functions and power-structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life. <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of modernity, and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from government to other large-scale institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-google1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within capitalist systems, informal bureaucratic structures began to appear in the form of <a href="/wiki/Corporate_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate power">corporate power</a> hierarchies, as detailed in mid-century works like <i><a href="/wiki/The_Organization_Man" title="The Organization Man">The Organization Man</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Man_in_the_Gray_Flannel_Suit" title="The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit">The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit</a></i>. Meanwhile, in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> nations, a powerful class of bureaucratic administrators termed <i><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">nomenklatura</a></i> governed nearly all aspects of public life.<sup id="cite_ref-Voslensky_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voslensky-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1980s brought a backlash against perceptions of "big government" and the associated bureaucracy. Politicians like <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> gained power by promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies, which they saw as overbearing, and return economic production to a more purely capitalistic mode, which they saw as more efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-ThatcherBBC_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThatcherBBC-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Speech_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speech-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the business world, managers like <a href="/wiki/Jack_Welch" title="Jack Welch">Jack Welch</a> gained fortune and renown by eliminating bureaucratic structures inside corporations.<sup id="cite_ref-Welch_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welch-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, in the modern world, most organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information, process records, and administer complex systems, although the decline of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function.<sup id="cite_ref-Modernity_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modernity-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Karl Marx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> theorized about the role and function of bureaucracy in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Hegel%27s_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right">Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right</a></i>, published in 1843. In <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Right">Philosophy of Right</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> had supported the role of specialized officials in <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a>, although he never used the term <i>bureaucracy</i> himself. By contrast, Marx was opposed to bureaucracy. Marx posited that while <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporate</a> and government bureaucracy seem to operate in opposition, in actuality they mutually rely on one another to exist. He wrote that "The Corporation is civil society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy is the state which has really made itself into civil society."<sup id="cite_ref-Marx1843_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marx1843-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leon_Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Leon Trotsky"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> developed a critical theory of the emerging <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Soviet bureaucracy</a> during the early years of the Soviet Union. According to political scientist Thomas M. Twiss, Trotsky associated bureaucratism with <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, excessive <a href="/wiki/Centralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralism">centralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>. Social theorist Martin Krygier had noted the impact of Trotsky's post-1923 writings in shaping receptive views of bureaucracy among later Marxists and many non-Marxists. Twiss argued that Trotsky's theory of Soviet bureaucracy was essential for a study of Soviet history and understanding the process of capitalist restoration in Russia and Eastern Europe. Political scientist, Baruch Knei-Paz argued Trotsky had, above all others, written "to show the historical and social roots of Stalinism" as a bureaucratic system.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the predictions made by Trotsky in his 1936 work, <a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_Betrayed" title="The Revolution Betrayed">The Revolution Betrayed</a>, was that the USSR would come before a disjuncture: either the toppling of the ruling bureaucracy by means of a political revolution, or capitalist restoration led by the bureaucracy: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fall of the present bureaucratic dictatorship, if it were not replaced by a new socialist power, would thus mean a return to capitalist relations with a catastrophic decline of industry and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Stuart_Mill">John Stuart Mill</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: John Stuart Mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Writing in the early 1860s, political scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> theorized that successful monarchies were essentially bureaucracies, and found evidence of their existence in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, and the regimes of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Mill referred to bureaucracy as a distinct form of government, separate from representative democracy. He believed bureaucracies had certain advantages, most importantly the accumulation of experience in those who actually conduct the affairs. Nevertheless, he believed this form of governance compared poorly to representative government, as it relied on appointment rather than direct election. Mill wrote that ultimately the bureaucracy stifles the mind, and that "a bureaucracy always tends to become a pedantocracy."<sup id="cite_ref-Mill_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mill-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Max_Weber">Max Weber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Max Weber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The fully developed bureaucratic apparatus compares with other organisations exactly as does the machine with the non-mechanical modes of production. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">–Max Weber<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The German sociologist <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> (1864-1920) was the first to study bureaucracy formally, and his works led to the popularization of this term.<sup id="cite_ref-BuSach_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuSach-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his essay <i>Bureaucracy</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published in his <i>magnum opus</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Economy_and_Society" title="Economy and Society">Economy and Society</a></i> in 1921, Weber described many <a href="/wiki/Ideal_type" title="Ideal type">ideal-typical</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a>, government, and <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company"> business</a>. His ideal-typical bureaucracy, whether public or private, is characterized by: </p> <ul><li>hierarchical organization</li> <li>formal lines of authority (<a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">chain of command</a>)</li> <li>a fixed area of activity</li> <li>rigid division of labor</li> <li>regular and continuous execution of assigned tasks</li> <li>all decisions and powers specified and restricted by regulations</li> <li>officials with expert training in their fields</li> <li>career advancement dependent on technical qualifications</li> <li>qualifications evaluated by organizational rules, not by individuals<sup id="cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllanAllan2005-172-176-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Weber listed several preconditions for the <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> of bureaucracy, including an increase in the amount of space and population being administered, an increase in the complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out, and the existence of a <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary economy">monetary economy</a> requiring a more efficient administrative system.<sup id="cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllanAllan2005-172-176-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Development of <a href="/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> technologies make more efficient administration possible, and <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a> and rationalization of culture results in demands for <a href="/wiki/Equal_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal treatment">equal treatment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllanAllan2005-172-176-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he was not necessarily an admirer of bureaucracy, Weber saw bureaucratization as the most efficient and rational way of organizing human activity and therefore as the key to <a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">rational-legal authority</a>, indispensable to the modern world.