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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_study_of_medievalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_study_of_medievalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The study of medievalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_study_of_medievalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exhibitions_about_medievalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exhibitions_about_medievalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Exhibitions about medievalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exhibitions_about_medievalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">System of belief and practice inspired by the Middle Ages of Europe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the interdisciplinary study of the medieval period, see <a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg/220px-Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg/330px-Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Redgirl_and_knight01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>The Middle Ages in art: a <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelite">Pre-Raphaelite</a> painting of a <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> and a mythical seductress, the <a href="/wiki/Lamia" title="Lamia">lamia</a> (<i>Lamia</i> by <a href="/wiki/John_William_Waterhouse" title="John William Waterhouse">John William Waterhouse</a>, 1905)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Medievalism</b> is a system of belief and practice inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> of Europe, or by devotion to elements of that period, which have been expressed in areas such as architecture, literature, music, art, philosophy, scholarship, and various vehicles of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 17th century, a variety of movements have used the medieval period as a model or inspiration for creative activity, including <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic revival">Gothic revival</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelite">Pre-Raphaelite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movements</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">neo-medievalism</a> (a term often used interchangeably with <i>medievalism</i>). Historians have attempted to conceptualize the history of non-European countries in terms of medievalisms, but the approach has been controversial among scholars of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_to_Enlightenment">Renaissance to Enlightenment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Renaissance to Enlightenment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_(1694-1778)_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg/170px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg/255px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg/340px-Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re_-_Portrait_de_Voltaire_%281694-1778%29_en_1718_-_P208_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet_-_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, one of the key Enlightenment critics of the medieval era</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1330s, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">expressed the view</a> that European culture had stagnated and drifted into what he called the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">"<i>Dark Ages</i>"</a>, since the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">fall of Rome</a> in the fifth century, owing to among other things, the loss of many classical Latin texts and to the corruption of the language in contemporary discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-mommsen_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mommsen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> believed that they lived in a new age that broke free of the decline described by Petrarch. Historians <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flavio_Biondo" title="Flavio Biondo">Flavio Biondo</a> developed a <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">three tier</a> outline of history composed of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Ancient</a>, Medieval, and <a href="/wiki/Modern_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern world">Modern</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudolph2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudolph2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Latin term <i>media tempestas</i> (middle time) first appears in 1469.<sup id="cite_ref-Albrow_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albrow-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>medium aevum</i> (Middle Ages) is first recorded in 1604.<sup id="cite_ref-Albrow_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albrow-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Medieval" first appears in the nineteenth century and is an Anglicised form of <i>medium aevum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformations</a> of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants generally followed the critical views expressed by Renaissance Humanists, but for additional reasons. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time, not only because of Latin literature, but because it was the early beginnings of Christianity. The intervening 1000 year Middle Age was a time of darkness, not only because of lack of secular Latin literature, but because of corruption within the Church such as Popes who ruled as kings, pagan superstitions with <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">saints' relics</a>, celibate priesthood, and institutionalized moral hypocrisy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Protestant historians did not date the beginnings of the modern era from the Renaissance, but later, from the beginnings of the Reformation.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Middle Ages was seen as an "Age of Faith" when religion reigned, and thus as a period contrary to reason and contrary to the spirit of the Enlightenment.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For them the Middle Ages was barbaric and priest-ridden. They referred to "these dark times", "the centuries of ignorance", and "the uncouth centuries".<sup id="cite_ref-Barlett2001_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barlett2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Protestant critique of the Medieval Church was taken into Enlightenment thinking by works including <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a></i> (1776–89).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> was particularly energetic in attacking the religiously dominated Middle Ages as a period of social stagnation and decline, condemning <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Crusades" class="mw-redirect" title="The Crusades">The Crusades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval inquisition">The Inquisition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Barlett2001_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barlett2001-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gothic_revival">Gothic revival</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gothic revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Revival">Gothic Revival</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neo-Gothic001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Neo-Gothic001.jpg/170px-Neo-Gothic001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Neo-Gothic001.jpg/255px-Neo-Gothic001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Neo-Gothic001.jpg/340px-Neo-Gothic001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>Notable Neo-Gothic edifices: top – <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>; left – <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Learning" title="Cathedral of Learning">Cathedral of Learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>; right – <a href="/wiki/Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk" title="Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk">Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostend" title="Ostend">Ostend</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Gothic Revival was an <a href="/wiki/Architectural_style" title="Architectural style">architectural movement</a> which began in the 1740s in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yates2008_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yates2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its popularity grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century, when increasingly serious and learned admirers of neo-Gothic styles sought to revive medieval forms in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">classical</a> styles prevalent at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England, the epicentre of this revival, it was intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of "High Church" or <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Catholic">Anglo-Catholic</a> self-belief (and by the Catholic convert <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Welby_Pugin" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Welby Pugin">Augustus Welby Pugin</a>) concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism.<sup id="cite_ref-Yates2008_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yates2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He went on to produce important Gothic buildings such as Cathedrals at <a href="/wiki/St._Chad%27s_Cathedral,_Birmingham" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham">Birmingham</a> and <a href="/wiki/St_George%27s_Cathedral_Southwark" class="mw-redirect" title="St George's Cathedral Southwark">Southwark</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">British Houses of Parliament</a> in the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-Moffett2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moffett2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large numbers of existing English churches had features such as <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">crosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rood_screen" title="Rood screen">screens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm#Reformation_iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">removed</a> at the Reformation), restored or added, and most new Anglican and Catholic churches were built in the Gothic style.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Viollet-le-Duc" class="mw-redirect" title="Viollet-le-Duc">Viollet-le-Duc</a> was a leading figure in the movement in France, restoring the entire walled city of <a href="/wiki/Carcassonne" title="Carcassonne">Carcassonne</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame de Paris">Notre-Dame</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sainte_Chapelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sainte Chapelle">Sainte Chapelle</a> in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-Moffett2003_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moffett2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In America <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Adams_Cram" title="Ralph Adams Cram">Ralph Adams Cram</a> was a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_St._John_the_Divine" title="Cathedral of St. John the Divine">Cathedral of St. John the Divine</a> in New York (one of the largest cathedrals in the world), as well as <a href="/wiki/Collegiate_Gothic" title="Collegiate Gothic">Collegiate Gothic</a> buildings at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton Graduate College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moffett2003_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moffett2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a wider level the wooden <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_Gothic" title="Carpenter Gothic">Carpenter Gothic</a> churches and houses were built in large numbers across North America in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical Romanticism gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a>, often dealing with dark themes in human nature against medieval backdrops and with elements of the supernatural.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto" title="The Castle of Otranto">The Castle of Otranto</a></i> (1764) by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole,_4th_Earl_of_Orford" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford">Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford</a>, it also included <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a></i> (1818) and <a href="/wiki/John_Polidori" class="mw-redirect" title="John Polidori">John Polidori</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Vampyre" title="The Vampyre">The Vampyre</a></i> (1819), which helped found the modern horror genre.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This helped create the <a href="/wiki/Dark_romanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark romanticism">dark romanticism or American Gothic</a> of authors like <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a> in works including "<a href="/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Usher" title="The Fall of the House of Usher">The Fall of the House of Usher</a>" (1839) and "<a href="/wiki/The_Pit_and_the_Pendulum" title="The Pit and the Pendulum">The Pit and the Pendulum</a>" (1842) and <a href="/wiki/Nathanial_Hawthorne" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathanial Hawthorne">Nathanial Hawthorne</a> in "<a href="/wiki/The_Minister%27s_Black_Veil" title="The Minister's Black Veil">The Minister's Black Veil</a>" (1836) and "<a href="/wiki/The_Birth-Mark" title="The Birth-Mark">The Birth-Mark</a>" (1843).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn influenced American novelists like <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a> in works such as <i><a href="/wiki/Moby-Dick" title="Moby-Dick">Moby-Dick</a></i> (1851).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Victorian Gothic novels included <a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily Brontë</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Wuthering_Heights" title="Wuthering Heights">Wuthering Heights</a></i> (1847) and <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">Charlotte Brontë</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Jane_Eyre" title="Jane Eyre">Jane Eyre</a></i> (1847).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genre was revived and modernised toward the end of the century with works like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde" title="Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde">Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde</a></i> (1886), <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Picture_of_Dorian_Gray" title="The Picture of Dorian Gray">The Picture of Dorian Gray</a></i> (1890) and <a href="/wiki/Bram_Stoker" title="Bram Stoker">Bram Stoker</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Dracula</a></i> (1897).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anglo-Saxonism">Anglo-Saxonism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anglo-Saxonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxonism_in_the_19th_century" title="Anglo-Saxonism in the 19th century">Anglo-Saxonism in the 19th century</a> </p><p>The development of philology through the 17th-19th centuries as a subject of study in north west Europe and England saw increased interest in tracing the roots of languages and cultures including English, German, Icelandic and Dutch. Antiquaries of the time believed that languages and cultures were intertwined, and <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> texts, especially <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>, were claimed by antiquarians from each linguistic-cultural group as 'their' oldest poem.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, Rebecca Brackmann argues that an increased interest in Old English and imagined Anglo-Saxon culture was a result of, and in turn fuelled, political upheaval in the 17th and 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Great Seal of the United States In the United States, Anglo-Saxon mythologies persisted, with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> proposing that <a href="/wiki/Hengist_and_Horsa" title="Hengist and Horsa">Hengist and Horsa</a> were shown on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States" title="Great Seal of the United States">Great Seal of the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanticism">Romanticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Romanticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg/220px-Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg/330px-Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg/440px-Blake_Dante_Hell_V.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>'s <i>The Lovers' Whirlwind</i> illustrates Hell in Canto V of <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy"><i>Inferno</i></a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Romanticism was a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the eighteenth century in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, and gained strength during and after the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1971p4_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1971p4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was partly a revolt against the political norms of the Age of Enlightenment which rationalised nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1971p4_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1971p4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romanticism has been seen as "the revival of the life and thought of the Middle Ages",<sup id="cite_ref-Agrawal1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agrawal1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reaching beyond <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicist</a> models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl and industrialism, embracing the exotic, unfamiliar and distant.