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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-COBE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COBE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 COBE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-COBE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precision_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precision_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Precision cosmology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precision_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observations_after_COBE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observations_after_COBE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Observations after COBE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observations_after_COBE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Degree Angular Scale Interferometer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Atacama Cosmology Telescope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planck_Surveyor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planck_Surveyor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Planck Surveyor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planck_Surveyor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Pole_Telescope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Pole_Telescope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 South Pole Telescope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Pole_Telescope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Theoretical models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theoretical_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theoretical models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Predictions_based_on_the_Big_Bang_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predictions_based_on_the_Big_Bang_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Predictions based on the Big Bang model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predictions_based_on_the_Big_Bang_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_anisotropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_anisotropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Primary anisotropy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_anisotropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_time_anisotropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_time_anisotropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Late time anisotropy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_time_anisotropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Alternative theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polarization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polarization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Polarization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Polarization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Polarization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Polarization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-E-modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#E-modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 E-modes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-E-modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-B-modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#B-modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 B-modes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-B-modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primordial_gravitational_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primordial_gravitational_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Primordial gravitational waves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primordial_gravitational_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravitational_lensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_lensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Gravitational lensing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_lensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multipole_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multipole_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Multipole analysis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Multipole_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Multipole analysis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Multipole_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-CMBR_monopole_term_(ℓ_=_0)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CMBR_monopole_term_(ℓ_=_0)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CMBR_monopole_term_(ℓ_=_0)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CMBR_dipole_anisotropy_(ℓ_=_1)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CMBR_dipole_anisotropy_(ℓ_=_1)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CMBR_dipole_anisotropy_(ℓ_=_1)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multipole_(ℓ_≥_2)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multipole_(ℓ_≥_2)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Multipole (ℓ ≥ 2) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multipole_(ℓ_≥_2)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_analysis_challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_analysis_challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Data analysis challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_analysis_challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anomalies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anomalies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Anomalies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anomalies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Future evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_prediction,_discovery_and_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_prediction,_discovery_and_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Timeline_of_prediction,_discovery_and_interpretation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_prediction,_discovery_and_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_(non-microwave_background)_temperature_predictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_(non-microwave_background)_temperature_predictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_(non-microwave_background)_temperature_predictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microwave_background_radiation_predictions_and_measurements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microwave_background_radiation_predictions_and_measurements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microwave_background_radiation_predictions_and_measurements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Cosmic microwave background</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" > 74 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmiese_mikrogolfagtergrond" title="Kosmiese mikrogolfagtergrond – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kosmiese mikrogolfagtergrond" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إشعاع الأمواج الصغرية للخلفية الكونية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إشعاع الأمواج الصغرية للخلفية الكونية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_de_fondu_de_microondes" title="Radiación de fondu de microondes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Radiación de fondu de microondes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmik_mikrodal%C4%9Fa_arxa_plan_%C5%9F%C3%BCalanmas%C4%B1" title="Kosmik mikrodalğa arxa plan şüalanması – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kosmik mikrodalğa arxa plan şüalanması" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="মহাজাগতিক অণুতরঙ্গ পটভূমি বিকিরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাজাগতিক অণুতরঙ্গ পটভূমি বিকিরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9A-ti%C5%AB_b%C3%AE-pho_po%C4%93-k%C3%A9ng_hok-si%C4%81" title="Ú-tiū bî-pho poē-kéng hok-siā – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ú-tiū bî-pho poē-kéng hok-siā" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Рэліктавае выпраменьванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэліктавае выпраменьванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Рэліктавае выпраменьваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рэліктавае выпраменьваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Реликтово излъчване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Реликтово излъчване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3_c%C3%B2smica_de_fons" title="Radiació còsmica de fons – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Radiació còsmica de fons" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Реликт пайăркалав – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Реликт пайăркалав" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliktn%C3%AD_z%C3%A1%C5%99en%C3%AD" title="Reliktní záření – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Reliktní záření" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmisk_baggrundsstr%C3%A5ling" title="Kosmisk baggrundsstråling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kosmisk baggrundsstråling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hintergrundstrahlung" title="Hintergrundstrahlung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hintergrundstrahlung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmiline_mikrolaine-taustkiirgus" title="Kosmiline mikrolaine-taustkiirgus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kosmiline mikrolaine-taustkiirgus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Ακτινοβολία υποβάθρου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακτινοβολία υποβάθρου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_de_fondo_de_microondas" title="Radiación de fondo de microondas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Radiación de fondo de microondas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosma_fona_radiado" title="Kosma fona radiado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kosma fona radiado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hondoko_mikrouhin_erradiazioa" title="Hondoko mikrouhin erradiazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hondoko mikrouhin erradiazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ریزموج زمینه کیهانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ریزموج زمینه کیهانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fond_diffus_cosmologique" title="Fond diffus cosmologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fond diffus cosmologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rada%C3%ADocht_ch%C3%BAlra_mhicreathonnach" title="Radaíocht chúlra mhicreathonnach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Radaíocht chúlra mhicreathonnach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiaci%C3%B3n_de_fondo_c%C3%B3smico_de_microondas" title="Radiación de fondo cósmico de microondas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Radiación de fondo cósmico de microondas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC_%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%AC%EB%A1%9C%ED%8C%8C_%EB%B0%B0%EA%B2%BD" title="우주 마이크로파 배경 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우주 마이크로파 배경" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Մնացորդային ճառագայթում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մնացորդային ճառագայթում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="खगोलीय पार्श्व सूक्ष्मतरंगी विकिरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खगोलीय पार्श्व सूक्ष्मतरंगी विकिरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozmi%C4%8Dko_mikrovalno_pozadinsko_zra%C4%8Denje" title="Kozmičko mikrovalno pozadinsko zračenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kozmičko mikrovalno pozadinsko zračenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihe_ndabere_nke_microwave_cosmic" title="Ihe ndabere nke microwave cosmic – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ihe ndabere nke microwave cosmic" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiasi_latar_belakang_gelombang_mikro_kosmis" title="Radiasi latar belakang gelombang mikro kosmis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Radiasi latar belakang gelombang mikro kosmis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96rbylgjukli%C3%B0urinn" title="Örbylgjukliðurinn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Örbylgjukliðurinn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiazione_cosmica_di_fondo" title="Radiazione cosmica di fondo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Radiazione cosmica di fondo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A2_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="קרינת הרקע הקוסמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרינת הרקע הקוסמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A6%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კოსმოსური მიკროტალღური ფონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კოსმოსური მიკროტალღური ფონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%88_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Ғарыш микротолқынды фоны – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғарыш микротолқынды фоны" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radyasyon_kosmik_natir%C3%A8l" title="Radyasyon kosmik natirèl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Radyasyon kosmik natirèl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Космологиялык негиз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Космологиялык негиз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmica_radiatio_micrometrica_primordialis" title="Cosmica radiatio micrometrica primordialis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cosmica radiatio micrometrica primordialis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliktstarojums" title="Reliktstarojums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Reliktstarojums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliktinis_spinduliavimas" title="Reliktinis spinduliavimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Reliktinis spinduliavimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozmikus_mikrohull%C3%A1m%C3%BA_h%C3%A1tt%C3%A9rsug%C3%A1rz%C3%A1s" title="Kozmikus mikrohullámú háttérsugárzás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kozmikus mikrohullámú háttérsugárzás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B2_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="പശ്ചാത്തല വികിരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പശ്ചാത്തല വികിരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80" title="वैश्विक मायक्रोवेव्ह पार्श्वभूमी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वैश्विक मायक्रोवेव्ह पार्श्वभूमी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A6%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კოსმოსური მიკრორეღმული ფონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კოსმოსური მიკრორეღმული ფონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaran_latar_belakang_gelombang_mikro_kosmik" title="Sinaran latar belakang gelombang mikro kosmik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sinaran latar belakang gelombang mikro kosmik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Сансрын богино долгионы дэвсгэр тал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сансрын богино долгионы дэвсгэр тал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmische_achtergrondstraling" title="Kosmische achtergrondstraling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kosmische achtergrondstraling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E6%B3%A2%E8%83%8C%E6%99%AF%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84" title="宇宙マイクロ波背景放射 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宇宙マイクロ波背景放射" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmisk_bakgrunnsstr%C3%A5ling" title="Kosmisk bakgrunnsstråling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kosmisk bakgrunnsstråling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raionament_fossil" title="Raionament fossil – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Raionament fossil" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliktiv_nurlanish" title="Reliktiv nurlanish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Reliktiv nurlanish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B5_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1" title="ਕੌਸਮਿਕ ਮਾਈਕ੍ਰੋਵੇਵ ਬੈਕਗਰਾਊਂਡ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੌਸਮਿਕ ਮਾਈਕ੍ਰੋਵੇਵ ਬੈਕਗਰਾਊਂਡ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikrofalowe_promieniowanie_t%C5%82a" title="Mikrofalowe promieniowanie tła – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mikrofalowe promieniowanie tła" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Trace radiation from the early universe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"CMB" and "CMBR" redirect here. For the Republic of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> radio station, see <a href="/wiki/Radio_Enciclopedia" title="Radio Enciclopedia">Radio Enciclopedia</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/CMB_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="CMB (disambiguation)">CMB (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/330px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/495px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/660px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Nine-year <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> heat map of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-sky image derived from nine years' WMAP data" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/220px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/330px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/440px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:0;font-weight:normal; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> · <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early universe</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Inflation</a> · <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Backgrounds</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave (GWB)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Microwave (CMB)</a> · <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Neutrino (CNB)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Expansion · Future</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> · <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a> · <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Components · Structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">Photons</a> · <a href="/wiki/Baryons" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryons">Baryons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a> · <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a> · <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Experiments</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_Initiative" title="Black Hole Initiative">Black Hole Initiative (BHI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Energy_Survey" title="Dark Energy Survey">Dark Energy Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck space observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Aaronson" title="Marc Aaronson">Aaronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Alpher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Dicke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_B._Suntzeff" title="Nicholas B. Suntzeff">Suntzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev" title="Rashid Sunyaev">Sunyaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zeldovich" title="Yakov