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, he saw it as the key process in the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Western_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Western society">Western society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ritzer2009-38-42_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritzer2009-38-42-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weber also saw bureaucracy, however, as a threat to individual freedoms, and ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in a soulless "<a href="/wiki/Iron_cage" title="Iron cage">iron cage</a>" of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control.<sup id="cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GRitzer_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GRitzer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weber's critical study of the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work.<sup id="cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ritzer2009-38-42_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritzer2009-38-42-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many aspects of modern public administration are based on his work, and a classic, hierarchically organized <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a> of the Continental type is called a "Weberian civil service" or a "Weberian bureaucracy".<sup id="cite_ref-Hooghe2001_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooghe2001-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social scientists debate whether Weberian bureaucracy contributes to <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political scientist Jan Vogler challenges Max Weber's characterization of modern bureaucracies.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas Weber describes bureaucracies as entailing strict merit recruitment, clearly delineated career-paths for bureaucrats, the full separation of bureaucratic operations from politics, and mutually exclusive spheres of competence for government agencies, Vogler argues that the overwhelming majority of existing public administrative systems are not like this. Instead, modern bureaucracies require only "minimal competence" from candidates for bureaucratic offices, leaving space for biases in recruitment processes that give preferential treatment to members of specific social, economic, or ethnic groups, which are observed in many real-world bureaucratic systems. Bureaucracies are also not strictly separated from politics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Woodrow_Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Woodrow Wilson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Writing as an academic while a professor at <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College" title="Bryn Mawr College">Bryn Mawr College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s essay <i><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_Administration" title="The Study of Administration">The Study of Administration</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argued for bureaucracy as a professional cadre, devoid of allegiance to fleeting politics. Wilson advocated a bureaucracy that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> ...is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the manufactured product. But it is, at the same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress. </p></blockquote><p>Wilson did not advocate a replacement of rule by the governed, he simply advised that, "Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices". This essay became a foundation for the study of public administration in America.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ludwig_von_Mises">Ludwig von Mises</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ludwig von Mises"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Bureaucracy" title="Special:EditPage/Bureaucracy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bureaucracy%22">"Bureaucracy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bureaucracy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bureaucracy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bureaucracy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bureaucracy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bureaucracy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In his 1944 work <i><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy_(book)" title="Bureaucracy (book)">Bureaucracy</a></i>, the Austrian economist <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> compared bureaucratic management to profit management. Profit management, he argued, is the most effective method of organization when the services rendered may be checked by economic calculation of profit and loss. When, however, the service in question cannot be subjected to economic calculation, bureaucratic management is necessary. He did not oppose universally bureaucratic management; on the contrary, he argued that bureaucracy is an indispensable method for social organization, for it is the only method by which the law can be made supreme, and is the protector of the individual against despotic arbitrariness. Using the example of the Catholic Church, he pointed out that bureaucracy is only appropriate for an organization whose code of conduct is not subject to change. He then went on to argue that complaints about bureaucratization usually refer not to the criticism of the bureaucratic methods themselves, but to "the intrusion of bureaucracy into all spheres of human life." Mises saw bureaucratic processes at work in both the private and public spheres; however, he believed that bureaucratization in the private sphere could only occur as a consequence of government interference. According to him, "What must be realized is only that the strait jacket of bureaucratic organization paralyzes the individual's initiative, while within the capitalist market society an innovator still has a chance to succeed. The former makes for stagnation and preservation of inveterate methods, the latter makes for progress and improvement."<sup id="cite_ref-Mises_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mises-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_K._Merton">Robert K. Merton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Robert K. Merton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> expanded on Weber's theories of bureaucracy in his work <i>Social Theory and Social Structure</i>, published in 1957. While Merton agreed with certain aspects of Weber's analysis, he also noted the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy, which he attributed to a "trained incapacity" resulting from "over conformity". He believed that bureaucrats are more likely to defend their own entrenched interests than to act to benefit the organization as a whole but that pride in their craft makes them resistant to changes in established routines. Merton stated that bureaucrats emphasize formality over interpersonal relationships, and have been trained to ignore the special circumstances of particular cases, causing them to come across as "arrogant" and "haughty".<sup id="cite_ref-Merton_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merton-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elliott_Jaques">Elliott Jaques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Elliott Jaques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his book <i>A General Theory of Bureaucracy</i>, first published in 1976, <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Jaques" title="Elliott Jaques">Elliott Jaques</a> describes the discovery of a universal and uniform underlying structure of managerial or work levels in the bureaucratic hierarchy for any type of employment systems.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jaques argues and presents evidence that for the bureaucracy to provide a valuable contribution to the open society some of the following conditions must be met: </p> <ul><li>The number of levels in the hierarchy of a bureaucracy must match the complexity level of the employment system for which the bureaucratic hierarchy is created. (Jaques identified a maximum of eight levels of complexity for bureaucratic hierarchies.)</li> <li>Roles within a bureaucratic hierarchy differ in the level of work complexity.</li> <li>The level of work complexity in the roles must be matched by the level of human capability of the role holders. (Jaques identified maximum of eight levels of human capability.)</li> <li>The level of work complexity in any managerial role within a bureaucratic hierarchy must be one level higher than the level of work complexity of the subordinate roles.</li> <li>Any managerial role in a bureaucratic hierarchy must have full managerial accountabilities and authorities (veto selection to the team, decide task types and specific task assignments, decide personal effectiveness and recognition, decide initiation of removal from the team within due process).</li> <li>Lateral working accountabilities<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and authorities must be defined for all the roles in the hierarchy (seven types of lateral working accountabilities and authorities: collateral, advisory, service-getting and -giving, coordinative, monitoring, auditing, prescribing).