<sup id="cite_ref-Agrawal1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agrawal1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stray_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stray-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name "Romanticism" itself was derived from the medieval genre <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">chivalric romance</a>. This movement contributed to the strong influence of such romances, disproportionate to their actual showing among medieval literature, on the image of Middle Ages, such that a knight, a distressed damsel, and a dragon is used to conjure up the time pictorially.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romantic interest in the medieval can particularly be seen in the illustrations of English poet <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a> cycle published by Scottish poet <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> in 1762, which inspired both <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6tz_von_Berlichingen_(Goethe)" title="Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe)">Götz von Berlichingen</a></i> (1773), and the young <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>. The latter's <a href="/wiki/Waverley_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Waverley Novels">Waverley Novels</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/Ivanhoe" title="Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe</a></i> (1819) and <i><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Durward" title="Quentin Durward">Quentin Durward</a></i> (1823) helped popularise, and shape views of, the medieval era.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same impulse manifested itself in the translation of medieval <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">national epics</a> into modern vernacular languages, including <i><a href="/wiki/Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a></i> (1782) in Germany,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lay_of_the_Cid" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lay of the Cid">The Lay of the Cid</a></i> (1799) in Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i> (1833) in England,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Song of Roland">The Song of Roland</a></i> (1837) in France,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were widely read and highly influential on subsequent literary and artistic work.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Nazarenes">The Nazarenes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Nazarenes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg/220px-JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg/330px-JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg/440px-JvFuhrichJosephRachel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1215" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><i>Jacob encountering Rachel with her father's herd</i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_F%C3%BChrich" title="Joseph von Führich">Joseph von Führich</a> 1836</figcaption></figure><p> The name <i>Nazarene</i> was adopted by a group of early nineteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> Romantic <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painters</a> who reacted against <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> and hoped to return to art which embodied spiritual values. They sought inspiration in artists of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Renaissance">early Renaissance</a>, rejecting what they saw as the superficial virtuosity of later art.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt1981_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt1981-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name Nazarene came from a term of derision used against them for their affectation of a biblical manner of clothing and hair style.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt1981_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt1981-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement was originally formed in 1809 by six students at the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna Academy">Vienna Academy</a> and called the Brotherhood of St. Luke or <i>Lukasbund,</i> after the <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of medieval artists.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler1971p191_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler1971p191-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1810 four of them, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Overbeck" title="Johann Friedrich Overbeck">Johann Friedrich Overbeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Pforr" title="Franz Pforr">Franz Pforr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Vogel" title="Ludwig Vogel">Ludwig Vogel</a> and Johann Konrad Hottinger moved to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, where they occupied the abandoned monastery of San Isidoro and were joined by <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Philipp Veit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_von_Cornelius" title="Peter von Cornelius">Peter von Cornelius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Schnorr_von_Karolsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld">Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Schadow" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow">Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow</a> and a loose grouping of other German artists.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt1981_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt1981-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They met up with Austrian romantic landscape artist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Joseph Anton Koch</a> (1768–1839) who became an unofficial tutor to the group and in 1827 they were joined by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_F%C3%BChrich" title="Joseph von Führich">Joseph von Führich</a> (1800–76).<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt1981_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt1981-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Rome the group lived a semi-monastic existence, as a way of re-creating the nature of the medieval artist's workshop. Religious subjects dominated their output and two major commissions for the Casa Bartholdy (1816–17) (later moved to the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin) and the Casino Massimo (1817–29), allowed them to attempt a revival of the medieval art of <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> painting and gained then international attention.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by 1830 all except Overbeck had returned to Germany and the group had disbanded. Many Nazareners became influential teachers in German art academies and were a major influence on the later English <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reinhardt1981_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinhardt1981-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_commentary">Social commentary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social commentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg/220px-Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg/330px-Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg/440px-Thomas_Carlyle_by_John_Everett_Millais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle_(Millais)" title="Thomas Carlyle (Millais)"><i>Thomas Carlyle</i> by John Everett Millais (1877)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Eventually, medievalism moved from the confines of fiction into the immediate realm of social commentary as a means of critiquing life in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial Era">Industrial Era</a>. An early work of this kind is <a href="/wiki/William_Cobbett" title="William Cobbett">William Cobbett</a>'s <i>History of the Protestant Reformation</i> (1824–6), which was influenced by his reading of <a href="/wiki/John_Lingard" title="John Lingard">John Lingard</a>'s <i>History of England</i> (1819–30), among other sources. Cobbett attacked the Reformation as having divided a once-unified and wealthy England into "masters and slaves, a very few enjoying the extreme of luxury, and millions doomed to the extreme of misery", while decrying how "this land of meat and beef was changed, all of a sudden into a land of dry bread and oatmeal porridge".