Zeldovich">Zeldovich</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" title="List of cosmologists">List of cosmologists</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology#Subject_history" title="Physical cosmology">Subject history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block;margin-top:0.4em; line-height:1.6em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_cosmology" title="Category:Physical cosmology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/24px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_cosmology" title="Template talk:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR), or relic radiation, is <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave radiation">microwave radiation</a> that fills all space in the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>. With a standard <a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">optical telescope</a>, the background space between stars and galaxies is almost completely dark. However, a sufficiently sensitive <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescope</a> detects a faint background glow that is almost <a href="/wiki/Isotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotropic">uniform</a> and is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">object</a>. This glow is strongest in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The accidental <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">discovery of the CMB</a> in 1965 by American radio astronomers <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a> was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s. The CMB is landmark evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">theory</a> for the origin of the universe. In the Big Bang <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmological model">cosmological models</a>, during the earliest periods, the universe was filled with an <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> fog of dense, hot <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sub-atomic_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-atomic particle">sub-atomic particles</a>. As the universe expanded, this plasma cooled to the point where protons and electrons combined to form neutral atoms of mostly hydrogen. Unlike the plasma, these atoms could not scatter thermal radiation by <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a>, and so the universe became transparent. Known as the <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a> epoch, this <a href="/wiki/Decoupling_(cosmology)" title="Decoupling (cosmology)">decoupling</a> event released <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a> to travel freely through space. However, the photons have grown less <a href="/wiki/Photon_energy" title="Photon energy">energetic</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_redshift" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmological redshift">cosmological redshift</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>. The surface of last scattering refers to a shell at the right distance in space so photons are now received that were originally emitted at the time of decoupling. The CMB is not completely smooth and uniform, showing a faint <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropy</a> that can be mapped by sensitive detectors. Ground and space-based experiments such as <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> have been used to measure these temperature inhomogeneities. The anisotropy structure is determined by various interactions of matter and photons up to the point of decoupling, which results in a characteristic lumpy pattern that varies with angular scale. The <a href="/wiki/Distribution_(mathematics)" title="Distribution (mathematics)">distribution</a> of the anisotropy across the sky has <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> components that can be represented by a <a href="/wiki/Power_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Power spectrum">power spectrum</a> displaying a sequence of peaks and valleys. The peak values of this spectrum hold important information about the physical properties of the early universe: the first peak determines the overall <a href="/wiki/Curvature_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Curvature of the universe">curvature of the universe</a>, while the second and third peak detail the density of normal matter and so-called <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, respectively. Extracting fine details from the CMB data can be challenging, since the emission has undergone modification by foreground features such as <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">galaxy clusters</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Features">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cmbr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/300px-Cmbr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/450px-Cmbr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cmbr.svg/600px-Cmbr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Graph of cosmic microwave background spectrum around its peak in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> frequency range,<a href="#cite_note-Komatsu2022Review-1">[1]</a> as measured by the FIRAS instrument on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> While vastly exaggerated "<a href="/wiki/Standard_error_of_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard error of estimation">error bars</a>" were included here to show the measured data points, the true error bars are too small to be seen even in an enlarged image, and it is impossible to distinguish the observed data from the <a href="/wiki/Blackbody" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody">blackbody</a> spectrum for 2.725 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>.</figcaption></figure> The cosmic microwave background radiation is an emission of uniform <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> coming from all directions. Intensity of the CMB is expressed in <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> (K), the <a href="/wiki/System_International" class="mw-redirect" title="System International">SI</a> unit of temperature. The CMB has a thermal <a href="/wiki/Black_body_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Black body spectrum">black body spectrum</a> at a temperature of 2.72548±0.00057 K.<a href="#cite_note-apj707_2_916-4">[4]</a> Variations in intensity are expressed as variations in temperature. The blackbody temperature uniquely characterizes the intensity of the radiation at all wavelengths; a measured <a href="/wiki/Brightness_temperature" title="Brightness temperature">brightness temperature</a> at any wavelength can be converted to a blackbody temperature.<a href="#cite_note-WrightUCLASite-5">[5]</a> The radiation is remarkably uniform across the sky, very unlike the almost point-like structure of stars or clumps of stars in galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-HuDodelsonReview-6">[6]</a> The radiation is <a href="/wiki/Isotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotropic">isotropic</a> to roughly one part in 25,000: the <a href="/wiki/Root_mean_square" title="Root mean square">root mean square</a> variations are just over 100 μK,<a href="#cite_note-PlanckV-7">[7]</a> after subtracting a <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">dipole</a> anisotropy from the <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shift</a> of the background radiation. The latter is caused by the <a href="/wiki/Peculiar_velocity" title="Peculiar velocity">peculiar velocity</a> of the Sun relative to the <a href="/wiki/Comoving_distance#Comoving_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Comoving distance">comoving</a> cosmic rest frame as it moves at 369.82 ± 0.11 km/s towards the constellation <a href="/wiki/Crater_(constellation)" title="Crater (constellation)">Crater</a> near its boundary with the constellation <a href="/wiki/Leo_(constellation)" title="Leo (constellation)">Leo</a><a href="#cite_note-PlanckI-8">[8]</a> The CMB dipole and <a href="/wiki/Aberration_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberration of light">aberration</a> at higher multipoles have been measured, consistent with galactic motion.<a href="#cite_note-PlanckXXVII-9">[9]</a> Despite the very small degree of anisotropy in the CMB, many aspects can be measured with high precision and such measurements are critical for cosmological theories.<a href="#cite_note-HuDodelsonReview-6">[6]</a> In addition to temperature anisotropy, the CMB should have an angular variation in <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarization (physics)">polarization</a>. The polarization at each direction in the sky has an orientation described in terms of E-mode and B-mode polarization. The E-mode signal is a factor of 10 less strong than the temperature anisotropy; it supplements the temperature data as they are correlated. The B-mode signal is even weaker but may contain additional cosmological data.<a href="#cite_note-HuDodelsonReview-6">[6]</a> The anisotropy is related to physical origin of the polarization. Excitation of an electron by linear polarized light generates polarized light at 90 degrees to the incident direction. If the incoming radiation is isotropic, different incoming directions create polarizations that cancel out. If the incoming radiation has quadrupole anisotropy, residual polarization will be seen.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Other than the temperature and polarization anisotropy, the CMB frequency spectrum is expected to feature tiny departures from the black-body law known as <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_spectral_distortions" title="Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions">spectral distortions</a>. These are also at the focus of an active research effort with the hope of a first measurement within the forthcoming decades, as they contain a wealth of information about the primordial universe and the formation of structures at late time.<a href="#cite_note-Voyage2050-11">[11]</a> The CMB contains the vast majority of photons in the universe by a factor of 400 to 1;<a href="#cite_note-HistoryOfAlternatives-12">[12]</a>: 5  the number density of photons in the CMB is one billion times (109) the number density of matter in the universe. Without the expansion of the universe to cause the cooling of the CMB, the night sky would shine as brightly as the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The energy density of the CMB is 0.260 eV/cm3 (4.17×10−14 J/m3), about 411 photons/cm3.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_speculations">Early speculations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early speculations">edit</a>]</div> In 1931, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a> speculated that remnants of the early universe may be observable as radiation, but his candidate was <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PeeblesPrinciples-15">[15]</a>: 140  <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> showed in 1934 that expansion of the universe would cool blackbody radiation while maintaining a thermal spectrum. The cosmic microwave background was first predicted in 1948 by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a>, in a correction<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> they prepared for a paper by Alpher's PhD advisor <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Discovery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel,_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg/220px-Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg/330px-Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg/440px-Horn_Antenna-in_Holmdel%2C_New_Jersey_-_restoration1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2793" data-file-height="2197" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Holmdel_Horn_Antenna" title="Holmdel Horn Antenna">Holmdel Horn Antenna</a> on which Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230905-19">[19]</a></figcaption></figure> The first published recognition of the CMB radiation as a detectable phenomenon appeared in a brief paper by <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> astrophysicists <a href="/wiki/A._G._Doroshkevich" class="mw-redirect" title="A. G. Doroshkevich">A. G. Doroshkevich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Dmitriyevich_Novikov" title="Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov">Igor Novikov</a>, in the spring of 1964.<a href="#cite_note-Penzias-Nobel-1979-20">[20]</a> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/David_Todd_Wilkinson" title="David Todd Wilkinson">David Todd Wilkinson</a> and Peter Roll, <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a>'s colleagues at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, began constructing a <a href="/wiki/Dicke_radiometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicke radiometer">Dicke radiometer</a> to measure the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Woodrow Wilson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Crawford_Hill" title="Crawford Hill">Crawford Hill</a> location of <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> in nearby <a href="/wiki/Holmdel_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Holmdel Township, New Jersey">Holmdel Township, New Jersey</a> had built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite communication experiments. The antenna was constructed in 1959 to support <a href="/wiki/Project_Echo" title="Project Echo">Project Echo</a>—the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's passive communications satellites, which used large earth orbiting aluminized plastic balloons as reflectors to bounce radio signals from one point on the Earth to another.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230905-19">[19]</a> On 20 May 1964 they made their first measurement clearly showing the presence of the microwave background,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> with their instrument having an excess 4.2K <a href="/wiki/Noise_temperature" title="Noise temperature">antenna temperature</a> which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Crawford Hill, Dicke said "Boys, we've been scooped."<a href="#cite_note-Penzias&Wilson-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-PeeblesPrinciples-15">[15]</a>: 140  A meeting between the Princeton and Crawford Hill groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for their discovery.<a href="#cite_note-PenziasWilsonNobelSummary-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_origin">Cosmic origin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cosmic origin">edit</a>]</div> The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the late 1960s. Alternative explanations included energy from within the solar system, from galaxies, from intergalactic plasma and from multiple extragalactic radio sources. Two requirements would show that the microwave radiation was truly "cosmic". First, the intensity vs frequency or spectrum needed to be shown to match a thermal or blackbody source. This was accomplished by 1968 in a series of measurements of the radiation temperature at higher and lower wavelengths. Second, the radiation needed be shown to be isotropic, the same from all directions. This was also accomplished by 1970, demonstrating that this radiation was truly cosmic in origin.<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Progress_on_theory">Progress on theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Progress on theory">edit</a>]</div> In the 1970s numerous studies showed that tiny deviations from isotropy in the CMB could result from events in the early universe.<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.5.1  Harrison,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Peebles and Yu,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and Zel'dovich<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> realized that the early universe would require quantum inhomogeneities that would result in temperature anisotropy at the level of 10−4 or 10−5.<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.5.3.2  <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev" title="Rashid Sunyaev">Rashid Sunyaev</a>, using the alternative name relic radiation, calculated the observable imprint that these inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="COBE">COBE</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: COBE">edit</a>]</div> After a lull in the 1970s caused in part by the many experimental difficulties in measuring CMB at high precision,<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.5.1  increasingly stringent limits on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background were set by ground-based experiments during the 1980s. <a href="/wiki/RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a>, a Soviet cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment on board the Prognoz 9 satellite (launched 1 July 1983), gave the first upper limits on the large-scale anisotropy.<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.5.3.2  The other key event in the 1980s was the proposal by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Alan Guth</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>. This theory of rapid spatial expansion gave an explanation for large-scale isotropy by allowing causal connection just before the epoch of last scattering.<a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.5.4  With this and similar theories, detailed prediction encouraged larger and more ambitious experiments. The <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Cosmic Background Explorer (<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a>) satellite orbited Earth in 1989–1996 detected and quantified the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its detection capabilities. The <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a> mission clearly confirmed the primary anisotropy with the Differential Microwave Radiometer instrument, publishing their findings in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The team received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in physics for 2006 for this discovery. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precision_cosmology">Precision cosmology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Precision cosmology">edit</a>]</div> Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] two decades. The sensitivity of the new experiments improved dramatically, with a reduction in internal noise by three orders of magnitude.<a href="#cite_note-Komatsu2022Review-1">[1]</a> The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. This peak corresponds to large scale density variations in the early universe that are created by gravitational instabilities, resulting in acoustical oscillations in the plasma.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_Anisotropy_Telescope" title="Mobile Anisotropy Telescope">MAT/TOCO</a> experiment<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and the result was confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Millimeter_Anisotropy_eXperiment_IMaging_Array" title="Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment IMaging Array">MAXIMA</a> experiments.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> These measurements demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">geometry of the universe</a> is approximately flat, rather than <a href="/wiki/Curved_space" title="Curved space">curved</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> They ruled out <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">cosmic strings</a> as a major component of cosmic structure formation and suggested <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> was the right theory of structure formation.