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bureaucracy_and_democracy">Bureaucracy and democracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bureaucracy and democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic_drift" title="Bureaucratic drift">Bureaucratic drift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic_inertia" title="Bureaucratic inertia">Bureaucratic inertia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Representative_bureaucracy" title="Representative bureaucracy">Representative bureaucracy</a></div> <p>Like every modern state, a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> is highly bureaucratized, with numerous sizable organizations filled with career <a href="/wiki/Civil_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servants">civil servants</a>. Some of those bureaucracies have a substantial amount of influence to preserve the current political system because they are primarily focused on defending the country and the state from threats from both within and beyond. Since these institutions frequently operate independently and are mostly shielded from politics, they frequently have no affiliation with any particular political party or group. For instance, loyal British civil officials work for both the Conservative and Labour parties. However, on occasion a group might seize control of a bureaucratic state, as the Nazis did in Germany in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although numerous ideals associated with democracy, such as equality, participation, and individuality, are in stark contrast to those associated with modern bureaucracy, specifically hierarchy, specialization, and impersonality, political theorists did not recognize bureaucracy as a threat to democracy. Yet, democratic theorists still have not developed an adequate response to the challenge<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (February 2023)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> posed by bureaucratic power within democratic governance.<sup id="cite_ref-cam_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cam-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One approach to addressing this issue rejects the idea that bureaucracy has any role at all in a true democracy. Theorists who adopt this perspective typically understand that they must demonstrate that bureaucracy does not necessarily occur in every contemporary society; only in those they perceive to be non-democratic. Thus, 19th century British writers frequently referred to bureaucracy as the "Continental nuisance," because their democracy was resistant to it, in their point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-cam_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cam-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Marx and other socialist thinkers, the most advanced bureaucracies were those in France and Germany. However, they argued that bureaucracy was a symptom of the bourgeois state and would vanish along with capitalism, which gave rise to the bourgeois state. Though clearly not the democracies Marx had in mind, socialist societies ended up being more bureaucratic than the governments they replaced. Similarly, after capitalist economies developed the administrative systems required to support their extensive welfare states, the idea that bureaucracy exclusively exists in socialist governments could scarcely be maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-cam_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cam-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servant">Civil servant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchical organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machinery_of_government" title="Machinery of government">Machinery of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Crozier" title="Michel Crozier">Michel Crozier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_organizational_theory" title="Outline of organizational theory">Outline of organizational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power (social and political)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_tape" title="Red tape">Red tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requisite_organization" title="Requisite organization">Requisite organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State (polity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bureaucracy">"Bureaucracy - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. Merriam-webster.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>. <q>Definition of bureaucracy [:] [...] 1a: a body of nonelected government officials <br /> b: an administrative policy-making group</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bureaucracy+-+Definition+and+More+from+the+Free+Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-webster.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbureaucracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bureaucracy">"definition of bureaucracy"</a>. Thefreedictionary.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=definition+of+bureaucracy&rft.pub=Thefreedictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Fbureaucracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weber, Max "Bureaucracy" in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society, translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, Palgrave-Macmillan 2015. p. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahlströmLapuente2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dahlström, Carl; Lapuente, Victor (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-051120-102543">"Comparative Bureaucratic Politics"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Political Science</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">43–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-051120-102543">10.1146/annurev-polisci-051120-102543</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939">1094-2939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246605188">246605188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Comparative+Bureaucratic+Politics&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246605188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1094-2939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-051120-102543&rft.aulast=Dahlstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Lapuente%2C+Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-polisci-051120-102543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bureaucratic-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bureaucratic_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_SwedbergOla_Agevall2005" class="citation book cs1">Richard Swedberg; Ola Agevall (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_c3Mcnh8hCgC&pg=PA19"><i>The Max Weber dictionary: key words and central concepts</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">18–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5095-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5095-0"><bdi>978-0-8047-5095-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Max+Weber+dictionary%3A+key+words+and+central+concepts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5095-0&rft.au=Richard+Swedberg&rft.au=Ola+Agevall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_c3Mcnh8hCgC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GRitzer-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GRitzer_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRitzer_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a>, <i>Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption</i>, Pine Forge Press, 2004; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-8819-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-8819-X">0-7619-8819-X</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enchantingdisenc0000ritz_r0g1/page/55">Google Print, p. 55</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-merriam-webster1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-merriam-webster1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-merriam-webster1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bureaucracy">"Bureaucracy"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Dictionary</i> (definition)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Bureaucracy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbureaucracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggs1979" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Riggs, Fred W (1979), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0003/000366/036645fo.pdf">"Introduction: Évolution sémantique du terme 'bureaucratie'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [Introduction: semantic evolution of the 'bureaucracy' term] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Revue Internationale des Sciences Sociales</i> (in French), XXX I (4), Paris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Internationale+des+Sciences+Sociales&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+%C3%89volution+s%C3%A9mantique+du+terme+%27bureaucratie%27&rft.volume=XXX+I&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Riggs&rft.aufirst=Fred+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fimages%2F0003%2F000366%2F036645fo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handbook-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.C.N._Raadschelders1998" class="citation book cs1">J.C.N. <a href="/wiki/Jos_C.N._Raadschelders" title="Jos C.N. Raadschelders">Raadschelders</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3iSkH1Qf6xsC&pg=PA142"><i>Handbook of Administrative History</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765807267" title="Special:BookSources/9780765807267"><bdi>9780765807267</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Administrative+History&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780765807267&rft.au=J.C.N.+Raadschelders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3iSkH1Qf6xsC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lady_morgan-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lady_morgan_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLady_Morgan1818" class="citation book cs1">Lady Morgan, Sydney (1818). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/florencemacarth02morggoog"><i>Florence Macarthy</i></a>. Henry Colburn. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/florencemacarth02morggoog/page/n34">35</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Florence+Macarthy&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Henry+Colburn&rft.date=1818&rft.aulast=Lady+Morgan&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fflorencemacarth02morggoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google1_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google1_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google1_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeetham1996" class="citation book cs1">Beetham, David (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KtFI15WCr_8C&pg=PA3"><i>Bureaucracy</i></a>. U of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816629398" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816629398"><bdi>978-0816629398</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bureaucracy&rft.pub=U+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0816629398&rft.aulast=Beetham&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKtFI15WCr_8C%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mises-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mises_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mises_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudwig_von_Mises1944" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a> (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy.asp"><i>Bureaucracy</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bureaucracy&rft.date=1944&rft.au=Ludwig+von+Mises&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fetexts%2Fmises%2Fbureaucracy.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merton-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merton_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merton_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_K._Merton1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121227113532/http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/merton_bureaucratic_structure.php"><i>Social Theory and Social Structure</i></a>. Glencoe, IL;Free Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">195–</span>206. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/merton_bureaucratic_structure.php">the original</a> on 27 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Theory+and+Social+Structure&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E195-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.pub=Glencoe%2C+IL%3BFree+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.au=Robert+K.+Merton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sociosite.net%2Ftopics%2Ftexts%2Fmerton_bureaucratic_structure.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge1_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/bureaucracy">"Meaning of bureaucracy in English"</a>. Cambridge.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Meaning+of+bureaucracy+in+English&rft.pub=Cambridge.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fbureaucracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirl1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wirl, Franz (July 1998). "Socio-economic typologies of bureaucratic corruption and implications". <i>Journal of Evolutionary Economics</i>. <b>8</b> (2). Springer-Verlag: <span class="nowrap">199–</span>220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs001910050062">10.1007/s001910050062</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154833892">154833892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolutionary+Economics&rft.atitle=Socio-economic+typologies+of+bureaucratic+corruption+and+implications&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E220&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs001910050062&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154833892%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wirl&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBARNETTFINNEMORE2004" class="citation book cs1">BARNETT, Michael; FINNEMORE, Marftha (2004). <i>Rules for the World: International Organizations in Global Politics</i>. Cornell University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4090-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4090-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-4090-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt7z7mx">10.7591/j.ctt7z7mx</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rules+for+the+World%3A+International+Organizations+in+Global+Politics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7591%2Fj.ctt7z7mx%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4090-8&rft.aulast=BARNETT&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=FINNEMORE%2C+Marftha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scribes-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scribes_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurie_E._Pearce1995" class="citation book cs1">Laurie E. Pearce (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/562267">"The Scribes and Scholars of Ancient Mesopotamia"</a>. In Jack M. Sasson (ed.). <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>. Macmillan Library Reference. pp. <span class="nowrap">2265–</span>2278<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2014</span>. <q>Palace scribes recorded the activities of kings and the affairs of kingdoms in ancient Mesopotamia. Scribes served a variety of administrative functions, including arrangement and storage of texts [...], collection of taxes and supervision of workers, and supervision of public buildings such as granaries. [...] Scribes associated with the temple were not officiants in the temple cult. They functioned largely in administrative and bureaucratic roles. They received incoming staples for the temple, including commodities such as grain, fish, wool, and silver. They traveled to various cities to fulfill official duties, such as the purchase of grain for the temple complex.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scribes+and+Scholars+of+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2265-%3C%2Fspan%3E2278&rft.pub=Macmillan+Library+Reference&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Laurie+E.+Pearce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F562267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scribal_training-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scribal_training_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_J._Williams1972" class="citation journal cs1">Ronald J. Williams (1972). "Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>92</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">214–</span>221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F600648">10.2307/600648</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/600648">600648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Scribal+Training+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E221&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F600648&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F600648%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Ronald+J.+Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/michael-loewe/china%E2%80%99s-first-empire">"China's First Empire | History Today"</a>. <i>www.historytoday.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170417235658/http://www.historytoday.com/michael-loewe/china%E2%80%99s-first-empire">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historytoday.com&rft.atitle=China%27s+First+Empire+%7C+History+Today&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fmichael-loewe%2Fchina%25E2%2580%2599s-first-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WIP:ESA36-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIP:ESA36_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Confucius2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Confucius2_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiegel,_Jeffrey2002" class="citation book cs1">Riegel, Jeffrey (3 July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius">"Confucius"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2012 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confucius&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2012&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2002-07-03&rft.au=Riegel%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2012%2Fentries%2Fconfucius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Loewe 1994 p.. Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m2tmgvB8zisC">https://books.google.com/books?id=m2tmgvB8zisC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creel, H.G. (1949). Confucius: The Man and the Myth. New York: John Day Company. pp. 239–241 <ul><li>Creel, H.G. 1960. pp. 239–241. Confucius and the Chinese Way</li> <li>Creel, H.G. 1970, What Is Taoism?, 86–87</li> <li>Xinzhong Yao 2003. p. 231. The Encyclopedia of Confucianism: 2-volume Set. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P-c4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231">https://books.google.com/books?id=P-c4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231</a></li> <li>Griet Vankeerberghen 2001 pp. 20, 173. The Huainanzi and Liu An's Claim to Moral Authority. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zt-vBqHQzpQC&pg=PA20">https://books.google.com/books?id=zt-vBqHQzpQC&pg=PA20</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Loewe pp. 145, 148. 2011. Dong Zhongshu, a 'Confucian' Heritage and the Chunqiu Fanlu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQjJxvkY-34C&pg=PA145">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQjJxvkY-34C&pg=PA145</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward A Kracke Jr, Civil Service in Early Sung China, 960–1067, p. 253</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey_1999_145_146-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ebrey_1999_145_146_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Buckley_Ebrey" title="Patricia Buckley Ebrey">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley</a>, Anne Walthall, <a href="/wiki/James_Palais" title="James Palais">James Palais</a>. (2006). <i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-13384-4">0-618-13384-4</a>. 