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler197065–68_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler197065–68-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a>, the principal representatives of this school were <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> and his disciple <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Carlyle's <i><a href="/wiki/Past_and_Present_(book)" title="Past and Present (book)">Past and Present</a></i> (1843), which <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Elton" title="Oliver Elton">Oliver Elton</a> called the "most remarkable fruit in English literature of the medieval revival",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1970138_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1970138-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the modern workhouse is contrasted with the medieval monastery. He draws on <a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_de_Brakelond" title="Jocelyn de Brakelond">Jocelyn de Brakelond</a>'s twelfth-century account of <a href="/wiki/Samson_of_Tottington" title="Samson of Tottington">Samson of Tottington</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbotcy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bury_St_Edmunds_Abbey" title="Bury St Edmunds Abbey">Bury St Edmunds Abbey</a> to answer the "<a href="/wiki/Condition-of-England_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Condition-of-England Question">Condition-of-England Question</a>", calling for a "<a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a> of Labour" based on cooperation and fraternity rather than competition and "Cash-payment for the sole nexus", and for the leadership of paternalistic "<a href="/wiki/Captains_of_Industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Captains of Industry">Captains of Industry</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with medievalist writers <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Robert Southey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kenelm_Henry_Digby" title="Kenelm Henry Digby">Kenelm Henry Digby</a>, Carlyle was among the "important literary influences" on <a href="/wiki/Young_England" title="Young England">Young England</a>, a "parliamentary experiment in romanticism which created considerable stir during the eighteen-forties," led by <a href="/wiki/Lord_John_Manners" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord John Manners">Lord John Manners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young England developed contemporaneously with the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a>, which has been defined as "medievalism in religion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1970153_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1970153-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ruskin connected the quality of a nation's architecture with its spiritual health, comparing the originality and freedom of medieval art with the mechanistic sterility of modernism in such works as <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Painters" title="Modern Painters">Modern Painters</a></i>, Volume II (1846), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Lamps_of_Architecture" title="The Seven Lamps of Architecture">The Seven Lamps of Architecture</a></i> (1849) and <a href="/wiki/The_Stones_of_Venice_(book)" title="The Stones of Venice (book)"><i>The Stones of Venice</i></a> (1851–3).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1970198–203_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1970198–203-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the urging of Carlyle,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ruskin, who identified as both a "violent <a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tory</a> of the old school"<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a "Communist of the old school",<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adapted this thesis to his theory of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></i> (1860), and to his "Ideal Commonwealth" in <i>Time and Tide</i> (1867), the characteristics of which were derived from the Middle Ages: the <a href="/wiki/Guild_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Guild system">guild system</a>, the feudal system, chivalry, and the church.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pre-Raphaelites">The Pre-Raphaelites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Pre-Raphaelites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millais_Ruskin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Millais_Ruskin.jpg/220px-Millais_Ruskin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Millais_Ruskin.jpg/330px-Millais_Ruskin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Millais_Ruskin.jpg/440px-Millais_Ruskin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1992" data-file-height="2316" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin_(Millais)" title="John Ruskin (Millais)"><i>John Ruskin</i> by John Everett Millais (1854)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Poets">poets</a>, and critics, founded in 1848 by <a href="/wiki/William_Holman_Hunt" title="William Holman Hunt">William Holman Hunt</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Everett_Millais" title="John Everett Millais">John Everett Millais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti" title="Dante Gabriel Rossetti">Dante Gabriel Rossetti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronin2002_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronin2002-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three founders were soon joined by <a href="/wiki/William_Michael_Rossetti" title="William Michael Rossetti">William Michael Rossetti</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Collinson" title="James Collinson">James Collinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederic_George_Stephens" title="Frederic George Stephens">Frederic George Stephens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Woolner" title="Thomas Woolner">Thomas Woolner</a> to form a seven-member "brotherhood".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group's intention was to reform art by rejecting what they considered to be the mechanistic approach first adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerist</a> artists who succeeded <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronin2002_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronin2002-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They believed that the <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classical</a> poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been a corrupting influence on the <a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">academic</a> teaching of art. Hence the name "Pre-Raphaelite". In particular, they objected to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Sir_Joshua_Reynolds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Joshua Reynolds">Sir Joshua Reynolds</a>, the founder of the English <a href="/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Arts" title="Royal Academy of Arts">Royal Academy of Arts</a>, believing that his broad technique was a sloppy and formulaic form of academic Mannerism. In contrast, they wanted to return to the abundant detail, intense colours, and complex compositions of <a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a> Italian and Flemish art.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Arts_and_Crafts_movement">The Arts and Crafts movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Arts and Crafts movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg/170px-Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg/255px-Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Artichoke_wallpaper_Morris_and_Co_J_H_Dearle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>"Artichoke" wallpaper, by John Henry Dearle for <a href="/wiki/Morris_%26_Co." title="Morris & Co.">Morris & Co.</a>, <i>circa</i> 1897 (<a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Arts and Crafts movement was an aesthetic movement, directly influenced by the Gothic Revival and the Pre-Raphaelites, but moving away from aristocratic, nationalist and high Gothic influences to an emphasis on the idealised peasantry and medieval community, particularly of the fourteenth century, often with <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> political tendencies and reaching its height between about 1880 and 1910. The movement was inspired by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a> and Ruskin and was spearheaded by the work of <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a>, a friend of the Pre-Raphaelites and a former apprentice to Gothic-revival architect G. E. Street. He focused on the fine arts of textiles, wood and metal work and interior design.<sup id="cite_ref-Kleiner2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kleiner2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morris also produced medieval and ancient themed poetry, beside socialist tracts and the medieval <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a> <i><a href="/wiki/News_From_Nowhere" class="mw-redirect" title="News From Nowhere">News From Nowhere</a></i> (1890).<sup id="cite_ref-Kleiner2008_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kleiner2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morris formed <a href="/wiki/Morris,_Marshall,_Faulkner_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co.">Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co.</a> in 1861, which produced and sold furnishings and furniture, often with medieval themes, to the emerging middle classes.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Arts and Crafts exhibition in the United States was held in Boston in 1897 and local societies spread across the country, dedicated to preserving and perfecting disappearing craft and beautifying house interiors.