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observations_after_COBE">Observations after COBE</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Observations after COBE">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmic_microwave_background_experiments" title="List of cosmic microwave background experiments">List of cosmic microwave background experiments</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/240px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/360px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/480px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of <a href="/wiki/CMB" class="mw-redirect" title="CMB">CMB</a> results from <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a>, <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> (March 21, 2013)</figcaption></figure> Inspired by the initial COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of ground- and balloon-based experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">cosmic strings</a> as the leading theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG experiment</a> reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these results implied that the geometry of the universe is <a href="/wiki/Flat_spacetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat spacetime">flat</a>. A number of ground-based <a href="/wiki/Interferometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometer">interferometers</a> provided measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the <a href="/wiki/Very_Small_Array" title="Very Small Array">Very Small Array</a>, <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</a> (DASI), and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">Cosmic Background Imager</a> (CBI). DASI made the first detection of the polarization of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a></div> In June 2001, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> launched a second CMB space mission, <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a>, to make much more precise measurements of the large scale anisotropies over the full sky. <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> used symmetric, rapid-multi-modulated scanning, rapid switching radiometers at five frequencies to minimize non-sky signal noise.<a href="#cite_note-FirstWMAP-40">[40]</a> The data from the mission was released in five installments, the last being the nine year summary. The results are broadly consistent <a href="/wiki/Lambda_CDM" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambda CDM">Lambda CDM</a> models based on 6 free parameters and fitting in to Big Bang cosmology with <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP9Map-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</a> (DASI) was a telescope installed at the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. It was a 13-element <a href="/wiki/Interferometry" title="Interferometry">interferometer</a> operating between 26 and 36 GHz (<a href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">Ka band</a>) in ten bands. The instrument is similar in design to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">Cosmic Background Imager</a> (CBI) and the <a href="/wiki/Very_Small_Array" title="Very Small Array">Very Small Array</a> (VSA). In 2001 The DASI team announced the most detailed measurements of the temperature, or power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). These results contained the first detection of the 2nd and 3rd <a href="/wiki/Baryon_acoustic_oscillations" title="Baryon acoustic oscillations">acoustic peaks</a> in the CMB, which were important evidence for <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">inflation theory</a>. This announcement was done in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Millimeter_Anisotropy_eXperiment_IMaging_Array" title="Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment IMaging Array">MAXIMA</a> experiment.<a href="#cite_note-Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer_LCFTHCBB-42">[42]</a> In 2002 the team reported the first detection of <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a> <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropies</a> in the CMB.<a href="#cite_note-Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer_MPDASI-43">[43]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Atacama Cosmology Telescope">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope" title="Atacama Cosmology Telescope">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope" title="Atacama Cosmology Telescope">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</a> (ACT) was a cosmological millimeter-wave telescope located on <a href="/wiki/Cerro_Toco" title="Cerro Toco">Cerro Toco</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a> in the north of <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> ACT made high-sensitivity, arcminute resolution, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>-<a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> surveys of the sky in order to study the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> (CMB), the relic radiation left by the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> process. Located 40 km from San Pedro de Atacama, at an altitude of 5,190 metres (17,030 ft), it was one of the highest ground-based telescopes in the world.<a href="#cite_note-46">[a]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planck_Surveyor">Planck Surveyor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Planck Surveyor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Planck_Surveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck Surveyor">Planck Surveyor</a></div> A third space mission, the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a> (European Space Agency) <a href="/wiki/Planck_Surveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck Surveyor">Planck Surveyor</a>, was launched in May 2009 and performed an even more detailed investigation until it was shut down in October 2013. Planck employed both <a href="/wiki/HEMT" class="mw-redirect" title="HEMT">HEMT</a> radiometers and <a href="/wiki/Bolometer" title="Bolometer">bolometer</a> technology and measured the CMB at a smaller scale than WMAP. Its detectors were trialled in the Antarctic <a href="/wiki/Viper_telescope" title="Viper telescope">Viper telescope</a> as ACBAR (<a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Cosmology_Bolometer_Array_Receiver" title="Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver">Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver</a>) experiment—which has produced the most precise measurements at small angular scales to date—and in the <a href="/wiki/Archeops" title="Archeops">Archeops</a> balloon telescope. On 21 March 2013, the European-led research team behind the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck cosmology probe</a> released the mission's all-sky map (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233029/http://esacmt.esac.esa.int/science-e-media/img/61/51553_Planck_CMB_Mollweide_565.jpg">565x318 jpeg</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215024745/https://www.nasa.gov/images/content/735683main_pia16873-full_full.jpg">3600x1800 jpeg</a>) of the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130321-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130321g-48">[47]</a> The map suggests the universe is slightly older than researchers expected. According to the map, subtle fluctuations in temperature were imprinted on the deep sky when the cosmos was about 370000 years old. The imprint reflects ripples that arose as early, in the existence of the universe, as the first <a href="/wiki/Nonillion#Standard_dictionary_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonillion">nonillionth</a> (10−30) of a second. Apparently, these ripples gave rise to the present vast <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Web#Large-scale_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic Web">cosmic web</a> of <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">galaxy clusters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>. Based on the 2013 data, the universe contains 4.9% <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">ordinary matter</a>, 26.8% <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and 68.3% <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>. On 5 February 2015, new data was released by the Planck mission, according to which the age of the universe is 13.799±0.021 <a href="/wiki/1,000,000,000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1,000,000,000 (number)">billion</a> years old and the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble constant">Hubble constant</a> was measured to be 67.74±0.46 (km/s)/Mpc.<a href="#cite_note-Planck_2015-49">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Pole_Telescope">South Pole Telescope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: South Pole Telescope">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/South_Pole_Telescope" title="South Pole Telescope">South Pole Telescope</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Pole_Telescope&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/South_Pole_Telescope" title="South Pole Telescope">South Pole Telescope</a> (SPT) is a 10-metre (390 in) diameter telescope located at the <a href="/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station" title="Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station">Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station</a>, Antarctica. The telescope is designed for observations in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">millimeter-wave</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">submillimeter-wave</a> regions of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, with the particular design goal of measuring the faint, diffuse emission from the cosmic microwave background (CMB).<a href="#cite_note-South_Pole_Telescope_carlstrom09-50">[49]</a> Key results include a wide and deep survey of discovering hundreds of clusters of galaxies using the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect</a>, a sensitive 5 arcminute CMB power spectrum survey, and the first detection of B-mode polarized CMB.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_models">Theoretical models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Theoretical models">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For details about the reasoning that the radiation is evidence for the Big Bang, see <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang#Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Big Bang">Big Bang § Cosmic microwave background radiation</a>.</div> The cosmic microwave background radiation and the <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">cosmological redshift</a>-distance relation are together regarded as the best available evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> event. Measurements of the CMB have made the inflationary Big Bang model the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cosmological_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Cosmological Model">Standard Cosmological Model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">alternatives</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady state theory">steady state theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> model for the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">inflationary cosmology</a> predicts that after about 10−37 seconds<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> the nascent universe underwent <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponential growth</a> that smoothed out nearly all irregularities. The remaining irregularities were caused by quantum fluctuations in the <a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">inflaton</a> field that caused the inflation event.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> Long before the formation of stars and planets, the early universe was more compact, much hotter and, starting 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang, filled with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of interacting <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryons</a>. As the universe <a href="/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric expansion of space">expanded</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic</a> cooling caused the energy density of the plasma to decrease until it became favorable for <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> to combine with <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, forming <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atoms. This <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a> event happened when the temperature was around 3000 K or when the universe was approximately 379,000 years old.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> As photons did not interact with these electrically neutral atoms, the former began to travel <a href="/wiki/Free_streaming" title="Free streaming">freely</a> through space, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Decoupling_(cosmology)" title="Decoupling (cosmology)">decoupling</a> of matter and radiation.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">color temperature</a> of the ensemble of decoupled photons has continued to diminish ever since; now down to 2.7260±0.0013 K,<a href="#cite_note-apj707_2_916-4">[4]</a> it will continue to drop as the universe expands. The intensity of the radiation corresponds to black-body radiation at 2.726 K because red-shifted black-body radiation is just like black-body radiation at a lower temperature. According to the Big Bang model, the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface called the surface of last scattering. This represents the set of locations in space at which the decoupling event is estimated to have occurred<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> and at a point in time such that the photons from that distance have just reached observers. Most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background,<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> making up a fraction of roughly 6×10−5 of the total density of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Two of the greatest successes of the Big Bang theory are its prediction of the almost perfect black body spectrum and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. The CMB spectrum has become the most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature.<a href="#cite_note-dpf99-61">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predictions_based_on_the_Big_Bang_model">Predictions based on the Big Bang model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Predictions based on the Big Bang model">edit</a>]</div> In the late 1940s Alpher and Herman reasoned that if there was a Big Bang, the expansion of the universe would have stretched the high-energy radiation of the very early universe into the microwave region of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, and down to a temperature of about 5 K. They were slightly off with their estimate, but they had the right idea. They predicted the CMB. It took another 15 years for Penzias and Wilson to discover that the microwave background was actually there.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-62">[61]</a> According to standard cosmology, the CMB gives a snapshot of the hot early <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> at the point in time when the temperature dropped enough to allow <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atoms. This event made the universe nearly transparent to radiation because light was no longer being <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">scattered</a> off free electrons.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> When this occurred some 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature of the universe was about 3,000 K. This corresponds to an ambient energy of about 0.26 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>, which is much less than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> This epoch is generally known as the "time of last scattering" or the period of <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Decoupling_(cosmology)" title="Decoupling (cosmology)">decoupling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> Since decoupling, the color temperature of the background radiation has dropped by an average factor of 1,089<a href="#cite_note-FirstWMAP-40">[40]</a> due to the expansion of the universe. As the universe expands, the CMB photons are <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifted</a>, causing them to decrease in energy. The color temperature of this radiation stays <a href="/wiki/Inversely_proportional" class="mw-redirect" title="Inversely proportional">inversely proportional</a> to a parameter that describes the relative expansion of the universe over time, known as the <a href="/wiki/Scale_factor_(universe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scale factor (universe)">scale length</a>. The color temperature Tr of the CMB as a function of redshift, z, can be shown to be proportional to the color temperature of the CMB as observed in the present day (2.725 K or 0.2348 meV):<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> <dl><dd>Tr = 2.725 K × (1 + z)</dd></dl> The high degree of uniformity throughout the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a> and its faint but measured anisotropy lend strong support for the Big Bang model in general and the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">ΛCDM ("Lambda Cold Dark Matter") model</a> in particular. Moreover, the fluctuations are <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherent</a> on angular scales that are larger than the apparent <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_horizon" title="Cosmological horizon">cosmological horizon</a> at recombination. Either such coherence is acausally <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuning_(physics)" title="Fine-tuning (physics)">fine-tuned</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> occurred.<a href="#cite_note-hep-ph/0309057-67">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_anisotropy">Primary anisotropy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Primary anisotropy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PowerSpectrumExt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/PowerSpectrumExt.svg/300px-PowerSpectrumExt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/PowerSpectrumExt.svg/450px-PowerSpectrumExt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/PowerSpectrumExt.svg/600px-PowerSpectrumExt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation temperature anisotropy in terms of the angular scale (or <a href="/wiki/Multipole_moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Multipole moment">multipole moment</a>). The data shown comes from the <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> (2006), <a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Cosmology_Bolometer_Array_Receiver" title="Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver">Acbar</a> (2004) <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">Boomerang</a> (2005), <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">CBI</a> (2004), and <a href="/wiki/Very_Small_Array" title="Very Small Array">VSA</a> (2004) instruments. Also shown is a theoretical model (solid line).