145–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKnight1983-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McKnight1983_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKnight1983" class="citation book cs1">McKnight, Brian E. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEr8_6LieVMC&pg=PA1"><i>Village and Bureaucracy in Southern Sung China</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56060-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56060-1"><bdi>978-0-226-56060-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2013</span>. <q>the government of imperial China still seems in many ways curiously modern and familiar. Bureaucratically organized, and dominated by a graded civil service led by men selected through competitive examinations, it was both a model for a precursor of the complex administrations of our modern world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Village+and+Bureaucracy+in+Southern+Sung+China&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-226-56060-1&rft.aulast=McKnight&rft.aufirst=Brian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEr8_6LieVMC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfgang_Franke1960" class="citation book cs1">Wolfgang Franke (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ofvBS7L6slUC&pg=PA69"><i>The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System</i></a>. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. <span class="nowrap">69–</span>71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-75250-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-75250-4"><bdi>978-0-674-75250-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reform+and+Abolition+of+the+Traditional+Chinese+Examination+System&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-674-75250-4&rft.au=Wolfgang+Franke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DofvBS7L6slUC%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2012" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Carnes (2012). <i>Proconsuls: Delegated Political-Military Leadership from Rome to America Today</i>. Cambridge university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4"><bdi>978-0-521-25469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proconsuls%3A+Delegated+Political-Military+Leadership+from+Rome+to+America+Today.&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25469-4&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Carnes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As taken from the <i><a href="/wiki/Laterculus_Veronensis" title="Laterculus Veronensis">Laterculus Veronensis</a></i> or <i>Verona List</i>, reproduced in Barnes, <i>New Empire</i>, chs. 12–13 (with corrections in T.D. Barnes, "Emperors, panegyrics, prefects, provinces and palaces (284–317)", <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i> 9 (1996): pp. 539–542). See also: Barnes, <i>Constantine and Eusebius</i>, 9; Cascio, "The New State of Diocletian and Constantine" (CAH), 179; Rees, <i>Diocletian and the Tetrarchy</i>, pp. 24–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lactantius-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lactantius_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLactantius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#VII">"Chapter 7"</a>. <i>On the Manner in which the Persecutors Died</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7&rft.btitle=On+the+Manner+in+which+the+Persecutors+Died&rft.au=Lactantius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.ucalgary.ca%2F~vandersp%2FCourses%2Ftexts%2Flactant%2Flactpers.html%23VII&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/byzantine">"Byzantine – Definition"</a>. Merriam-webster.com. 31 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Byzantine+%E2%80%93+Definition&rft.pub=Merriam-webster.com&rft.date=2012-08-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbyzantine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=Byzantine">"Byzantine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Byzantine&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3DByzantine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span>: "pertaining to Byzantium (q.v., original name of Constantinople, modern Istanbul), 1770, from Late Latin Byzantinus; originally used of the style of art and architecture developed there 4c.–5c. C.E.; later in reference to the complex, devious, and intriguing character of the royal court of Constantinople (1937)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lane, George (2016). "Turkoman confederations, the (Aqqoyunlu and Qaraqoyunlu)". In Dalziel, N.; MacKenzie, J.M. (eds.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Empire</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe193">10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe193</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118455074" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118455074"><bdi>978-1118455074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turkoman+confederations%2C+the+%28Aqqoyunlu+and+Qaraqoyunlu%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Empire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118455074.wbeoe193&rft.isbn=978-1118455074&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-14_u-427_t-1083_c-4185/the-tsarist-regime/nsw/history/the-russian-revolution/background">"The Tsarist regime, Background, The Russian Revolution, SOSE: History Year 9, NSW | Online Education Home Schooling Skwirk Australia"</a>. <i>www.skwirk.com</i>. Red Apple Education Ltd<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2016</span>. <q>As many countries in Europe industrialised their economy and liberalised their political structure, Russia was bound by the conservative nature of the Tsarist regime. The economic, social and political tensions that emerged in the late 19th century led to revolution in the 20th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.skwirk.com&rft.atitle=The+Tsarist+regime%2C+Background%2C+The+Russian+Revolution%2C+SOSE%3A+History+Year+9%2C+NSW+%7C+Online+Education+Home+Schooling+Skwirk+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skwirk.com%2Fp-c_s-14_u-427_t-1083_c-4185%2Fthe-tsarist-regime%2Fnsw%2Fhistory%2Fthe-russian-revolution%2Fbackground&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chinovnik">"Definition of Chinovnik"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheNigeriaLawyer&rft.atitle=Historical+Reminisciences%3A+Great+Empires+Of+Yore+%28Part+15%29+By+Mike+Ozekhome%2C+SAN&rft.date=2020-03-15&rft.aulast=Chioma&rft.aufirst=Unini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthenigerialawyer.com%2Fhistorical-reminisciences-great-empires-of-yore-part-15-by-mike-ozekhome-san%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/workingPapers/2012/WP167.pdf">"3 Public finance in China and Britain in the long eighteenth century"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745614571" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745614571"><bdi>978-0745614571</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=States+and+Economic+Development%3A+A+Comparative+Historical+Analysis&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0745614571&rft.au=Linda+Weiss&rft.au=John+Hobson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIPxlQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bodde-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bodde_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bodde_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodde" class="citation web cs1">Bodde, Derke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm">"China: A Teaching Workbook"</a>. Columbia University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+Teaching+Workbook&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.aulast=Bodde&rft.aufirst=Derke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafe.easia.columbia.edu%2Fsong%2Freadings%2Finventions_ideas.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf">Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141222072511/http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf">Archived</a> 22 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2003" class="citation news cs1">Walker, David (9 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement">"Fair game"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 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University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+China+and+Its+Modern+Fate%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Joseph+Richmond+Levenson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFry1969" class="citation book cs1">Fry, Geoffrey Kingdon (1969). <i>Statesmen in Disguise: The Changing Role of the Administrative Class of the British Home Civil Service 1853–1965</i>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. <span class="nowrap">95–</span>96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-00034-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-00034-0"><bdi>978-1-349-00034-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statesmen+in+Disguise%3A+The+Changing+Role+of+the+Administrative+Class+of+the+British+Home+Civil+Service+1853%E2%80%931965&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-1-349-00034-0&rft.aulast=Fry&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Kingdon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiner1937" class="citation book cs1">Finer, Herman (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.458787"><i>The British Civil Service</i></a>. The Fabian Society / George Allen & Unwin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.458787/page/n91">92</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Civil+Service&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=The+Fabian+Society+%2F+George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Finer&rft.aufirst=Herman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.458787&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rung-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rung_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rung_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRung2002" class="citation book cs1">Rung, Margaret C. 