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the Gothic revival had tended to emulate ecclesiastical and military architecture, the arts and crafts movement looked to rustic and vernacular medieval housing.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of aesthetically pleasing and affordable furnishings proved highly influential on subsequent artistic and architectural developments.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_nationalism">Romantic nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Romantic nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg/170px-Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg/255px-Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg/340px-Neuschwanstein_Castle_Cropped_frm_PC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig II of Bavaria">Ludwig II of Bavaria</a> built a fairy-tale castle at <a href="/wiki/Neuschwanstein_Castle" title="Neuschwanstein Castle">Neuschwanstein</a> in 1868 (later appropriated by <a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a>) as a symbolic merger of art and politics. (<a href="/wiki/Photochrom" title="Photochrom">Photochrom</a> from the 1890s)</figcaption></figure><p>By the nineteenth century real and pseudo-medieval symbols were a currency of European <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">monarchical state</a> propaganda. German emperors dressed up in and proudly displayed medieval costumes in public, and they rebuilt the great medieval castle and spiritual home of the <a href="/wiki/Malbork" title="Malbork">Teutonic Order at Marienburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig II of Bavaria">Ludwig II of Bavaria</a> built a fairy-tale castle at <a href="/wiki/Neuschwanstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuschwanstein">Neuschwanstein</a> and decorated it with scenes from <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a>'s operas, another major Romantic image maker of the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same imagery would be used in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in the mid-twentieth century to promote German national identity with plans for extensive building in the medieval style and attempts to revive the virtues of the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutonic knights">Teutonic knights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Round_Table" title="Round Table">Round Table</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, the Middle Ages were trumpeted as the birthplace of democracy because of the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of 1215.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> there was considerable interest in things medieval, particularly among the ruling classes. The notorious <a href="/wiki/Eglinton_Tournament_of_1839" class="mw-redirect" title="Eglinton Tournament of 1839">Eglinton Tournament of 1839</a> attempted to revive the medieval grandeur of the monarchy and aristocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval fancy dress became common in this period at royal and aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Masquerade_ball" title="Masquerade ball">masquerades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ball_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ball (dance)">balls</a> and individuals and families were painted in medieval costume.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These trends inspired a nineteenth-century genre of medieval poetry that included <i><a href="/wiki/Idylls_of_the_King" title="Idylls of the King">Idylls of the King</a></i> (1842) by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tennyson,_1st_Baron_Tennyson" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson">Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson</a> and "The Sword of Kingship" (1866) by Thomas Westwood, which recast specifically modern themes in the medieval settings of Arthurian romance.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Twentieth_and_twenty-first_centuries">Twentieth and twenty-first centuries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Twentieth and twenty-first centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_culture">Popular culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_the_Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Depiction of the Middle Ages in popular culture">Depiction of the Middle Ages in popular culture</a></div> <p>Depictions of the Middle Ages can be found in different cultural media, including advertising.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg/170px-Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg/255px-Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg/340px-Fairbanks_Robin_Hood_standing_by_wall_w_sword.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Fairbanks" title="Douglas Fairbanks">Douglas Fairbanks</a> as Robin Hood</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Film">Film</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_film" title="Middle Ages in film">Middle Ages in film</a></div> <p>Film has been one of the most significant creators of images of the Middle Ages since the early twentieth century. The first medieval film was also one of the earliest films ever made, about <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_d%27Arc_(1899_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeanne d'Arc (1899 film)">Jeanne d'Arc</a> in 1899, while the first to deal with <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a> dates to as early as 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influential European films, often with a nationalist agenda, included the German <i><a href="/wiki/Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a></i> (1924), <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein" title="Sergei Eisenstein">Eisenstein</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky_(film)" title="Alexander Nevsky (film)">Alexander Nevsky</a></i> (1938) and <a href="/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman" title="Ingmar Bergman">Bergman</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Seventh_Seal" title="The Seventh Seal">The Seventh Seal</a></i> (1957), while in France there were many Joan of Arc sequels.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Hollywood</a> adopted the medieval as a major genre, issuing periodic remakes of the <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace" title="William Wallace">William Wallace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a> stories, adapting to the screen such historical romantic novels as <i><a href="/wiki/Ivanhoe" title="Ivanhoe">Ivanhoe</a></i> (1952—by <a href="/wiki/MGM" class="mw-redirect" title="MGM">MGM</a>), and producing <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a> in the vein of <i><a href="/wiki/El_Cid_(film)" title="El Cid (film)">El Cid</a></i> (1961).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent revivals of these genres include <i><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood_Prince_of_Thieves" class="mw-redirect" title="Robin Hood Prince of Thieves">Robin Hood Prince of Thieves</a></i> (1991), <i><a href="/wiki/The_13th_Warrior" title="The 13th Warrior">The 13th Warrior</a></i> (1999) and <i><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Heaven_(film)" title="Kingdom of Heaven (film)">The Kingdom of Heaven</a></i> (2005).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fantasy">Fantasy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fantasy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval fantasy">Medieval fantasy</a></div> <p>While the folklore that fantasy drew on for its magic and monsters was not exclusively medieval, elves, dragons, and unicorns, among many other creatures, were drawn from medieval folklore and <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a>. Earlier writers in the genre, such as <a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald" title="George MacDonald">George MacDonald</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Princess_and_the_Goblin" title="The Princess and the Goblin">The Princess and the Goblin</a></i> (1872), <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Well_at_the_World%27s_End" title="The Well at the World's End">The Well at the World's End</a></i> (1896) and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunsany" title="Lord Dunsany">Lord Dunsany</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_King_of_Elfland%27s_Daughter" title="The King of Elfland's Daughter">The King of Elfland's Daughter</a></i> (1924), set their tales in <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_world" title="Fantasy world">fantasy worlds</a> clearly derived from medieval sources, though often filtered through later views.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first half of the twentieth century <a href="/wiki/Pulp_magazine" title="Pulp magazine">pulp fiction</a> writers like <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Howard" title="Robert E. Howard">Robert E. Howard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clark_Ashton_Smith" title="Clark Ashton Smith">Clark Ashton Smith</a> helped popularise the <a href="/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery" title="Sword and sorcery">sword and sorcery</a> branch of fantasy, which often utilised prehistoric and non-European settings beside elements of the medieval.