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href="#Neuroscience_of_social_categorization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Neuroscience of social categorization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience_of_social_categorization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_in-groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_in-groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution of in-groups</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_in-groups-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of in-groups subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_in-groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_of_cultural_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_cultural_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Formation of cultural groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_cultural_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_and_ethnic_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_and_ethnic_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Racial and ethnic differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_and_ethnic_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Gender differences</span> </div> </a> <button 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id="toc-Ethnicity-based_favoritism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity-based_favoritism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Ethnicity-based favoritism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity-based_favoritism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Developmental age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenian_Genocide_denial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenian_Genocide_denial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Armenian Genocide denial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenian_Genocide_denial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2008_US_Presidential_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2008_US_Presidential_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>2008 US Presidential elections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2008_US_Presidential_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wikipedia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wikipedia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Wikipedia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wikipedia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Versus_out-group_negativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Versus_out-group_negativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Versus out-group negativity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Versus_out-group_negativity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Versus out-group negativity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Versus_out-group_negativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biological_relationship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_relationship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Biological relationship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_relationship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In-group_derogation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-group_derogation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>In-group derogation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-group_derogation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A3%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="تفضيل أفراد الجماعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفضيل أفراد الجماعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigengruppenbevorzugung" title="Eigengruppenbevorzugung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eigengruppenbevorzugung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesgo_endogrupal" title="Sesgo endogrupal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sesgo endogrupal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%87%DB%8C" title="جانب‌گرایی درون‌گروهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جانب‌گرایی درون‌گروهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_antarkelompok" title="Bias antarkelompok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bias antarkelompok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppefavorisering" title="Gruppefavorisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gruppefavorisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favoritismo_intragrupal" title="Favoritismo intragrupal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Favoritismo intragrupal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Ингрупповой фаворитизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ингрупповой фаворитизм" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about favoring of one's own group's behavior and cognition in a strategic sense. For other phenomena related to psychological group formation, see <a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">Ingroups and outgroups</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/In-group_favoritism" title="Special:EditPage/In-group favoritism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. 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href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do-gooder_derogation" title="Do-gooder derogation">Anti-altruistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li>In-group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">Han</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_abuse" title="Institutional abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_inequality" title="International inequality">International inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_stress" title="Minority stress">Minority stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_exclusion" title="Moral exclusion">Moral exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Occupational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_apartheid" title="Occupational apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_inequality" title="Occupational inequality">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_injustice" title="Occupational injustice">Injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Segregation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_evil" title="Structural evil">Structural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">Structural inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagging" title="Fagging">Fagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_despair" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases of despair">Diseases of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonperson_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Nonperson (disambiguation)">Nonperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>In-group favoritism</b>, sometimes known as <b>in-group–out-group bias</b>, <b>in-group bias</b>, <b>intergroup bias</b>, or <b>in-group preference</b>, is a pattern of favoring members of one's <a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">in-group</a> over out-group members. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways.<sup id="cite_ref-aronson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aronson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This effect has been researched by many <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> and linked to many theories related to <a href="/wiki/Group_conflict" title="Group conflict">group conflict</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a>. The phenomenon is primarily viewed from a <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> standpoint. Studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises as a result of the formation of cultural groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cultural groups can be divided based on seemingly trivial observable traits, but with time, populations grow to associate certain traits with certain behavior, increasing covariation. This then incentivizes in-group bias. </p><p>Two prominent theoretical approaches to the phenomenon of in-group favoritism are <a href="/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory" title="Realistic conflict theory">realistic conflict theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social identity theory</a>. Realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup competition, and sometimes intergroup conflict, arises when two groups have opposing claims to scarce resources. In contrast, social identity theory posits a psychological drive for <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory#Positive_distinctiveness" title="Social identity theory">positively distinct</a> social identities as the general root cause of in-group favoring behavior. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_research_tradition">Origins of the research tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins of the research tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1906, the sociologist <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Sumner</a> posited that humans are a species that join together in groups by their very nature. However, he also maintained that humans had an innate tendency to favor their own group over others, proclaiming how "each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exists in its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is seen on the group level with ingroup–outgroup bias. When experienced in larger groups such as tribes, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a>, or nations, it is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">ethnocentrism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanations">Explanations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competition">Competition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Realistic conflict theory (or realistic group conflict) posits that competition between groups for resources is the cause of in-group bias and the corresponding negative treatment of members of the out-group. Muzafer Sherif's <a href="/wiki/Robbers_Cave_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Robbers Cave experiment">Robbers Cave Experiment</a> is the most widely known demonstration of realistic conflict theory. In the experiment, 22 eleven-year-old boys with similar backgrounds were studied in a mock summer camp situation, with researchers posing as camp personnel. </p><p>The boys were divided into two equal groups and encouraged to bond, with the aim of fostering an in-group mentality. The researchers then introduced a series of competitive activities which pitted groups against each other for a valuable prize. Hostility and out-group negativity ensued.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, researchers attempted to reverse the hostility by engaging the boys in situations of mutual interdependence, an effort which eventually resulted in relative harmony between the two groups. </p><p>Sherif concluded from this experiment that negative attitudes toward out-groups arise when groups compete for limited resources.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he also theorized that <a href="/wiki/Group_conflict" title="Group conflict">inter-group frictions</a> could be reduced and positive relations created,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only in the presence of an overarching goal, which could only be achieved with the two groups' cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aronson_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aronson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-esteem">Self-esteem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Self-esteem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social identity theory</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">terror management theory</a>, one of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a>. The desire to view one's self positively is transferred onto the group, creating a tendency to view one's own group in a positive light, and by comparison, outside groups in a negative light.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their own group is superior. This phenomenon was pioneered and studied most extensively by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Tajfel" title="Henri Tajfel">Henri Tajfel</a>, a British social psychologist who looked at the psychological root of in-group/out-group bias. To study this in the lab, Tajfel and colleagues created minimal groups (see <a href="/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm" title="Minimal group paradigm">minimal group paradigm</a>), which occur when "complete strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable". In Tajfel's studies, participants were split into groups by flipping a coin, and each group then was told to appreciate a certain style of painting none of the participants were familiar with when the experiment began. What Tajfel and his colleagues discovered was that—regardless of the facts that a) participants did not know each other, b) their groups were completely meaningless, and c) none of the participants had any inclination as to which "style" they like better—participants almost always "liked the members of their own group better and they rated the members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities". By having a more positive impression of individuals in the in-group, individuals are able to boost their own self-esteem as members of that group.<sup id="cite_ref-aronson_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aronson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cialdini" title="Robert Cialdini">Robert Cialdini</a> and his research team looked at the number of university T-shirts being worn on college campuses following either a win or loss at the football game. They found that the Monday after a win, there were more T-shirts being worn, on average, than following a loss.<sup id="cite_ref-aronson_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aronson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another set of studies, done in the 1980s by <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Crocker" title="Jennifer Crocker">Jennifer Crocker</a> and colleagues using the minimal group paradigm, individuals with high self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept exhibited greater ingroup biases than did people with low self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept.<sup id="cite_ref-crocker1987_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crocker1987-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some studies have supported this notion of a negative correlation between self-esteem and in-group bias,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> other researchers have found that individuals with low self-esteem showed more bias toward both in-group and out-group members.<sup id="cite_ref-crocker1987_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crocker1987-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies have even shown that high-self-esteem groups showed more bias than did lower self-esteem groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Sachdev,_I._1987_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sachdev,_I._1987-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This research may suggest that there is an alternative explanation and additional reasoning as to the relationship between self-esteem and in-group/out-group biases. Alternatively, it is possible that researchers have used the wrong sort of self-esteem measures to test the link between self-esteem and in-group bias (global personal self-esteem rather than specific social self-esteem).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_basis_as_an_effect_of_oxytocin">Biological basis as an effect of oxytocin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biological basis as an effect of oxytocin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></div> <p>In a meta-analysis and review of the effect of oxytocin on social behavior done by <a href="/wiki/Carsten_De_Dreu" class="mw-redirect" title="Carsten De Dreu">Carsten De Dreu</a>, the research reviewed shows that oxytocin enables the development of trust, specifically towards individuals with similar characteristics—categorized as 'in-group' members—promoting cooperation with and favoritism towards such individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Dreu2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Dreu2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bias of oxytocin-induced goodwill towards those with features and characteristics perceived to be similar may have evolved as a biological basis for sustaining in-group cooperation and protection, fitting with the Darwinian insight that acts of self-sacrifice and cooperation contribute to the functioning of the group and hence improve the odds of survival for members of said group.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Dreu2012_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Dreu2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (Caucasian, African American, Latino, etc.). One study that examined race and <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23246533_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23246533-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shows that oxytocin may be implicated in our ability to empathize with individuals of different races, with individuals of one race potentially biased towards helping individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. </p><p>Oxytocin has also been implicated in <a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">lying</a> when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. In a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of <a href="/wiki/Dishonesty" title="Dishonesty">dishonesty</a> in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these examples show the tendency to act in ways that benefit in-group members. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-identity_and_social_identity">Self-identity and social identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Self-identity and social identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">Social identity theory</a></div> <p>As noted in two recent theoretical reviews,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the theoretical basis for the inclusion of self-identity in the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior has many similarities to social identity theory <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its extension, self-categorization theory.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories. When people define and evaluate themselves in terms of a self-inclusive social category (e.g., sex, class, team) two processes come into play: (1) categorization, which perceptually accentuates differences between the in-group and out-group, and similarities among in-group members (including the self) on stereotypical dimensions; and (2) self-enhancement which, because the self-concept is defined in terms of group membership, seeks behaviorally and perceptually to favor the in-group over the out-group. Social identities are cognitively represented as group prototypes that describe and prescribe beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that optimize a balance between minimization of in-group differences and maximization of intergroup differences. </p><p>More specifically, according to social identity theory, there is a continuum between personal and social identity shifts along this continuum that determine the extent to which group-related or personal characteristics influence a person's feelings and actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Tajfel_&_Turner_(1979)_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tajfel_&_Turner_(1979)-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a particular social identity is a salient basis for self-conception, then the self is assimilated to the perceived in-group prototype which can be thought of as a set of perceived in-group norms such that self-perception, beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors are defined in terms of the group prototype. Thus, social identities should influence behavior through the mediating role of group norms. People will be more likely to engage in a particular behavior if it is in accord with the norms of a behaviorally relevant group membership, particularly if the identity is a salient basis for self-definition. If the group membership is not salient, then people's behavior and feelings should be in accord with their own personal and idiosyncratic characteristics rather than group norms. </p><p>On the other hand, the self-identity theory poses that the self is often a reflection of expected norms and practices in a person's social role. At the center of it is the proposition that the self is made up of multi-faceted and differentiated components that exist in an organized manner for the sake of filling in roles in society.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People are able to create an identity for themselves only through talking to others, and often what roles they are taking on differ from one group to another. These differing roles and positions people fill are a result of their interactions with others and are called role identities. Role identities may be self-realized, or may be facts like being a mother, a social worker, or a blood donor. Role identities lead people to act in certain ways due to assumed expectations for the roles. Because there is satisfaction in complying with expectations of the role, there is often distress behind an inability to appear congruent to one's identity as defined by societal norms. There is also an existing hierarchy of importance for roles that individuals take on, and according to the hierarchical standing of roles, people become more representative of roles that stand higher hierarchically, according to them. </p><p>Identity salience, the likelihood of role identities being invoked in different situations, is the result of role identities being placed hierarchically in different orders from person to person. People who hold the same roles may act differently because some roles are valued over others.