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University of Georgia Press. pp. 8, <span class="nowrap">200–</span>8, 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0820323624" title="Special:BookSources/0820323624"><bdi>0820323624</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Servants+of+the+State%3A+Managing+Diversity+%26+Democracy+in+the+Federal+Workforce%2C+1933%E2%80%931953&rft.pages=8%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E200-%3C%2Fspan%3E8%2C+201&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0820323624&rft.aulast=Rung&rft.aufirst=Margaret+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DucVgkbmqynUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_W._HuddlestonWilliam_W._Boyer1996" class="citation book cs1">Mark W. Huddleston; William W. Boyer (1996). <i>The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform</i>. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0822974738" title="Special:BookSources/0822974738"><bdi>0822974738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Higher+Civil+Service+in+the+United+States%3A+Quest+for+Reform&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Pre&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0822974738&rft.au=Mark+W.+Huddleston&rft.au=William+W.+Boyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacoby1973-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacoby1973_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacoby1973_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Jacoby1973" class="citation book cs1">Henry Jacoby (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bureaucratizatio0000jaco"><i>The Bureaucratization of the World</i></a></span>. University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bureaucratizatio0000jaco/page/40">40</a>–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02083-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02083-2"><bdi>978-0-520-02083-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bureaucratization+of+the+World&rft.pages=40-43&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02083-2&rft.au=Henry+Jacoby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbureaucratizatio0000jaco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EE-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EE_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EE_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwarz (1996), p. 229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EE1-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EE1_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwarz (1996), p. 232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaadschelders2000" class="citation book cs1">Raadschelders, Jos C.N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3iSkH1Qf6xsC&pg=PA142"><i>Handbook of Administrative History</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765807267" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765807267"><bdi>978-0765807267</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Administrative+History&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0765807267&rft.aulast=Raadschelders&rft.aufirst=Jos+C.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3iSkH1Qf6xsC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Voslensky-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Voslensky_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Voslensky1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Voslensky" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Voslensky">Michael Voslensky</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nomenklaturasovi0000vosl_l7v8"><i>Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Class</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-17657-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-17657-6"><bdi>978-0-385-17657-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomenklatura%3A+The+Soviet+Ruling+Class&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-385-17657-6&rft.au=Michael+Voslensky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnomenklaturasovi0000vosl_l7v8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThatcherBBC-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ThatcherBBC_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-22076774">"Viewpoints: How did Margaret Thatcher change Britain?"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 13 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Viewpoints%3A+How+did+Margaret+Thatcher+change+Britain%3F&rft.date=2013-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-politics-22076774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speech-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Speech_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Reagan1964" class="citation speech cs1">Ronald Reagan (27 October 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160114170906/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/timechoosing.html"><i>A Time For Choosing</i></a> (Speech). <i>Ronald Reagan Presidential Library</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/timechoosing.html">the original</a> on 14 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Time+For+Choosing&rft.date=1964-10-27&rft.au=Ronald+Reagan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reagan.utexas.edu%2Farchives%2Freference%2Ftimechoosing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welch-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Welch_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100101031942/http://www.businessweek.com/1996/44/b34991.htm">"Jack Welch's Encore"</a>. Businessweek.com. 14 June 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessweek.com/1996/44/b34991.htm">the original</a> on 1 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jack+Welch%27s+Encore&rft.pub=Businessweek.com&rft.date=1997-06-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessweek.com%2F1996%2F44%2Fb34991.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Modernity-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Modernity_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart_R._CleggMartin_HarrisHarro_Höpfl2011" class="citation book cs1">Stewart R. Clegg; Martin Harris; Harro Höpfl, eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199563654.do"><i>Managing Modernity: Beyond Bureaucracy?</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199563654" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199563654"><bdi>978-0199563654</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Modernity%3A+Beyond+Bureaucracy%3F&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0199563654&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fukcatalogue.oup.com%2Fproduct%2F9780199563654.do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marx1843-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marx1843_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Marx1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/ch03.htm">"3A"</a>. <i>Marx's Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843)</i>. Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3A&rft.btitle=Marx%27s+Critique+of+Hegel%27s+Philosophy+of+Right+%281843%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Karl+Marx&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1843%2Fcritique-hpr%2Fch03.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwiss2014" class="citation book cs1">Twiss, Thomas M. (8 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3o2fAwAAQBAJ&q=trotsky+and+the+problem+of+soviet+bureaucracy"><i>Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy</i></a>. BRILL. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26953-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26953-8"><bdi>978-90-04-26953-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trotsky+and+the+Problem+of+Soviet+Bureaucracy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014-05-08&rft.isbn=978-90-04-26953-8&rft.aulast=Twiss&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3o2fAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtrotsky%2Band%2Bthe%2Bproblem%2Bof%2Bsoviet%2Bbureaucracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrotsky1991" class="citation book cs1">Trotsky, Leon (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hiCYS9Z3lDoC"><i>The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and where is it Going?</i></a>. Mehring Books. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-48-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-48-1"><bdi>978-0-929087-48-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolution+Betrayed%3A+What+is+the+Soviet+Union+and+where+is+it+Going%3F&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Mehring+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-929087-48-1&rft.aulast=Trotsky&rft.aufirst=Leon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhiCYS9Z3lDoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mill-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mill_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Stuart_Mill1861" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/5669/5669-h/5669-h.htm#2HCH0006">"VI – Of the Infirmities and Dangers to which Representative Government is Liable"</a>. <i>Considerations on Representative Government</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI+%E2%80%93+Of+the+Infirmities+and+Dangers+to+which+Representative+Government+is+Liable&rft.btitle=Considerations+on+Representative+Government&rft.date=1861&rft.au=John+Stuart+Mill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F5669%2F5669-h%2F5669-h.htm%232HCH0006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Bureaucracy" from Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification. Chapter 6 Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. Palgrave MacMillan 2015, pp. 73–128 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137365866" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137365866">978-1137365866</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BuSach-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BuSach_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall_SashkinMolly_G._Sashkin2003" class="citation book cs1">Marshall Sashkin; Molly G. Sashkin (28 January 2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leadershipthatma0000sash"><i>Leadership that matters: the critical factors for making a difference in people's lives and organizations' success</i></a></span>. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leadershipthatma0000sash/page/52">52</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57675-193-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57675-193-0"><bdi>978-1-57675-193-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership+that+matters%3A+the+critical+factors+for+making+a+difference+in+people%27s+lives+and+organizations%27+success&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Berrett-Koehler+Publishers&rft.date=2003-01-28&rft.isbn=978-1-57675-193-0&rft.au=Marshall+Sashkin&rft.au=Molly+G.+Sashkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleadershipthatma0000sash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weber, 2015, pp. 73–127 in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society, edited and translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, New York: Palgrave MacMillan</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AllanAllan2005-172-176-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AllanAllan2005-172-176_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_AllanKenneth_D._Allan2005" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Allan; Kenneth D. Allan (2 November 2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/172"><i>Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World</i></a></span>. Pine Forge Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/explorationsincl00alla/page/172">172–76</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0572-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0572-5"><bdi>978-1-4129-0572-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explorations+in+Classical+Sociological+Theory%3A+Seeing+the+Social+World&rft.pages=172-76&rft.pub=Pine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2005-11-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-0572-5&rft.au=Kenneth+Allan&rft.au=Kenneth+D.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexplorationsincl00alla%2Fpage%2F172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber, Max</a> (8 April 2015). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Nature, Conditions, and Development of Bureaucratic <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Authority_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Authority (sociology)"> Herrschaft</a></i></span>' by Max Weber". In Waters, Tony; Waters, Dagmar (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FDmDDAAAQBAJ"><i>Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification</i></a>. Translated by Elbers, Benjamin; Waters, Tony; Waters, Dagmar. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137365866" title="Special:BookSources/9781137365866"><bdi>9781137365866</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2024</span>. <q>1. A rigid division of labor is in place for the purpose of performing regular daily tasks as official duties in the functioning of the bureaucratically governed system.<br />2. In order to fulfill these duties the necessary chains of command are firmly established and divided up [among the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Beamte</i></span>], and their capacity to coerce (physical, sacred, or other) is firmly restricted by regulation.<br />3. Regular and continuous fulfillment of these assigned duties, and the execution of respective rights is systematically secured by hiring people with certified qualifications.<br /><br />These three aspects constitute the essence of bureaucratic administration of a <i>Behoerde</i> in the public sector.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27The+Nature%2C+Conditions%2C+and+Development+of+Bureaucratic+%3Cspan+title%3D%22German-language+text%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22de%22%3EHerrschaft%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+German-language+text%27+by+Max+Weber&rft.btitle=Weber%27s+Rationalism+and+Modern+Society%3A+New+Translations+on+Politics%2C+Bureaucracy%2C+and+Social+Stratification&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015-04-08&rft.isbn=9781137365866&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFDmDDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_c3Mcnh8hCgC&pg=PA19">Max Weber (2015) extract</a>, books.google.ca; accessed 30 August 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ritzer2009-38-42-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ritzer2009-38-42_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritzer2009-38-42_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Ritzer2009" class="citation book cs1">George Ritzer (29 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pX6pPwAACAAJ"><i>Contemporary Sociological Theory and Its Classical Roots: The Basics</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. pp. <span class="nowrap">38–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340438-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-340438-7"><bdi>978-0-07-340438-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Sociological+Theory+and+Its+Classical+Roots%3A+The+Basics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2009-09-29&rft.isbn=978-0-07-340438-7&rft.au=George+Ritzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpX6pPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooghe2001-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hooghe2001_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiesbet_Hooghe2001" class="citation book cs1">Liesbet Hooghe (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e15KnRiGipYC&pg=PA40"><i>The European Commission and the integration of Europe: images of governance</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00143-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00143-4"><bdi>978-0-521-00143-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Commission+and+the+integration+of+Europe%3A+images+of+governance&rft.pages=40-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00143-4&rft.au=Liesbet+Hooghe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De15KnRiGipYC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornellKnutsenTeorell2020" class="citation journal cs1">Cornell, Agnes; Knutsen, Carl Henrik; Teorell, Jan (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010414020912262">"Bureaucracy and Growth"</a>. <i>Comparative Political Studies</i>. <b>53</b> (14): <span class="nowrap">2246–</span>2282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010414020912262">10.1177/0010414020912262</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-4140">0010-4140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Bureaucracy+and+Growth&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2246-%3C%2Fspan%3E2282&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0010414020912262&rft.issn=0010-4140&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Agnes&rft.au=Knutsen%2C+Carl+Henrik&rft.au=Teorell%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0010414020912262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogler2023" class="citation journal cs1">Vogler, Jan P. 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"Bureaucracies in Historical Political Economy". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Historical Political Economy</i>: C19.S1–C19.N41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780197618608.013.19">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197618608.013.19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-761860-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-761860-8"><bdi>978-0-19-761860-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4105786">4105786</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Historical+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Bureaucracies+in+Historical+Political+Economy&rft.pages=C19.S1-C19.N41&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780197618608.013.19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D4105786%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.isbn=978-0-19-761860-8&rft.aulast=Vogler&rft.aufirst=Jan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodrow Wilson, "The Study of Administration", <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, July 1887</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Hood (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ns7wTyXuw5sC">The Art of the State: Culture, Rhetoric, and Public Management</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 76. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829765-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829765-9">978-0-19-829765-9</a>. Retrieved 29 January 2019</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Constructing the infrastructure for the knowledge economy : methods and tools, theory and structure</i>. Linger, Henry. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 2004. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306485541" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306485541"><bdi>978-0306485541</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55877281">55877281</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+the+infrastructure+for+the+knowledge+economy+%3A+methods+and+tools%2C+theory+and+structure&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic%2FPlenum+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55877281&rft.isbn=978-0306485541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott.1976" class="citation book cs1">Elliott., Jaques (1976). <i>A general theory of bureaucracy</i>. London: Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0435824785" title="Special:BookSources/978-0435824785"><bdi>978-0435824785</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2089721">2089721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+general+theory+of+bureaucracy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2089721&rft.isbn=978-0435824785&rft.aulast=Elliott.