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, authors such as <a href="/wiki/E._R._Eddison" title="E. R. Eddison">E. R. Eddison</a> and particularly <a href="/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien" class="mw-redirect" title="J.R.R. Tolkien">J.R.R. Tolkien</a>, set the type for <a href="/wiki/High_fantasy" title="High fantasy">high fantasy</a>, normally based in a <i>pseudo-medieval</i> setting, mixed with elements of medieval folklore.<sup id="cite_ref-Yolen_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yolen-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fantasy writers have emulated such elements, and films, <a href="/wiki/Role-playing" title="Role-playing">role-playing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer games">computer games</a> also took up this tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern fantasy writers have taken elements of the medieval from these works to produce some of the most commercially successful works of fiction of recent years, sometimes pointing to the absurdities of the genre, as in <a href="/wiki/Terry_Pratchett" title="Terry Pratchett">Terry Pratchett</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Discworld" title="Discworld">Discworld</a></i> novels, or mixing it with the modern world as in <a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a></i> books.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Living_history">Living history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Living history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grunwald_2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Grunwald_2003.jpg/220px-Grunwald_2003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Grunwald_2003.jpg/330px-Grunwald_2003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Grunwald_2003.jpg/440px-Grunwald_2003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>2003 re-enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grunwald" title="Battle of Grunwald">Battle of Grunwald</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turku_medieval_festival.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Turku_medieval_festival.jpg/220px-Turku_medieval_festival.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Turku_medieval_festival.jpg/330px-Turku_medieval_festival.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Turku_medieval_festival.jpg/440px-Turku_medieval_festival.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>A re-enactment during the traditional <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Market_of_Turku" title="Medieval Market of Turku">Medieval Market Festival</a> of <a href="/wiki/Turku" title="Turku">Turku</a> in summer 2006.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></div> <p>In the second half of the twentieth century interest in the medieval was increasingly expressed through form of re-enactment, including <a href="/wiki/Combat_reenactment" title="Combat reenactment">combat reenactment</a>, re-creating historical conflict, armour, arms and skill, as well as <a href="/wiki/Living_history" title="Living history">living history</a> which re-creates the social and cultural life of the past, in areas such as clothing, food and crafts. The movement has led to the creation of medieval markets and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_fair" title="Renaissance fair">Renaissance fairs</a>, from the late 1980s, particularly in Germany and the United States of America.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Neo-medievalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></div> <p>Neo-medievalism (or neomedievalism) is a <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> that was first popularized by the Italian medievalist <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a> in his 1973 essay "Dreaming of the Middle Ages".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has no clear definition but has since been used to describe the intersection between popular fantasy and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval history</a> as can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Computer_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer games">computer games</a> such as <a href="/wiki/MMORPG" class="mw-redirect" title="MMORPG">MMORPGs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">films</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-medieval_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-medieval music">neo-medieval music</a>, and popular <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is in this area—the study of the intersection between contemporary representation and past inspiration(s)—that <i>medievalism</i> and <i>neomedievalism</i> tend to be used interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Neomedievalism</i> has also been used as a term describing the <a href="/wiki/Post-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modern">post-modern</a> study of medieval history<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as a term for a trend in modern <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, first discussed in 1977 by <a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a>, who argued that society was moving towards a form of "neomedievalism" in which individual notions of rights and a growing sense of a "world common good" were undermining <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">national</a> <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_study_of_medievalism">The study of medievalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The study of medievalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Leslie_J._Workman" title="Leslie J. Workman">Leslie J. Workman</a>, Kathleen Verduin and David Metzger noted in their introduction to <i>Studies in Medievalism</i> IX "Medievalism and the Academy, Vol I" (1997) their sense that medievalism had been perceived by some medievalists as a "poor and somewhat whimsical relation of (presumably more serious) <a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">medieval studies</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>The Cambridge Companion to Medievalism</i> (2016), editor Louise D'Arcens noted that some of the earliest medievalism scholarship (that is, study of the phenomenon of medievalism) was by Victorian specialists including Alice Chandler (with her monograph <i>A Dream of Order: The Medieval Ideal in Nineteenth Century England</i> (London: Taylor and Francis, 1971), and Florence Boos, with her edited volume <i>History and Community: Essays in Victorian Medievalism</i> (London: Garland Publishing, 1992)).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D'Arcens proposed that the 1970s saw the discipline of medievalism become an academic area of research in its own right, with the <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_the_Study_of_Medievalism" title="International Society for the Study of Medievalism">International Society for the Study of Medievalism</a> formalised in 1979 with the publication of its <i>Studies In Medievalism</i> journal, organised by Leslie J. Workman.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D'Arcens notes that by 2016 medievalism was taught as a subject on "hundreds" of university courses around the world, and there were "at least two" scholarly journals dedicated to medievalism studies: <i>Studies in Medievalism</i> and <i>postmedieval</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clare Monagle has argued that political medievalism has caused medieval scholars to repeatedly reconsider whether medievalism is a part of the study of the Middle Ages as a historical period. Monagle explains how in 1977 the International Relations scholar <a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">New Medievalism</a>" to describe the world as a result of the rising powers of <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a> in society (such as terrorist groups, corporations, or supra-state organisations such as the European Economic Community) which, due to new technologies, boundaries of jurisdiction that cross national borders, and shifts in private wealth challenged the exclusive authority of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monagle explained that in 2007 medieval scholar <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Holsinger" title="Bruce Holsinger">Bruce Holsinger</a> published <i>Neomedievalism, Conservativism and the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a>,</i> which identified how <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>'s administration relied on medievalising rhetoric to identify <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> as "dangerously fluid, elusive, and stateless".