</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropy</a>, or directional dependency, of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two types: primary anisotropy, due to effects that occur at the surface of last scattering and before; and secondary anisotropy, due to effects such as interactions of the background radiation with intervening hot gas or gravitational potentials, which occur between the last scattering surface and the observer. The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_damping" title="Diffusion damping">diffusion damping</a> (also called collisionless damping or <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Silk" title="Joseph Silk">Silk</a> damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a conflict in the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>–<a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryon</a> plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons, moving at speeds much slower than light, makes them tend to collapse to form overdensities. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations, which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak determines the <a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">curvature of the universe</a> (but not the <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> of the universe). The next peak—ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks—determines the reduced baryon density.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> The third peak can be used to get information about the dark-matter density.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> The locations of the peaks give important information about the nature of the primordial density perturbations. There are two fundamental types of density perturbations called adiabatic and isocurvature. A general density perturbation is a mixture of both, and different theories that purport to explain the primordial density perturbation spectrum predict different mixtures. <dl><dt>Adiabatic density perturbations</dt> <dd>In an adiabatic density perturbation, the fractional additional number density of each type of particle (baryons, <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, etc.) is the same. That is, if at one place there is a 1% higher number density of baryons than average, then at that place there is a 1% higher number density of photons (and a 1% higher number density in neutrinos) than average. <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Cosmic inflation</a> predicts that the primordial perturbations are adiabatic.</dd> <dt>Isocurvature density perturbations</dt> <dd>In an isocurvature density perturbation, the sum (over different types of particle) of the fractional additional densities is zero. That is, a perturbation where at some spot there is 1% more energy in baryons than average, 1% more energy in photons than average, and 2% less energy in neutrinos than average, would be a pure isocurvature perturbation. Hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">cosmic strings</a> would produce mostly isocurvature primordial perturbations.</dd></dl> The CMB spectrum can distinguish between these two because these two types of perturbations produce different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations produce a series of peaks whose angular scales (ℓ values of the peaks) are roughly in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : ..., while adiabatic density perturbations produce peaks whose locations are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : ...<a href="#cite_note-hu_white_1996-71">[70]</a> Observations are consistent with the primordial density perturbations being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and ruling out many models of structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings. Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> begins to break down: <ul><li>the increasing <a href="/wiki/Mean_free_path" title="Mean free path">mean free path</a> of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe,</li> <li>the finite depth of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring.</li></ul> These effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies at small scales and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies. The depth of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the photons and baryons does not happen instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of the universe up to that era. One method of quantifying how long this process took uses the photon visibility function (PVF). This function is defined so that, denoting the PVF by P(t), the probability that a CMB photon last scattered between time t and t + dt is given by P(t) dt. The maximum of the PVF (the time when it is most likely that a given CMB photon last scattered) is known quite precisely. The first-year <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a> results put the time at which P(t) has a maximum as 372,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP_1_cosmo_params-72">[71]</a> This is often taken as the "time" at which the CMB formed. However, to figure out how long it took the photons and baryons to decouple, we need a measure of the width of the PVF. The WMAP team finds that the PVF is greater than half of its maximal value (the "full width at half maximum", or FWHM) over an interval of 115,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP_1_cosmo_params-72">[71]</a>: 179  By this measure, decoupling took place over roughly 115,000 years, and thus when it was complete, the universe was roughly 487,000 years old. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_time_anisotropy">Late time anisotropy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Late time anisotropy">edit</a>]</div> Since the CMB came into existence, it has apparently been modified by several subsequent physical processes, which are collectively referred to as late-time anisotropy, or secondary anisotropy. When the CMB photons became free to travel unimpeded, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen and helium atoms. However, observations of galaxies today seem to indicate that most of the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic medium">intergalactic medium</a> (IGM) consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to hydrogen atoms). This implies a period of <a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">reionization</a> during which some of the material of the universe was broken into hydrogen ions. The CMB photons are scattered by free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms. In an ionized universe, such charged particles have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the volume of the universe that they do not measurably affect the CMB. However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still denser, then there are two main effects on the CMB: <ol><li>Small scale anisotropies are erased. (Just as when looking at an object through fog, details of the object appear fuzzy.)</li> <li>The physics of how photons are scattered by free electrons (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a>) induces polarization anisotropies on large angular scales. This broad angle polarization is correlated with the broad angle temperature perturbation.</li></ol> Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP spacecraft, providing evidence that the universe was ionized at very early times, at a <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshift</a> around 10.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP9Cosmo-73">[72]</a> The detailed provenance of this early ionizing radiation is still a matter of scientific debate. It may have included starlight from the very first population of stars (<a href="/wiki/Population_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Population III">population III</a> stars), supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes. The time following the emission of the cosmic microwave background—and before the observation of the first stars—is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Big_Bang#Dark_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Big Bang">Dark Age</a>, and is a period which is under intense study by astronomers (see <a href="/wiki/21_centimeter_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="21 centimeter radiation">21 centimeter radiation</a>). Two other effects which occurred between reionization and our observations of the cosmic microwave background, and which appear to cause anisotropies, are the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zeldovich_effect" title="Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect">Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect</a>, where a cloud of high-energy electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some of its energy to the CMB photons, and the <a href="/wiki/Sachs%E2%80%93Wolfe_effect" title="Sachs–Wolfe effect">Sachs–Wolfe effect</a>, which causes photons from the Cosmic Microwave Background to be gravitationally redshifted or blueshifted due to changing gravitational fields. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_theories">Alternative theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Alternative theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">Non-standard cosmology</a></div> The standard cosmology that includes the Big Bang "enjoys considerable popularity among the practicing cosmologists"<a href="#cite_note-NarlikarPadmanabhan-74">[73]</a>: 211  However, there are challenges to the standard big bang framework for explaining CMB data. In particular standard cosmology requires <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuning_(physics)" title="Fine-tuning (physics)">fine-tuning</a> of some free parameters, with different values supported by different experimental data.<a href="#cite_note-NarlikarPadmanabhan-74">[73]</a>: 245  As an example of the fine-tuning issue, standard cosmology cannot predict the present temperature of the relic radiation, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55b9e7d7b96196b5a6a26f4349caa3ac82fd67e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.412ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{0}}" />.<a href="#cite_note-NarlikarPadmanabhan-74">[73]</a>: 229  This value of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55b9e7d7b96196b5a6a26f4349caa3ac82fd67e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.412ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{0}}" /> is one of the best results of experimental cosmology and the <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady state model">steady state model</a> can predict it.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-62">[61]</a> However, alternative models have their own set of problems and they have only made post-facto explanations of existing observations.<a href="#cite_note-NarlikarPadmanabhan-74">[73]</a>: 239  Nevertheless, these alternatives have played an important historic role in providing ideas for and challenges to the standard explanation.<a href="#cite_note-HistoryOfAlternatives-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polarization">Polarization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Polarization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravitational_lens-full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gravitational_lens-full.jpg/220px-Gravitational_lens-full.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gravitational_lens-full.jpg/330px-Gravitational_lens-full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gravitational_lens-full.jpg/440px-Gravitational_lens-full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Artist impression of the gravitational lensing effect of massive cosmic structures</figcaption></figure> The cosmic microwave background is <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarized</a> at the level of a few microkelvin. There are two types of polarization, called E-mode (or gradient-mode) and B-mode (or curl mode).<a href="#cite_note-Trippe2014-75">[74]</a> This is in analogy to <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a>, in which the electric field (E-field) has a vanishing <a href="/wiki/Curl_(mathematics)" title="Curl (mathematics)">curl</a> and the magnetic field (B-field) has a vanishing <a href="/wiki/Divergence" title="Divergence">divergence</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E-modes">E-modes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: E-modes">edit</a>]</div> The E-modes arise from <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a> in a heterogeneous plasma.<a href="#cite_note-Trippe2014-75">[74]</a> E-modes were first seen in 2002 by the <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">Degree Angular Scale Interferometer</a> (DASI).<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="B-modes">B-modes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: B-modes">edit</a>]</div> B-modes are expected to be an order of magnitude weaker than the E-modes. The former are not produced by standard scalar type perturbations, but are generated by <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a> during <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a> shortly after the big bang.<a href="#cite_note-SeljakMeasuring-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-SeljakSignature-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> However, gravitational lensing of the stronger E-modes can also produce B-mode polarization.<a href="#cite_note-SeljakGraviational-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Detecting the original B-modes signal requires analysis of the contamination caused by lensing of the relatively strong E-mode signal.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primordial_gravitational_waves">Primordial gravitational waves</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Primordial gravitational waves">edit</a>]</div> Models of "slow-roll" <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Early universe">early universe</a> predicts primordial <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a> that would impact the polarisation of the cosmic microwave background, creating a specific pattern of B-mode polarization. Detection of this pattern would support the theory of inflation and their strength can confirm and exclude different models of inflation.<a href="#cite_note-SeljakSignature-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-KamionkowskiReview-84">[83]</a> Claims that this characteristic pattern of B-mode polarization had been measured by <a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array" title="BICEP and Keck Array">BICEP2</a> instrument<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140922-85">[84]</a> were later attributed to <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">cosmic dust</a> due to new results of the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck experiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AXV-20140919-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-KamionkowskiReview-84">[83]</a>: 253  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gravitational_lensing">Gravitational lensing</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gravitational lensing">edit</a>]</div> The second type of B-modes was discovered in 2013 using the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole_Telescope" title="South Pole Telescope">South Pole Telescope</a> with help from the <a href="/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory" title="Herschel Space Observatory">Herschel Space Observatory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> In October 2014, a measurement of the B-mode polarization at 150 GHz was published by the <a href="/wiki/POLARBEAR" title="POLARBEAR">POLARBEAR</a> experiment.<a href="#cite_note-pc1-88">[87]</a> Compared to BICEP2, POLARBEAR focuses on a smaller patch of the sky and is less susceptible to dust effects. The team reported that POLARBEAR's measured B-mode polarization was of cosmological origin (and not just due to dust) at a 97.2% confidence level.<a href="#cite_note-cs-89">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multipole_analysis">Multipole analysis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Multipole analysis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png/220px-WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png/330px-WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png/440px-WMAP_2008_TT_spectra.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2714" /></a><figcaption>Example Multipole Power Spectrum. WMAP Data are represented as points, curves correspond to the best-fit LCDM model<a href="#cite_note-WMAP9Cosmo-73">[72]</a></figcaption></figure> The CMB angular anisotropies are usually presented in terms of power per multipole.<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a> The map of temperature across the sky, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi ),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi ),}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/baf8bbf23c6683cd44387866e4afe8c0d20196b4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.737ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi ),}" /> is written as coefficients of <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a>, <math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi )=\sum _{\ell m}a_{\ell m}Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </munder> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi )=\sum _{\ell m}a_{\ell m}Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/196ae4f532abaf7a6fd6ba7bf2893193b617f434" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:26.686ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi )=\sum _{\ell m}a_{\ell m}Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}" /> where the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{\ell m}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{\ell m}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/296c086e281bc8fcba62a723129d08e481f2a446" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.591ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{\ell m}}" /> term measures the strength of the angular oscillation in <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>φ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9316131b8f7e0791a44c24deaf5cd46323c16bc4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.165ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{\ell m}(\theta ,\varphi )}" />, and ℓ is the multipole number while m is the azimuthal number. The azimuthal variation is not significant and is removed by applying the <a href="/wiki/Angular_correlation_function" title="Angular correlation function">angular correlation function</a>, giving power spectrum term <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{\ell }\equiv \langle |a_{\ell m}|^{2}\rangle .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≡</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{\ell }\equiv \langle |a_{\ell m}|^{2}\rangle .}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3418a8af26ab4b480cc4d734a9970ec1e8b84c07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.073ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{\ell }\equiv \langle |a_{\ell m}|^{2}\rangle .}" /> Increasing values of ℓ correspond to higher multipole moments of CMB, meaning more rapid variation with angle. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CMBR_monopole_term_(ℓ_=_0)">CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)">edit</a>]</div> The monopole term, ℓ = 0, is the constant isotropic mean temperature of the CMB, Tγ = 2.7255±0.0006 K<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a> with one standard deviation confidence. This term must be measured with absolute temperature devices, such as the FIRAS instrument on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a> satellite.