&rft.aufirst=Jaques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychoanalysis-and-therapy.com/human_nature/free-associations/kirsnerjaques.html">"Psychoanalysis Psychotherapy"</a>. <i>www.psychoanalysis-and-therapy.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.psychoanalysis-and-therapy.com&rft.atitle=Psychoanalysis+Psychotherapy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychoanalysis-and-therapy.com%2Fhuman_nature%2Ffree-associations%2Fkirsnerjaques.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hbr.org/1990/01/in-praise-of-hierarchy">"In Praise of Hierarchy"</a>. <i>Harvard Business Review</i>. 1 January 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=In+Praise+of+Hierarchy&rft.date=1990-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F1990%2F01%2Fin-praise-of-hierarchy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Mearsheimer2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a> (2018). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Delusion" title="The Great Delusion">The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities</a></i>. Yale University Press. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300234190" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300234190"><bdi>978-0300234190</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Delusion%3A+Liberal+Dreams+and+International+Realities&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0300234190&rft.au=John+Mearsheimer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cam-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cam_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cam_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cam_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Bureaucracy and Democracy." <i>Restoring Responsibility: Ethics in Government, Business, and Healthcare</i>, by Dennis F. Thompson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004, pp. 50–70. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511617423" title="Special:BookSources/9780511617423">9780511617423</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bureaucracy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Bureaucracy" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bureaucracy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Albrow, Martin. <i>Bureaucracy.</i> (London: Macmillan, 1970).</li> <li>Cheng, Tun-Jen, Stephan Haggard, and David Kang. "Institutions and growth in Korea and Taiwan: the bureaucracy". in <i>East Asian Development: New Perspectives</i> (Routledge, 2020) pp. 87–111. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stephanhaggard.com/s/Cheng-Haggard-and-Kang-Institutions-and-growth-in-Korea-and-Taiwan.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Cornell, Agnes, Carl Henrik Knutsen, and Jan Teorell. "Bureaucracy and Growth". <i>Comparative Political Studies</i> 53.14 (2020): 2246–2282. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0010414020912262">online</a></li> <li>Crooks, Peter, and Timothy H. Parsons, eds. <i>Empires and bureaucracy in world history: from late antiquity to the twentieth century</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/035/815/999/9781107166035_foreword_pdf_1.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Kingston, Ralph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx0Q8RgcKREC"><i>Bureaucrats and Bourgeois Society: Office Politics and Individual Credit, 1789–1848</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.</li> <li>Neil Garston (ed.), <i>Bureaucracy: Three Paradigms</i>. Boston: Kluwer, 1993.</li> <li>On Karl Marx: Hal Draper, <i>Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy</i>. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.</li> <li>Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/index.htm"><i>Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right</i></a> and Engels discusses the origins of the state in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm"><i>Origins of the Family</i></a>, marxists.org</li> <li>Ludwig von Mises, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy.asp">Bureaucracy</a></i>, Yale University Press, 1962. Liberty Fund (2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-663-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-663-4">978-0-86597-663-4</a></li> <li>Schwarz, Bill. (1996). <i>The expansion of England: race, ethnicity and cultural history</i>. Psychology Pres; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-06025-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-06025-7">0-415-06025-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1980" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Tony J. (1980). <i>Sociology, Work and Industry</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32165-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32165-5"><bdi>978-0-415-32165-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology%2C+Work+and+Industry&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32165-5&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Tony+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span> On Weber</li> <li>Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Translated by A.M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1947.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1989" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, James Q. (1989). <i>Bureaucracy</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00785-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00785-1"><bdi>978-0-465-00785-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bureaucracy&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00785-1&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=James+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABureaucracy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Weber, Max, "Bureaucracy" in <i>Weber, Max. Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification</i>. Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1137373539" title="Special:BookSources/1137373539">1137373539</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/31803869/_Bureaucracy_by_Max_Weber_Translated_and_Edited_by_Tony_Waters_and_Dagmar_Waters">English translation of "Bureaucracy" by Max Weber.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_service119" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_service" title="Template:Civil service"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_service" title="Template talk:Civil service"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_service" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil service"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_service119" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government agency</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">Bureaucrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">Merit system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">Diplomat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_agency" title="Regulatory agency">Regulatory agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country/territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Public_Service" title="Australian Public Service">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Civil_Service" title="Bangladesh Civil Service">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Civil_Service" title="Brazilian Civil Service">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Service_of_Canada" title="Public Service of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Civil_Service" title="Hong Kong Civil Service">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="French Civil Service">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beamter" title="Beamter">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_Service" title="Greek Civil Service">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Senior_Civil_Service" title="Italian Senior Civil Service">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_Japan" title="Civil service of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_in_Malaysia" title="Civil service in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector_organisations_in_New_Zealand#Public_service_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="Public sector organisations in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_Service" title="Nigerian Civil Service">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Superior_Services" title="Central Superior Services">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Service" title="Singapore Civil Service">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Administrative_Service" title="Sri Lanka Administrative Service">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Civil_Service" title="Northern Ireland Civil Service">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Service" title="European Civil Service">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_civil_service_commissions" title="Category:National civil service commissions">National civil service commissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_occupations" title="Category:Government occupations">Government occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_service_by_country" title="Category:Civil service by country">Civil service by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_reform_in_developing_countries" title="Civil service reform in developing countries">Civil service reform in developing countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a 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