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monagle documents how <a href="/wiki/Gabrielle_M._Spiegel" title="Gabrielle M. Spiegel">Gabrielle Spiegel</a>, then president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Association" title="American Historical Association">American Historical Society</a> "expressed concern at the idea that scholars of the historical medieval period might consider themselves licensed to in some way to intervene in contemporary medievalism", as to do so "conflates two very different historical periods".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eileen Joy (co-founder and co-editor of the <i>postmedieval</i> journal),<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> responded to Spiegel that "the idea of a medieval past itself, as something that can be demarcated and cordoned off from other historical time periods, was and is of itself [...] a form of medievalism. Therefore, practising medievalists should absolutely pay heed to the use and abuse of the Middle Ages in contemporary discourse".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medievalism topics are now annual features at the major medieval conferences the <a href="/wiki/International_Medieval_Congress" title="International Medieval Congress">International Medieval Congress</a> hosted at the University of Leeds, UK, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Congress_on_Medieval_Studies" title="International Congress on Medieval Studies">International Congress on Medieval Studies</a> at Kalamazoo, Michigan.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exhibitions_about_medievalism">Exhibitions about medievalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Exhibitions about medievalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>30 January - 22 May 2013. <i>New Medievalist visions,</i> <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maughan_Library" title="Maughan Library">Maughan Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>October 16, 2018 - March 3, 2019. <i>Juggling the Middle Ages</i>, <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks" title="Dumbarton Oaks">Dumbarton Oaks</a>, Washington DC. <i>Juggling the Middle Ages</i> "explores the influence of the medieval world by focusing on this single story with a long-lasting impact", <i><a href="/wiki/Le_jongleur_de_Notre-Dame" title="Le jongleur de Notre-Dame">Le Jongleur de Notre Dame</a></i> or <i>Our Lady’s Tumbler.</i><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKegel1970" class="citation journal cs1">Kegel, Paul L. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41640905">"Henry Adams and Mark Twain: Two Views of Medievalism"</a>. <i>Mark Twain Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (3): 11–21. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3499">0025-3499</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41640905">41640905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mark+Twain+Journal&rft.atitle=Henry+Adams+and+Mark+Twain%3A+Two+Views+of+Medievalism&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=11-21&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41640905%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0025-3499&rft.aulast=Kegel&rft.aufirst=Paul+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41640905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1970" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alice (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamofordermedi0000chan"><i>A Dream of Order: The Medieval Ideal in Nineteenth-Century English Literature</i></a></span>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803207042" title="Special:BookSources/9780803207042"><bdi>9780803207042</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dream+of+Order%3A+The+Medieval+Ideal+in+Nineteenth-Century+English+Literature&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780803207042&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamofordermedi0000chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medievalism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._SimpsonE._Weiner1989" class="citation book cs1">J. Simpson; E. Weiner, eds. (1989). "Medievalism". <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medievalism&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Arcens2016" class="citation book cs1">D'Arcens, Louise (2016-03-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JBj_CwAAQBAJ&q=workman&pg=PA10"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Medievalism</i></a>. 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(1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/444286">"Lord John Manners and the Young England Movement: Romanticism in Politics"</a>. <i>The Western Political Quarterly</i>. <b>14</b> (3): 691–697. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F444286">10.2307/444286</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-4078">0043-4078</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/444286">444286</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Western+Political+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Lord+John+Manners+and+the+Young+England+Movement%3A+Romanticism+in+Politics&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=691-697&rft.date=1961&rft.issn=0043-4078&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F444286%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F444286&rft.aulast=Kegel&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F444286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1970153-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1970153_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChandler1970">Chandler 1970</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1970198–203-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1970198–203_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChandler1970">Chandler 1970</a>, pp. 198–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook and Wedderburn, 17.lxx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook and Wedderbun, 35:13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook and Wedderbun, 27:116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG.1893" class="citation journal cs1">G., T. F. (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27527781">"John Ruskin"</a>. <i>The Sewanee Review</i>. <b>1</b> (4): 491–497. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-3052">0037-3052</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27527781">27527781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sewanee+Review&rft.atitle=John+Ruskin&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=491-497&rft.date=1893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27527781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0037-3052&rft.aulast=G.&rft.aufirst=T.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27527781&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cronin2002-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cronin2002_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cronin2002_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Cronin, A. Chapman and A. H. Harrison, <i>A Companion to Victorian Poetry</i> (Wiley-Blackwell, 2002), p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Rothenstein, <i>An Introduction to English Painting</i> (I.B.Tauris, 2001), p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Andres, <i>The pre-Raphaelite art of the Victorian novel: narrative challenges to visual gendered boundaries</i> (Ohio State University Press, 2004), p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kleiner2008-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kleiner2008_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kleiner2008_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">F. S. Kleiner, 'Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History<i> (13th edn., Cengage Learning EMEA, 2008), p. 846.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Harvey and J. Press, <i>William Morris: Design and Enterprise in Victorian Britain</i> (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991), pp. 77-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Shand-Tucci, and R. A. Cram, <i>Boston Bohemia, 1881-1900: Ralph Adams Cram Life and Literature</i> (University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. B. Canizaro, <i>Architectural Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity, and Tradition</i> (Princeton Architectural Press, 2007), p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John F. Pile, <i>A History of Interior Design</i> (2nd edn., Laurence King, 2005), p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. A. Etlin, <i>Art, Culture, and Media Under the Third Reich</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lisa Trumbauer, <i>King Ludwig's Castle: Germany's Neuschwanstein</i> (Bearport, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. Ortenberg, <i>In Search of the Holy Grail: the Quest for the Middle Ages</i> (Continuum, 2006), p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Chapman, <i>The Sense of the Past in Victorian Literature</i> (London: Taylor & Francis, 1986), pp. 36-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Anstruther, <i>The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament - 1839</i> (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1963), pp. 122-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Banham and J. Harris, <i>William Morris and the Middle