<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a>: 499  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CMBR_dipole_anisotropy_(ℓ_=_1)">CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1)">edit</a>]</div> CMB dipole represents the largest anisotropy, which is in the first spherical harmonic (ℓ = 1), a cosine function. The amplitude of CMB dipole is around 3.3621±0.0010 mK.<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a> The CMB dipole moment is interpreted as the peculiar motion of the Earth relative to the CMB. Its amplitude depends on the time due to the Earth's orbit about the barycenter of the solar system. This enables us to add a time-dependent term to the dipole expression. The modulation of this term is 1 year,<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-cobe-91">[90]</a> which fits the observation done by COBE FIRAS.<a href="#cite_note-cobe-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> The dipole moment does not encode any primordial information. From the CMB data, it is seen that the Sun appears to be moving at 369.82±0.11 km/s relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the frame of reference in which there is no motion through the CMB). The <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a> — the galaxy group that includes our own Milky Way galaxy — appears to be moving at 620±15 km/s in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Galactic_longitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic longitude">galactic longitude</a> ℓ = 271.9°±2°, b = 30°±3°.<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a> The dipole is now used to calibrate mapping studies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multipole_(ℓ_≥_2)">Multipole (ℓ ≥ 2)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Multipole (ℓ ≥ 2)">edit</a>]</div> The temperature variation in the CMB temperature maps at higher multipoles, or ℓ ≥ 2, is considered to be the result of perturbations of the density in the early Universe, before the recombination epoch at a redshift of around z ⋍ 1100. Before recombination, the Universe consisted of a hot, dense plasma of electrons and baryons. In such a hot dense environment, electrons and protons could not form any neutral atoms. The baryons in such early Universe remained highly ionized and so were tightly coupled with photons through the effect of Thompson scattering. These phenomena caused the pressure and gravitational effects to act against each other, and triggered fluctuations in the photon-baryon plasma. Quickly after the recombination epoch, the rapid expansion of the universe caused the plasma to cool down and these fluctuations are "frozen into" the CMB maps we observe today.<a href="#cite_note-cmbreview-90">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_analysis_challenges">Data analysis challenges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Data analysis challenges">edit</a>]</div> Raw CMBR data, even from space vehicles such as WMAP or Planck, contain foreground effects that completely obscure the fine-scale structure of the cosmic microwave background. The fine-scale structure is superimposed on the raw CMBR data but is too small to be seen at the scale of the raw data. The most prominent of the foreground effects is the dipole anisotropy caused by the Sun's motion relative to the CMBR background. The dipole anisotropy and others due to Earth's annual motion relative to the Sun and numerous microwave sources in the galactic plane and elsewhere must be subtracted out to reveal the extremely tiny variations characterizing the fine-scale structure of the CMBR background. The detailed analysis of CMBR data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum, and ultimately cosmological parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem. In practice it is hard to take the effects of noise and foreground sources into account. In particular, these foregrounds are dominated by galactic emissions such as <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation#Synchrotron_radiation_in_astronomy" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dust#Dust_in_other_contexts" title="Dust">dust</a> that emit in the microwave band; in practice, the galaxy has to be removed, resulting in a CMB map that is not a full-sky map. In addition, point sources like galaxies and clusters represent foreground sources which must be removed so as not to distort the short scale structure of the CMB power spectrum. Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the power spectrum, and results are often calculated using <a href="/wiki/Markov_chain_Monte_Carlo" title="Markov chain Monte Carlo">Markov chain Monte Carlo</a> sampling techniques. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anomalies">Anomalies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Anomalies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">Cosmological principle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axis_of_evil_(cosmology)" title="Axis of evil (cosmology)">Axis of evil (cosmology)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CMB_cold_spot" title="CMB cold spot">CMB cold spot</a></div> With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of claims that the CMB exhibits anomalies, such as very large scale anisotropies, anomalous alignments, and non-Gaussian distributions.<a href="#cite_note-arXiv:0905.2854v2-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-arXiv:astro-ph/0511666-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-arXiv:astro-ph/0503213-95">[94]</a> The most longstanding of these is the low-ℓ multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole" title="Quadrupole">quadrupole</a> (ℓ = 2, spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the Big Bang. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole (ℓ = 3) modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with both the <a href="/wiki/Plane_of_the_ecliptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plane of the ecliptic">ecliptic plane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the greatest observable scales; other groups suspect systematic errors in the data.<a href="#cite_note-arXiv:0907.2731v3-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-arXiv:1006.1270v1-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-arXiv:1009.2701v1-101">[100]</a> Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_variance" title="Cosmic variance">cosmic variance</a> problem, the greatest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as far as possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by <a href="/wiki/Max_Tegmark" title="Max Tegmark">Max Tegmark</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-hinshaw07-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FirstWMAP-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron, dust, and bremsstrahlung emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. A full <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesian analysis">Bayesian analysis</a> of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the quadrupole prediction of <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM cosmology</a> is consistent with the data at the 10% level and that the observed octupole is not remarkable.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> Carefully accounting for the procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map further reduces the significance of the alignment by ~5%.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> Recent observations with the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck telescope</a>, which is very much more sensitive than WMAP and has a larger angular resolution, record the same anomaly, and so instrumental error (but not foreground contamination) appears to be ruled out.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Coincidence is a possible explanation, chief scientist from <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Bennett" title="Charles L. Bennett">Charles L. Bennett</a> suggested coincidence and human psychology were involved, "I do think there is a bit of a psychological effect; people want to find unusual things."<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> Measurements of the density of quasars based on <a href="/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer" title="Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer">Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer</a> data finds a dipole significantly different from the one extracted from the CMB anisotropy.<a href="#cite_note-SuburSarkar-111">[110]</a> This difference is conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">cosmological principle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_evolution">Future evolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Future evolution">edit</a>]</div> Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a <a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a>, or another similar fate, the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable,<a href="#cite_note-endcosmology-113">[112]</a> and will be superseded first by the one produced by <a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">starlight</a>, and perhaps, later by the background radiation fields of processes that may take place in the far future of the universe such as <a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">proton decay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">evaporation of black holes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">positronium</a> decay.<a href="#cite_note-fate-114">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline_of_prediction,_discovery_and_interpretation">Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_(non-microwave_background)_temperature_predictions">Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1896 – <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Charles Édouard Guillaume</a> estimates the "radiation of the stars" to be 5–6 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-G_1896-115">[114]</a></li> <li>1926 – Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> estimates the non-thermal radiation of <a href="/wiki/Star#Radiation" title="Star">starlight</a> in the galaxy "... by the formula E = σT4 the effective temperature corresponding to this density is 3.18° absolute ... black body".<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></li> <li>1930s – <a href="/wiki/Cosmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmologist">Cosmologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Regener" title="Erich Regener">Erich Regener</a> calculates that the non-thermal spectrum of cosmic rays in the galaxy has an effective temperature of 2.8 K.<a href="#cite_note-Apeiron2_3_79-62">[61]</a></li> <li>1931 – Term microwave first used in print: "When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm. were made known, there was undisguised surprise+that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon." Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1</li> <li>1934 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tolman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Tolman">Richard Tolman</a> shows that <a href="/wiki/Black-body" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-body">black-body</a> radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermal.</li> <li>1946 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dicke" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Dicke">Robert Dicke</a> predicts "... radiation from cosmic matter" at < 20 K, but did not refer to background radiation.<a href="#cite_note-Kragh-117">[116]</a></li> <li>1946 – <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a> calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe),<a href="#cite_note-The_Creation_Of_The_Universe-118">[117]</a> commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a></li> <li>1953 – <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Finlay-Freundlich" title="Erwin Finlay-Freundlich">Erwin Finlay-Freundlich</a> in support of his <a href="/wiki/Tired_light" title="Tired light">tired light</a> theory, derives a blackbody temperature for intergalactic space of 2.3 K and in the following year values of 1.9K and 6.0K.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microwave_background_radiation_predictions_and_measurements">Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1941 – <a href="/wiki/Andrew_McKellar" title="Andrew McKellar">Andrew McKellar</a> detected a "rotational" temperature of 2.3 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> for the interstellar medium by comparing the population of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star.<a href="#cite_note-dao7-121">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a></li> <li>1948 – <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a> estimate "the temperature in the universe" at 5 K. Although they do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></li> <li>1953 – <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a> estimates 7 K based on a model that does not rely on a free parameter<a href="#cite_note-Kragh-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a>: 2181 </li> <li>1955 – Émile Le Roux of the <a href="/wiki/Nan%C3%A7ay_Radio_Observatory" title="Nançay Radio Observatory">Nançay Radio Observatory</a>, in a sky survey at λ = 33 cm, initially reported a near-isotropic background radiation of 3 kelvins, plus or minus 2; he did not recognize the cosmological significance<a href="#cite_note-Kragh-117">[116]</a> : 343 <a href="#cite_note-PartridgeReview-27">[27]</a>: 8.3.1  and later revised the error bars to 20K.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-WrightUCLASite-5">[5]</a></li> <li>1957 – Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background ... is 4±3 K".<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> with radiation intensity was independent of either time or direction of observation. Although Shamonov did not recognize it at the time, it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/A._G._Doroshkevich" class="mw-redirect" title="A. G. Doroshkevich">A. G. Doroshkevich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Dmitrievich_Novikov" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor Dmitrievich Novikov">Igor Dmitrievich Novikov</a> publish a brief paper suggesting microwave searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman, where they name the CMB radiation phenomenon as detectable.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a></li> <li>1964–65 – <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Woodrow Wilson</a> measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dicke" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Dicke">Robert Dicke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_James_Edwin_Peebles" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip James Edwin Peebles">James Peebles</a>, P. G. Roll, and <a href="/wiki/David_Todd_Wilkinson" title="David Todd Wilkinson">D. T. Wilkinson</a> interpret this radiation as a signature of the Big Bang.</li> <li>1966 – <a href="/wiki/Rainer_K._Sachs" title="Rainer K. Sachs">Rainer K. Sachs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Wolfe" title="Arthur M. Wolfe">Arthur M. Wolfe</a> theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> variations between observers and the last scattering surface (see <a href="/wiki/Sachs%E2%80%93Wolfe_effect" title="Sachs–Wolfe effect">Sachs–Wolfe effect</a>).</li> <li>1968 – <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees" title="Martin Rees">Martin Rees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sciama" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennis Sciama">Dennis Sciama</a> theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing time-dependent wells of potential.</li> <li>1969 – <a href="/wiki/R._A._Sunyaev" class="mw-redirect" title="R. A. Sunyaev">R. A. Sunyaev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zel%27dovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakov Zel'dovich">Yakov Zel'dovich</a> study the inverse <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a> of microwave background photons by hot electrons (see <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect</a>).</li> <li>1983 – Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Astrophysics_Group" title="Cavendish Astrophysics Group">Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Owens_Valley_Radio_Observatory" title="Owens Valley Radio Observatory">Owens Valley Radio Observatory</a> first detect the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect</a> from <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">clusters of galaxies</a>.</li> <li>1983 – <a href="/wiki/RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a> Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched.</li> <li>1990 – FIRAS on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer</a> (COBE) satellite measures the black body form of the CMB spectrum with exquisite precision, and shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect black-body spectrum with T = 2.73 K and thereby strongly constrains the density of the <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic medium">intergalactic medium</a>.</li> <li>January 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from the <a href="/wiki/RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a> report the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropy</a> in the cosmic microwave background at the Moscow astrophysical seminar.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a></li> <li>1992 – Scientists that analysed data from <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a> DMR report the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropy</a> in the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></li> <li>1995 – The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Anisotropy_Telescope" title="Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope">Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope</a> performs the first high resolution observations of the cosmic microwave background.</li> <li>1999 – First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_Anisotropy_Telescope" title="Mobile Anisotropy Telescope">MAT/TOCO</a>, BOOMERANG, and Maxima Experiments. The <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG experiment</a> makes higher quality maps at intermediate resolution, and confirms that the universe is "flat".</li> <li>2002 – Polarization discovered by <a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">DASI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a></li> <li>2003 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">CBI</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Very_Small_Array" title="Very Small Array">Very Small Array</a> produces yet higher quality maps at high resolution (covering small areas of the sky).</li> <li>2003 – The <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> spacecraft produces an even higher quality map at low and intermediate resolution of the whole sky (WMAP provides no high-resolution data, but improves on the intermediate resolution maps from <a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a>).</li> <li>2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">CBI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a></li> <li>2004 – The <a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Cosmology_Bolometer_Array_Receiver" title="Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver">Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver</a> produces a higher quality map of the high resolution structure not mapped by WMAP.</li> <li>2005 – The <a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Microkelvin_Imager" title="Arcminute Microkelvin Imager">Arcminute Microkelvin Imager</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_Array" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array</a> begin the first surveys for very high redshift <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_cluster" title="Galaxy cluster">clusters of galaxies</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect">Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect</a>.</li> <li>2005 – <a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a> is awarded the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> for his groundbreaking work in nucleosynthesis and prediction that the universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, thus providing a model for the Big Bang theory.</li> <li>2006 – The long-awaited three-year <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation#Polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">polarization</a> data.</li> <li>2006 – Two of COBE's principal investigators, <a href="/wiki/George_F._Smoot" class="mw-redirect" title="George F. Smoot">George Smoot</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">John Mather</a>, received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 2006 for their work on precision measurement of the CMBR.</li> <li>2006–2011 – Improved measurements from <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a>, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from <a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">SDSS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_survey#List_of_sky_surveys" title="Astronomical survey">WiggleZ</a>, continue to be consistent with the standard <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>.</li> <li>2010 – The first all-sky map from the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck telescope</a> is released.</li> <li>2013 – An improved all-sky map from the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck telescope</a> is released, improving the measurements of WMAP and extending them to much smaller scales.</li> <li>2014 – On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the <a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array" title="BICEP and Keck Array">BICEP2</a> collaboration announced the detection of inflationary <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a> in the <a href="/wiki/B-modes" class="mw-redirect" title="B-modes">B-mode</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Power spectrum">power spectrum</a>, which if confirmed, would provide clear experimental evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">theory of inflation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BICEP2-2014-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140317-135">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140317-136">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140324-137">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-PRL-20140619-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> findings was reported.<a href="#cite_note-PRL-20140619-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140619-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20140619-141">[140]</a></li> <li>2015 – On January 30, 2015, the same team of astronomers from BICEP2 withdrew the claim made on the previous year. Based on the combined data of BICEP2 and Planck, the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust</a> in the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-nature-20150130-142">[141]</a></li> <li>2018 – The final data and maps from the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck telescope</a> is released, with improved measurements of the polarization on large scales.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a></li> <li>2019 – <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck telescope</a> analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/Stargate_Universe" title="Stargate Universe">Stargate Universe</a> TV series (2009–2011), an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_(Stargate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient (Stargate)">ancient</a> spaceship, Destiny, was built to study patterns in the CMBR which is a sentient message left over from the beginning of time.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Wheelers_(novel)" title="Wheelers (novel)">Wheelers</a>, a novel (2000) by <a href="/wiki/Ian_Stewart_(mathematician)" title="Ian Stewart (mathematician)">Ian Stewart</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jack_Cohen_(biologist)" title="Jack Cohen (biologist)">Jack Cohen</a>, CMBR is explained as the encrypted transmissions of an ancient civilization. This allows the Jovian "blimps" to have a society older than the currently-observed age of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/The_Three-Body_Problem_(novel)" title="The Three-Body Problem (novel)">The Three-Body Problem</a>, a 2008 novel by <a href="/wiki/Liu_Cixin" title="Liu Cixin">Liu Cixin</a>, a probe from an alien civilization compromises instruments monitoring the CMBR in order to deceive a character into believing the civilization has the power to manipulate the CMBR itself.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a></li> <li>The 2017 issue of the <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Swiss_franc#Ninth_series" title="Banknotes of the Swiss franc">Swiss 20 francs bill</a> lists several astronomical objects with their distances – the CMB is mentioned with 430 · 1015 <a href="/wiki/Light-second" title="Light-second">light-seconds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a></li> <li>In the 2021 Marvel series <a href="/wiki/WandaVision" title="WandaVision">WandaVision</a>, a mysterious television broadcast is discovered within the Cosmic Microwave Background.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axis_of_evil_(cosmology)" title="Axis of evil (cosmology)">Axis of evil (cosmology)</a> – Anomaly in cosmic microwave background</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Cosmic neutrino background</a> – Universe's background particle radiation composed of neutrinos</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_spectral_distortions" title="Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions">Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions</a> – Fluctuations in the energy spectrum of the microwave background</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_perturbation_theory" title="Cosmological perturbation theory">Cosmological perturbation theory</a> – theory by which the evolution of structure is understood in the big bang modelPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave background</a> – Random background of gravitational waves permeating the Universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a> – Possible fate of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizons:_Exploring_the_Universe" title="Horizons: Exploring the Universe">Horizons: Exploring the Universe</a> – Astronomy textbook</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a> – Mathematical model of the Big Bang</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmological_computation_software" title="List of cosmological computation software">List of cosmological computation software</a> – Software for cosmology research</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology" title="Non-standard cosmology">Non-standard cosmology</a> – Models of the universe which deviate from then-current scientific consensus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Observational cosmology</a> – Study of the origin of the universe (structure and evolution)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy#Observation_history" title="Galaxy">Observation history of galaxies</a> – Large gravitationally bound system of stars and interstellar matter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a> – Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> The Receiver Lab Telescope (RLT), an 80 cm (31 in) instrument, is higher at 5,525 m (18,125 ft), but is not permanent as it is fixed to the roof of a movable shipping container.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The 2009 <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo_Atacama_Observatory" title="University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory">University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory</a> is significantly higher than both. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Komatsu2022Review-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Komatsu2022Review_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Komatsu2022Review_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKomatsu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Komatsu, Eiichiro (2022-05-18). <a rel="nofollow" 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Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg/page/135">135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00546-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00546-1"><bdi>978-0-691-00546-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology+and+Controversy%3A+The+Historical+Development+of+Two+Theories+of+the+Universe&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00546-1&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmologycontrov00helg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> "In 1946, Robert Dicke and coworkers at MIT tested equipment that could test a cosmic microwave background of intensity corresponding to about 20K in the microwave region. However, they did not refer to such a background, but only to 'radiation from cosmic matter'. Also, this work was unrelated to cosmology and is only mentioned because it suggests that by 1950, detection of the background radiation might have been technically possible, and also because of Dicke's later role in the discovery". See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDicke1946" class="citation journal cs1">Dicke, R. H.; et al. (1946). "Atmospheric Absorption Measurements with a Microwave Radiometer". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 70 (5–6): 340–348. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946PhRv...70..340D">1946PhRv...70..340D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.70.340">10.1103/PhysRev.70.340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Atmospheric+Absorption+Measurements+with+a+Microwave+Radiometer&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E340-%3C%2Fspan%3E348&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.70.340&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1946PhRv...70..340D&rft.aulast=Dicke&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Creation_Of_The_Universe-118"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Creation_Of_The_Universe_118-0">^</a> George Gamow, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5awirwgmvAoC&pg=PA40">The Creation Of The Universe</a> p.50 (Dover reprint of revised 1961 edition) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-43868-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-43868-6">0-486-43868-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGamow2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow, G.</a> (2004) [1961]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5awirwgmvAoC&pg=PA40">Cosmology and Controversy: The Historical Development of Two Theories of the Universe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Courier_Dover_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier Dover Publications">Courier Dover Publications</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43868-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43868-9"><bdi>978-0-486-43868-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmology+and+Controversy%3A+The+Historical+Development+of+Two+Theories+of+the+Universe&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-486-43868-9&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5awirwgmvAoC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Erwin Finlay-Freundlich, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953CoStA...4...96F">Ueber die Rotverschiebung der Spektrallinien</a>" (1953) Contributions from the Observatory, University of St. Andrews; no. 4, p. 96–102. Finlay-Freundlich gave two extreme values of 1.9K and 6.0K in Finlay-Freundlich, E.: 1954, "Red shifts in the spectra of celestial bodies", Phil. Mag., Vol. 45, pp. 303–319. </li> <li id="cite_note-dao7-121"><a href="#cite_ref-dao7_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcKellar1941" class="citation journal cs1">McKellar, A. (1941). "Molecular Lines from the Lowest States of Diatomic Molecules Composed of Atoms Probably Present in Interstellar Space". Publications of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory. 7 (6). Vancouver, B.C., Canada: 251–272. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1941PDAO....7..251M">1941PDAO....7..251M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Dominion+Astrophysical+Observatory&rft.atitle=Molecular+Lines+from+the+Lowest+States+of+Diatomic+Molecules+Composed+of+Atoms+Probably+Present+in+Interstellar+Space&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E272&rft.date=1941&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1941PDAO....7..251M&rft.aulast=McKellar&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/514">Gravitation and cosmology: principles and applications of the general theory of relativity</a>. New York: Wiley. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/514">514</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92567-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92567-5"><bdi>978-0-471-92567-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravitation+and+cosmology%3A+principles+and+applications+of+the+general+theory+of+relativity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=514&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92567-5&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgravitationcosmo00stev_0%2Fpage%2F514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Helge_Kragh" title="Helge Kragh">Helge Kragh</a>, Cosmology and Controversy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg/page/132">The Historical Development of Two Theories of the Universe</a> (1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00546-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00546-X">0-691-00546-X</a>. "Alpher and Herman first calculated the present temperature of the decoupled primordial radiation in 1948, when they reported a value of 5 K. Although it was not mentioned either then or in later publications that the radiation is in the microwave region, this follows immediately from the temperature ... Alpher and Herman made it clear that what they had called "the temperature in the universe" the previous year referred to a blackbody distributed background radiation quite different from the starlight." </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlpherGamowHerman1967" class="citation journal cs1">Alpher, Ralph A.; Gamow, George; Herman, Robert (December 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223817">"Thermal Cosmic Radiation and the Formation of Protogalaxies"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 58 (6): 2179–2186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967PNAS...58.2179A">1967PNAS...58.2179A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.58.6.2179">10.1073/pnas.58.6.2179</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223817">223817</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16591578">16591578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Thermal+Cosmic+Radiation+and+the+Formation+of+Protogalaxies&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2179-%3C%2Fspan%3E2186&rft.date=1967-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC223817%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967PNAS...58.2179A&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16591578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.58.6.2179&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Alpher&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A.&rft.au=Gamow%2C+George&rft.au=Herman%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC223817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Delannoy, J., Denisse, J. F., Le Roux, E., & Morlet, B. (1957). Mesures absolues de faibles densités de flux de rayonnement à 900 MHz. Annales d'Astrophysique, Vol. 20, p. 222, 20, 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShmaonov1957" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Shmaonov, T. A. (1957). "Commentary". <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pribory_I_Tekhnika_Experimenta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pribory I Tekhnika Experimenta (page does not exist)">Pribory I Tekhnika Experimenta</a> (in Russian). 1: 83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0890-5096%2806%2960772-3">10.1016/S0890-5096(06)60772-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pribory+I+Tekhnika+Experimenta&rft.atitle=Commentary&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=83&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0890-5096%2806%2960772-3&rft.aulast=Shmaonov&rft.aufirst=T.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNaselskyNovikovNovikov2006" class="citation book cs1">Naselsky, P. D.; Novikov, D.I.; Novikov, I. D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J2KCisZsWZ0C&pg=RA1-PA1">The Physics of the Cosmic Microwave Background</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85550-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85550-1"><bdi>978-0-521-85550-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physics+of+the+Cosmic+Microwave+Background&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85550-1&rft.aulast=Naselsky&rft.aufirst=P.+D.&rft.au=Novikov%2C+D.I.&rft.au=Novikov%2C+I.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ2KCisZsWZ0C%26pg%3DRA1-PA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDoroshkevichNovikov1964" class="citation journal cs1">Doroshkevich, A. G.; Novikov, I.D. (1964). "Mean Density of Radiation in the Metagalaxy and Certain Problems in Relativistic Cosmology". <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Physics_Doklady" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Physics Doklady">Soviet Physics Doklady</a>. 9 (23): 4292–4298. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999EnST...33.4292W">1999EnST...33.4292W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990537g">10.1021/es990537g</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96773397">96773397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Physics+Doklady&rft.atitle=Mean+Density+of+Radiation+in+the+Metagalaxy+and+Certain+Problems+in+Relativistic+Cosmology&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4292-%3C%2Fspan%3E4298&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96773397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes990537g&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999EnST...33.4292W&rft.aulast=Doroshkevich&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rft.au=Novikov%2C+I.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Nobel Prize In Physics: Russia's Missed Opportunities, <a href="/wiki/RIA_Novosti" title="RIA Novosti">RIA Novosti</a>, Nov 21, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSandersKahn,_J.2006" class="citation news cs1">Sanders, R.; Kahn, J. (13 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2006/10/03_nobelph.shtml">"UC Berkeley, LBNL cosmologist George F. Smoot awarded 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UC_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="UC Berkeley">UC Berkeley News</a>. Retrieved 2008-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=UC+Berkeley%2C+LBNL+cosmologist+George+F.