Ages: a Collection of Essays, together with a Catalogue of Works Exhibited at the Whitworth Art Gallery, 28 September-8 December 1984</i> (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Cronin, A. Chapman and A. H. Harrison, <i>A Companion to Victorian Poetry</i> (Wiley-Blackwell, 2002), p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Bryden, <i>Reinventing King Arthur: the Arthurian Legends in Victorian Culture</i> (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005), p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples for the depiction of the Middle Ages in advertising (including <a href="/wiki/Gender_in_advertising" title="Gender in advertising">gender stereotypes</a>): Megan Arnott (2019-01-31): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publicmedievalist.com/medieval-ads/">“Viking Tough”: How Ads Sell Us Medieval Manhood</a>. <i>The Public Medievalist</i>. Retrieved 2024-01-15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. G. Hahn, <i>Robin Hood in Popular Culture: Violence, Transgression, and Justice</i> (Boydell & Brewer, 2000), p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norris J. Lacy, <i>A History of Arthurian Scholarship</i> (Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2006), p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. J. Umland, <i>The Use of Arthurian Legend in Hollywood Film: from Connecticut Yankees to Fisher Kings</i> (Greenwood, 1996), p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. Haydock and E. L. Risden, <i>Hollywood in the Holy Land: Essays on Film Depictions of the Crusades and Christian-Muslim Clashes</i> (McFarland, 2009), p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. C. Schlobin, <i>The Aesthetics of Fantasy Literature and Art</i> (University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. A. Tucker, <i>A Sense of Wonder: Samuel R. Delany, Race, Identity and Difference (Wesleyan University Press, 2004), p. 91.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yolen-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yolen_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Yolen, "Introduction", <i>After the King: Stories in Honor of J. R. R. Tolkien</i>, ed, Martin H. Greenberg, pp. vii-viii. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-85175-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-85175-8">0-312-85175-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Mackay, <i>The Fantasy Role-Playing Game: a New Performing Art</i> (McFarland, 2001), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786450473" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786450473">978-0786450473</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael D. C. Drout, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B0loOBA3ejIC&q=Rowling+Discworld+Pratchett&pg=PA380">J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment</a></i> (Taylor & Francis, 2007), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415969420" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415969420">978-0415969420</a>, p. 380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. C. C. Adams, <i>Echoes of War: A Thousand Years of Military History in Popular Culture</i> (University Press of Kentucky, 2002), p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a>, "Dreaming of the Middle Ages," in <i>Travels in Hyperreality</i>, transl. by W. Weaver (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1986), pp. 61–72. Eco wrote, "Thus we are at present witnessing, both in Europe and America, a period of renewed interest in the Middle Ages, with a curious oscillation between fantastic neomedievalism and responsible philological examination."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. W. Driver and S. Ray, eds, <i>The medieval hero on screen: representations from Beowulf to Buffy</i> (McFarland, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Tolmie, "Medievalism and the Fantasy Heroine", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Gender_Studies" title="Journal of Gender Studies">Journal of Gender Studies</a></i>, vol. 15, No. 2 July 2006, pp. 145–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cary John Lenehan.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070225154756/http://www.tased.edu.au/tasonline/sca/thesis-d.htm">"Postmodern Medievalism"</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tasmania" title="University of Tasmania">University of Tasmania</a>, November 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. Alderson and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hurrell" title="Andrew Hurrell">A. Hurrell</a>, eds, <i>Hedley Bull on International Society</i> (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorkmanVerduinMetzgerMetzger1999" class="citation book cs1">Workman, Leslie J.; Verduin, Kathleen; Metzger, David; Metzger, David D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jwnepdSJSX4C&q=leslie+workman+medievalism"><i>Medievalism and the Academy</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-532-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-532-8"><bdi>978-0-85991-532-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medievalism+and+the+Academy&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-85991-532-8&rft.aulast=Workman&rft.aufirst=Leslie+J.&rft.au=Verduin%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Metzger%2C+David&rft.au=Metzger%2C+David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjwnepdSJSX4C%26q%3Dleslie%2Bworkman%2Bmedievalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_84-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonagle2014" class="citation book cs1">Monagle, Clare (2014-04-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mrB5CgAAQBAJ&q=joy&pg=PT26">"Sovereignty and Neomedievalism"</a>. In D'arcens, Louise; Lynch, Andrew (eds.). <i>International Medievalism and Popular Culture</i>. Cambria Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-864-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-864-3"><bdi>978-1-60497-864-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sovereignty+and+Neomedievalism&rft.btitle=International+Medievalism+and+Popular+Culture&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2014-04-18&rft.isbn=978-1-60497-864-3&rft.aulast=Monagle&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmrB5CgAAQBAJ%26q%3Djoy%26pg%3DPT26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/campaigns/the-medieval-collection/a-word-from-the-co-editor-of-postmedieval-eileen-a-joy">"A word from the co-editor of postmedieval, Eileen A. Joy"</a>. <i>www.palgrave.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.palgrave.com&rft.atitle=A+word+from+the+co-editor+of+postmedieval%2C+Eileen+A.+Joy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.palgrave.com%2Fgp%2Fcampaigns%2Fthe-medieval-collection%2Fa-word-from-the-co-editor-of-postmedieval-eileen-a-joy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/archive/news/english/archive/2012-13/medieval">"New Medievalist visions Exhibition at the Maughan Library | Website archive | King's College London"</a>. <i>www.kcl.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kcl.ac.uk&rft.atitle=New+Medievalist+visions+Exhibition+at+the+Maughan+Library+%7C+Website+archive+%7C+King%27s+College+London&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcl.ac.uk%2Farchive%2Fnews%2Fenglish%2Farchive%2F2012-13%2Fmedieval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson" class="citation web cs1">Wilson, Lain. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doaks.org/visit/museum/exhibitions/past/juggling-the-middle-ages">"Juggling the Middle Ages"</a>. <i>Dumbarton Oaks</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.atitle=Juggling+the+Middle+Ages&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Lain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.doaks.org%2Fvisit%2Fmuseum%2Fexhibitions%2Fpast%2Fjuggling-the-middle-ages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyen2018" class="citation web cs1">Nguyen, Sophia (2018-10-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2018/11/juggling-the-middle-ages">"The Juggler's Tale"</a>. <i>Harvard Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Juggler%27s+Tale&rft.date=2018-10-18&rft.aulast=Nguyen&rft.aufirst=Sophia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardmagazine.com%2F2018%2F11%2Fjuggling-the-middle-ages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedievalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDame" class="citation web cs1">Dame, Marketing Communications: Web | University of Notre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://magazine.nd.edu/stories/d-c-museum-tells-an-old-notre-dame-story/">"D.C. museum tells an old Notre Dame story | Stories | Notre Dame Magazine | University of Notre Dame"</a>. <i>Notre Dame Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a 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Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanticism" title="Template talk:Romanticism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanticism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </p> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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