+Smoot+awarded+2006+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics&rft.date=2006-10-13&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Kahn%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berkeley.edu%2Fnews%2Fmedia%2Freleases%2F2006%2F10%2F03_nobelph.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKovac2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kovac, J.M.; et al. 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Retrieved 2023-02-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stargate+Universe+-+Robert+Carlyle+talks+about+background+radiation+and+Destiny%27s+mission&rft.pub=YouTube&rft.date=2010-11-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DID6QSX9CAsI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wheelers0000stew/page/494/mode/2up?q=%22age+of+the+universe%22">Wheelers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wheelers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwheelers0000stew%2Fpage%2F494%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3D%2522age%2Bof%2Bthe%2Buniverse%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiu2014" class="citation web cs1">Liu, Cixin (2014-09-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tor.com/2014/09/23/the-three-body-problem-the-universe-flickers/">"The Three-Body Problem: "The Universe Flickers""</a>. Tor.com. Retrieved 2023-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tor.com&rft.atitle=The+Three-Body+Problem%3A+%22The+Universe+Flickers%22&rft.date=2014-09-23&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Cixin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tor.com%2F2014%2F09%2F23%2Fthe-three-body-problem-the-universe-flickers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nccr-planets.ch/blog/2017/12/07/astronomy-in-your-wallet/">"Astronomy in your wallet - NCCR PlanetS"</a>. nccr-planets.ch. Retrieved 2023-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nccr-planets.ch&rft.atitle=Astronomy+in+your+wallet+-+NCCR+PlanetS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnccr-planets.ch%2Fblog%2F2017%2F12%2F07%2Fastronomy-in-your-wallet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.syfy.com/syfy-wire/wandavision-cosmic-microwave-background-radiation-science-real-marvel-tv">"WandaVision's 'cosmic microwave background radiation' is real, actually"</a>. SYFY Official Site. 2021-02-03. Retrieved 2023-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SYFY+Official+Site&rft.atitle=WandaVision%27s+%27cosmic+microwave+background+radiation%27+is+real%2C+actually&rft.date=2021-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.syfy.com%2Fsyfy-wire%2Fwandavision-cosmic-microwave-background-radiation-science-real-marvel-tv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalbi2008" class="citation book cs1">Balbi, Amedeo (2008). The music of the big bang : the cosmic microwave background and the new cosmology. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-78726-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-78726-6"><bdi>978-3-540-78726-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+music+of+the+big+bang+%3A+the+cosmic+microwave+background+and+the+new+cosmology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-78726-6&rft.aulast=Balbi&rft.aufirst=Amedeo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurrer2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Durrer" title="Ruth Durrer">Durrer, Ruth</a> (2008). The Cosmic Microwave Background. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84704-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84704-9"><bdi>978-0-521-84704-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cosmic+Microwave+Background&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84704-9&rft.aulast=Durrer&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEvans2015" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Rhodri (2015). The Cosmic Microwave Background: How It Changed Our Understanding of the Universe. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-09927-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-09927-9"><bdi>978-3-319-09927-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cosmic+Microwave+Background%3A+How+It+Changed+Our+Understanding+of+the+Universe&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-09927-9&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Rhodri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cosmic_microwave_background_maps" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cosmic microwave background maps">Cosmic microwave background maps</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Cosmic_microwave_background" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Cosmic microwave background">Cosmic microwave background</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quantumfieldtheory.info/cmb.pdf">Student Friendly Intro to the CMB</a> A pedagogic, step-by-step introduction to the cosmic microwave background power spectrum analysis suitable for those with an undergraduate physics background. More in depth than typical online sites. Less dense than cosmology texts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=3&index1=87807">CMBR Theme on arxiv.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronomycast.com/cosmology/the-big-bang-and-cosmic-microwave-background/">Audio: Fraser Cain and Dr. Pamela Gay – Astronomy Cast. The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave Background – October 2006</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecmb.org">Visualization of the CMB data from the Planck mission</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCopeland,_Ed" class="citation web cs1">Copeland, Ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/CMBR.htm">"CMBR: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation"</a>. Sixty Symbols. <a href="/wiki/Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a> for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sixty+Symbols&rft.atitle=CMBR%3A+Cosmic+Microwave+Background+Radiation&rft.au=Copeland%2C+Ed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sixtysymbols.com%2Fvideos%2FCMBR.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmic+microwave+background" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Template:Cosmic microwave background"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Template talk:Cosmic microwave background"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmic microwave background"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation_(CMB)310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB)</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of CMB radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmic_microwave_background_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of cosmic microwave background astronomy">Timeline of CMB astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_variance" title="Cosmic variance">Cosmic variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_damping" title="Diffusion damping">Diffusion damping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">Recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachs%E2%80%93Wolfe_effect" title="Sachs–Wolfe effect">Sachs–Wolfe effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zeldovich_effect" title="Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect">Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.3em;font-size:smaller;">4-year <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> image (2018) of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">CMB</a>.</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmic_microwave_background_experiments" title="List of cosmic microwave background experiments">Experiments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LiteBIRD" title="LiteBIRD">LiteBIRD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Balloon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archeops" title="Archeops">Archeops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARCADE" title="ARCADE">ARCADE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Large_Scale_Polarization_Explorer_-_Short_Wavelength_Instrument_for_the_Polarization_Explorer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Large Scale Polarization Explorer - Short Wavelength Instrument for the Polarization Explorer (page does not exist)">LSPE/SWIPE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_E_and_B_Experiment" title="The E and B Experiment">EBEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millimeter_Anisotropy_eXperiment_IMaging_Array" title="Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment IMaging Array">MAXIMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QMAP" title="QMAP">QMAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_(polarimeter)" title="Spider (polarimeter)">Spider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TopHat_(telescope)" title="TopHat (telescope)">TopHat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ground</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_B-Mode_Search" title="Atacama B-Mode Search">ABS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Cosmology_Bolometer_Array_Receiver" title="Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver">ACBAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Cosmology_Telescope" title="Atacama Cosmology Telescope">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcminute_Microkelvin_Imager" title="Arcminute Microkelvin Imager">Arcminute Microkelvin Imager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMiBA" title="AMiBA">AMiBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Pathfinder_Experiment" title="Atacama Pathfinder Experiment">APEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Telescope_Compact_Array" title="Australia Telescope Compact Array">ATCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array" title="BICEP and Keck Array">BICEP (1,2,3,Array)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland_Association" title="Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association">BIMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Anisotropy_Polarization_Mapper" title="Cosmic Anisotropy Polarization Mapper">CAPMAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Anisotropy_Telescope" title="Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope">Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Imager" title="Cosmic Background Imager">Cosmic Background Imager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_Large_Angular_Scale_Surveyor" title="Cosmology Large Angular Scale Surveyor">CLASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSMOSOMAS" title="COSMOSOMAS">COSMOSOMAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degree_Angular_Scale_Interferometer" title="Degree Angular Scale Interferometer">DASI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GroundBIRD" title="GroundBIRD">GroundBIRD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BICEP_and_Keck_Array" title="BICEP and Keck Array">Keck Array</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Large_Scale_Polarization_Explorer_-_STRIP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Large Scale Polarization Explorer - STRIP (page does not exist)">LSPE/STRIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_Anisotropy_Telescope" title="Mobile Anisotropy Telescope">Mobile Anisotropy Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owens_Valley_Radio_Observatory" title="Owens Valley Radio Observatory">OVRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/POLARBEAR" title="POLARBEAR">POLARBEAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QUaD" title="QUaD">QUaD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubic_experiment" title="Qubic experiment">QUBIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QUIET" title="QUIET">QUIET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QUIJOTE_Experiment" title="QUIJOTE Experiment">QUIJOTE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskatoon_experiment" title="Saskatoon experiment">Saskatoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simons_Observatory" title="Simons Observatory">Simons Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pole_Telescope" title="South Pole Telescope">South Pole Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunyaev%E2%80%93Zel%27dovich_Array" title="Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array">SZA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenerife_Experiment" title="Tenerife Experiment">Tenerife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Small_Array" title="Very Small Array">Very Small Array</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radio_astronomy459" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radio_astronomy" title="Template:Radio astronomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radio_astronomy" title="Template talk:Radio astronomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radio_astronomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radio astronomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radio_astronomy459" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Units (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jansky" title="Jansky">jansky</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">Radio telescope</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radio_window" title="Radio window">Radio window</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_interferometer" title="Astronomical interferometer">Astronomical interferometer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astronomical_interferometer#History" title="Astronomical interferometer">History</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-long-baseline_interferometry" title="Very-long-baseline interferometry">Very Long Baseline Interferometry</a> (VLBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_radio_source" title="Astronomical radio source">Astronomical radio source</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Radio_telescopes" title="Category:Radio telescopes">Radio telescopes</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_telescopes" title="List of radio telescopes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Individual telescopes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five-hundred-meter_Aperture_Spherical_Telescope" title="Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope">500 meter Aperture Spherical Telescope</a> (FAST, China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arecibo_Telescope" title="Arecibo Telescope">Arecibo Telescope</a> (Puerto Rico, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltech_Submillimeter_Observatory" title="Caltech Submillimeter Observatory">Caltech Submillimeter Observatory</a> (CSO, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effelsberg_100-m_Radio_Telescope" title="Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope">Effelsberg Telescope</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galenki_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Galenki RT-70 radio telescope">Galenki RT-70</a> (Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Bank_Telescope" title="Green Bank Telescope">Green Bank Telescope</a> (West Virginia, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Millimeter_Telescope" title="Large Millimeter Telescope">Large Millimeter Telescope</a> (Mexico)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" title="Lovell Telescope">Lovell Telescope</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ooty_Radio_Telescope" title="Ooty Radio Telescope">Ooty Telescope</a> (India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qitai_Radio_Telescope" title="Qitai Radio Telescope">Qitai Radio Telescope</a> (China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RATAN-600" title="RATAN-600">RATAN-600 Radio Telescope</a> (Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinia_Radio_Telescope" title="Sardinia Radio Telescope">Sardinia Radio Telescope</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffa_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Suffa RT-70 radio telescope">Suffa RT-70</a> (Uzbekistan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usuda_Deep_Space_Center" title="Usuda Deep Space Center">Usuda Telescope</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_T-shaped_Radio_telescope,_second_modification" title="Ukrainian T-shaped Radio telescope, second modification">UTR-2 decameter radio telescope</a> (Ukraine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria_RT-70_radio_telescope" title="Yevpatoria RT-70 radio telescope">Yevpatoria RT-70</a> (Ukraine)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Southern Hemisphere</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hartebeesthoek_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory">HartRAO</a> (South Africa)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Parkes_Observatory" title="Parkes Observatory">Parkes Observatory</a> (Australia)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warkworth_Radio_Astronomical_Observatory" title="Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory">Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory</a> (NZ)</dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Interferometers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Telescope_Array" title="Allen Telescope Array">Allen Telescope Array</a> (ATA, California, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array" title="Atacama Large Millimeter Array">Atacama Large Millimeter Array</a> (ALMA, Chile)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Telescope_Compact_Array" title="Australia Telescope Compact Array">Australia Telescope Compact Array</a> (ATCA, Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Square_Kilometre_Array_Pathfinder" title="Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder">Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder</a> (ASKAP, Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Hydrogen_Intensity_Mapping_Experiment" title="Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment">Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment</a> (CHIME, Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Array_for_Research_in_Millimeter-wave_Astronomy" title="Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy">Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy</a> (CARMA, California, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_VLBI_Network" title="European VLBI Network">European VLBI Network</a> (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> (EHT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_Metrewave_Radio_Telescope" title="Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope">Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</a> (GMRT, India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Bank_Interferometer" title="Green Bank Interferometer">Green Bank Interferometer</a> (GBI, West Virginia, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_VLBI_Network" title="Korean VLBI Network">Korean VLBI Network</a> (KVN, South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Latin_American_Millimeter_Array" title="Large Latin American Millimeter Array">Large Latin American Millimeter Array</a> (LLAMA, Argentina/Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Wavelength_Array" title="Long Wavelength Array">Long Wavelength Array</a> (LWA, New Mexico, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-Frequency_Array_(LOFAR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR)">Low-Frequency Array</a> (LOFAR, Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeerKAT" title="MeerKAT">MeerKAT</a> (South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molonglo_Observatory_Synthesis_Telescope" title="Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope">Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope</a> (MOST, Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERLIN" title="MERLIN">Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network</a> (MERLIN, UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murchison_Widefield_Array" title="Murchison Widefield Array">Murchison Widefield Array</a> (MWA, Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cross_Radio_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Cross Radio Telescope">Northern Cross Radio Telescope</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Extended_Millimeter_Array" title="Northern Extended Millimeter Array">Northern Extended Millimeter Array</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Mile_Telescope" title="One-Mile Telescope">One-Mile Telescope</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primeval_Structure_Telescope" title="Primeval Structure Telescope">Primeval Structure Telescope</a> (PaST, China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Kilometre_Array" title="Square Kilometre Array">Square Kilometre Array</a> (SKA, Australia, South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submillimeter_Array" title="Submillimeter Array">Submillimeter Array</a> (SMA, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Array" title="Very Large Array">Very Large Array</a> (VLA, New Mexico, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Long_Baseline_Array" title="Very Long Baseline Array">Very Long Baseline Array</a> (VLBA, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_Synthesis_Radio_Telescope" title="Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope">Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope</a> (WSRT, Netherlands)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Space-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HALCA" title="HALCA">HALCA</a> (Japan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-R" title="Spektr-R">Spektr-R</a> (Russia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Radio_observatories" title="Category:Radio observatories">Observatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_Radio_Observatory" title="Algonquin Radio Observatory">Algonquin Radio Observatory</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arecibo_Observatory" title="Arecibo Observatory">Arecibo Observatory</a> (Puerto Rico, US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Bank_Observatory" title="Green Bank Observatory">Green Bank Observatory</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haystack_Observatory" title="Haystack Observatory">Haystack Observatory</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodrell_Bank_Observatory" title="Jodrell Bank Observatory">Jodrell Bank Observatory</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullard_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory">Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="National Radio Astronomy Observatory">National Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nan%C3%A7ay_Radio_Observatory" title="Nançay Radio Observatory">Nançay Radio Observatory</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onsala_Space_Observatory" title="Onsala Space Observatory">Onsala Space Observatory</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushchino_Radio_Astronomy_Observatory" title="Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory">Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory</a> (PRAO ASC LPI, Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Astrophysical_Observatory_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Science" title="Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science">Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science</a> (SAORAS, Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermilion_River_Observatory" title="Vermilion River Observatory">Vermilion River Observatory</a> (US)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Multi-use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_Radio_Astrophysical_Observatory" title="Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory">DRAO</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Norcia_Station" title="New Norcia Station">ESA New Norcia</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Albert_Radar_Laboratory" title="Prince Albert Radar Laboratory">PARL</a> (Canada)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Alexander_(scientist)" title="Elizabeth Alexander (scientist)">Elizabeth Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gatenby_Bolton" title="John Gatenby Bolton">John G. Bolton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_George_Bowen" title="Edward George Bowen">Edward George Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_N._Bracewell" title="Ronald N. Bracewell">Ronald Bracewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Covington" title="Arthur Covington">Arthur Covington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nan_Dieter-Conklin" title="Nan Dieter-Conklin">Nan Dieter-Conklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Drake" title="Frank Drake">Frank Drake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Hazard" title="Cyril Hazard">Cyril Hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Antony Hewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_von_Hoerner" title="Sebastian von Hoerner">Sebastian von Hoerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Guthe_Jansky" title="Karl Guthe Jansky">Karl Guthe Jansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kellermann" title="Kenneth Kellermann">Kenneth Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_John_Kerr" title="Frank John Kerr">Frank J. Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Kraus" title="John D. Kraus">John D. Kraus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lovell" title="Bernard Lovell">Bernard Lovell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Alexander_Muller" title="Christiaan Alexander Muller">Christiaan Alexander Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Oort" title="Jan Oort">Jan Oort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Pawsey" title="Joseph L. Pawsey">Joseph Lade Pawsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Payne-Scott" title="Ruby Payne-Scott">Ruby Payne-Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Arno Penzias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grote_Reber" title="Grote Reber">Grote Reber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Martin Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Govind_Swarup" title="Govind Swarup">Govind Swarup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gart_Westerhout" title="Gart Westerhout">Gart Westerhout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wild_(Australian_scientist)" title="Paul Wild (Australian scientist)">Paul Wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Astronomy by EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Optical astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.4em;">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aperture_synthesis" title="Aperture synthesis">Aperture synthesis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interferometry" title="Interferometry">Interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_radio_circle" title="Odd radio circle">Odd radio circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">Pulsar timing array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">Radio propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">SETI</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wow!_signal" title="Wow! signal">Wow! signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_164595" title="HD 164595">HD 164595 signal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Radio_astronomy" title="Category:Radio astronomy">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_astronomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Radio astronomy">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cosmology278" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cosmology_topics" title="Template:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cosmology_topics" title="Template talk:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cosmology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cosmology278" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">Observable universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History of cosmological theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory">Religious interpretations of the Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Past universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Cosmic neutrino background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">Inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Present universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">Accelerating expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Future universe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_fluid" title="Dark fluid">Dark fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Structure formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6dF_Galaxy_Survey" title="6dF Galaxy Survey">6dF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustris_project" title="Illustris project">Illustris project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Observational cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">SDSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/24px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">astronomy portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Relativity254" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Relativity" title="Template:Relativity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Relativity" title="Template talk:Relativity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Relativity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Relativity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Relativity254" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Relativity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">Principle of relativity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_transformation" title="Galilean transformation">Galilean transformation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_special_relativity" title="Doubly special relativity">Doubly special relativity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Fundamental concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">Frame of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">Speed of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_orthogonality" title="Hyperbolic orthogonality">Hyperbolic orthogonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapidity" title="Rapidity">Rapidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_length" title="Proper length">Proper length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">Proper time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_acceleration" title="Proper acceleration">Proper acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">Relativistic mass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity" title="List of textbooks on relativity">Textbooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">Time dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">Length contraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Doppler_effect" title="Relativistic Doppler effect">Relativistic Doppler effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_precession" title="Thomas precession">Thomas precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladder_paradox" title="Ladder paradox">Ladder paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">Twin paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrell_rotation" title="Terrell rotation">Terrell rotation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_cone" title="Light cone">Light cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">World line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski diagram">Minkowski diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biquaternion" title="Biquaternion">Biquaternions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_general_relativity" title="Introduction to general relativity">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_general_relativity" title="Mathematics of general relativity">Mathematical formulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Fundamental concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">Equivalence principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riemannian_geometry" title="Riemannian geometry">Riemannian geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penrose_diagram" title="Penrose diagram">Penrose diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesics_in_general_relativity" title="Geodesics in general relativity">Geodesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_principle" title="Mach's principle">Mach's principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADM_formalism" title="ADM formalism">ADM formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSSN_formalism" title="BSSN formalism">BSSN formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations" title="Einstein field equations">Einstein field equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linearized_gravity" title="Linearized gravity">Linearized gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameterized_post-Newtonian_formalism" title="Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism">Post-Newtonian formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raychaudhuri_equation" title="Raychaudhuri equation">Raychaudhuri equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi%E2%80%93Einstein_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation">Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_equation" title="Ernst equation">Ernst equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">Event horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-body_problem_in_general_relativity" title="Two-body problem in general relativity">Two-body problem</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational waves</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">detectors</a> (<a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> and <a href="/wiki/LIGO_Scientific_Collaboration" title="LIGO Scientific Collaboration">collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgo_interferometer" title="Virgo interferometer">Virgo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LISA_Pathfinder" title="LISA Pathfinder">LISA Pathfinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEO600" title="GEO600">GEO</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulse%E2%80%93Taylor_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulse–Taylor binary">Hulse–Taylor binary</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Other tests</a>: <a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">precession</a> of Mercury</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">lensing</a> (together with <a href="/wiki/Einstein_cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein cross">Einstein cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Einstein_rings" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein rings">Einstein rings</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift" title="Gravitational redshift">redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro_time_delay" title="Shapiro time delay">Shapiro delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame-dragging" title="Frame-dragging">frame-dragging</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_effect" title="Geodetic effect">geodetic effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lense%E2%80%93Thirring_precession" title="Lense–Thirring precession">Lense–Thirring precession</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">pulsar timing arrays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;">Advanced theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brans%E2%80%93Dicke_theory" title="Brans–Dicke theory">Brans–Dicke theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">Kaluza–Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Exact_solutions_in_general_relativity" title="Exact solutions in general relativity">Solutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Cosmological: <a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker</a> (<a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Tolman_metric" title="Lemaître–Tolman metric">Lemaître–Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasner_metric" title="Kasner metric">Kasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BKL_singularity" title="BKL singularity">BKL singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric" title="Gödel metric">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milne_model" title="Milne model">Milne</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Spherical: <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild</a> (<a href="/wiki/Interior_Schwarzschild_metric" title="Interior Schwarzschild metric">interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_equation" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric" title="Reissner–Nordström metric">Reissner–Nordström</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Axisymmetric: <a href="/wiki/Kerr_metric" title="Kerr metric">Kerr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman_metric" title="Kerr–Newman metric">Kerr–Newman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weyl%E2%88%92Lewis%E2%88%92Papapetrou_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou coordinates">Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taub%E2%80%93NUT_space" title="Taub–NUT space">Taub–NUT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Stockum_dust" title="Van Stockum dust">van Stockum dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_disk" title="Relativistic disk">discs</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Others: <a href="/wiki/Pp-wave_spacetime" title="Pp-wave spacetime">pp-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozsv%C3%A1th%E2%80%93Sch%C3%BCcking_metric" title="Ozsváth–Schücking metric">Ozsváth–Schücking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcubierre_drive" title="Alcubierre drive">Alcubierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellis_wormhole" title="Ellis wormhole">Ellis</a></li></ul> <ul><li>In computational physics: <a href="/wiki/Numerical_relativity" title="Numerical relativity">Numerical relativity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" 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Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Zwicky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Choquet-Bruhat" title="Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat">Choquet-Bruhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Kerr" title="Roy Kerr">Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zeldovich" title="Yakov Zeldovich">Zel'dovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Dmitriyevich_Novikov" title="Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Geroch" title="Robert Geroch">Geroch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Bondi" title="Hermann Bondi">Bondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Misner" title="Charles W. 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