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a working mother may have less time to spend with her child as opposed to a mother that does not work. Behaviors are reflective of the identities that are held higher hierarchically by people, so people act out in self-worth and self-meaning according to these hierarchies.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Someone who holds the identity of being a psychologist higher than the identity of being a linguist will find that while he/she may become competitive when meeting another person that is better at psychology than he/she, he/she will not care when in contact with someone who is much better at being a linguist than he/she. In a similar way, social relationships are influenced by this salience. Self-identity often places individuals in social contexts and a commitment to the role within that context becomes a big part of perpetrating the idea of self. It also finds people relating more to others that hold similar role identities at the top of their hierarchies. </p><p>Because people have self-concepts that are derived from a role they define for themselves within the context of a group, when staying within their roles, intergroup similarities are accentuated while intergroup differences are diminished.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to assimilate oneself according to the tendencies of a group, often people reconfigure their intragroup representations or identities. Certain prototypes form about these groups that reaffirm rules that members of the group are encouraged to follow. Shared information and views are discussed more often than novel and unshared information within a group, therefore a norm is established where the majority views are perpetuated and others silenced.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This norm is fluid and changing according to different contexts, but those within the group who want to keep up with the majority views in all matters have to keep an active role in affirming the views of the in-group in contest to out-groups. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroscience_of_social_categorization">Neuroscience of social categorization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Neuroscience of social categorization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various neural correlates are impacted by group membership, which can shed light on the development of biases toward in-group members. The brain plays a critical role in how individuals classify themselves and others into groups based on personal attributes, as explained by the <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social identity theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research shows that the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">medial prefrontal cortex</a> (mPFC) region displays increased activity when individuals engage in group categorization.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increased activity in this brain region is activated because people tend to focus on the positive qualities of their group. This increased brain activity has been linked to social identity which is a portion of one’s personality that comes from being a member of a specific group. This part of the brain is also activated when we think about personal qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People tend to want to feel good about themselves and base their personality on the groups they are part of. People then focus on the positives of their group which leads to people favoring their group and seeing it better than other groups. If people do this, then they will also feel good about themselves because they perceive themselves as being part of a high-status group.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More specifically, the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventromedial prefrontal cortex">ventral medial prefrontal cortex</a> becomes active when individuals categorize themselves into groups with whom they already share prior experience which can be based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or gender. This region of the brain is activated due to emotional social reasoning where self-referential processing leads individuals to view the in-group as closer to the self than the out-group. Emotional social reasoning is also significant with groups of prior experience because the categorizations have developed over a longer duration leading to the development of emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex is activated when individuals categorize themselves into groups with whom they have no prior experience with such as randomly being divided into teams to compete in a task. In this case, individuals must use abstract social reasoning, a part of the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, to form self-guided ideas for categorical identification.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that with newly formed groups, individuals do not have an emotional component which is why the ventral medial prefrontal cortex is not activated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_in-groups">Evolution of in-groups</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Evolution of in-groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_cultural_groups">Formation of cultural groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Formation of cultural groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises endogenously, through the formation of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural group">cultural groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symbolic markers in certain conditions can result in trivial groupings developing into cultural groups. The formation of such cultural groups then results in a higher degree of in-group favoritism. </p><p>Efferson, Lalive and Fehr published such a study in 2008, utilizing a series of <a href="/wiki/Coordination_game" title="Coordination game">coordination games</a> to mimic cooperation between individuals. The study found that cultural groups were able to form endogenously through creation of a linkage between a payoff-relevant behavior and a payoff-irrelevant marker. Subsequently, in-group favoritism occurred in ensuing social interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Participants were first divided into one of several populations of ten people, and then further divided into subpopulations of five. Each group had different payoff for coordinating on one of two choices, behavior A or behavior B. In group 1, participants were awarded 41 points for coordinating (choosing A themselves and choosing another participant who also chose A) on A and 21 for coordinating on B. The payoffs were switched in the second group. In both groups participants were awarded just 1 point for mis-coordinating. During each turn participants were also allowed to choose a payoff-irrelevant marker (circle or triangle). Players from both subpopulations were mixed to create a coordination problem, and every turn, an unidentified player from each subpopulation would be randomly switched. </p><p>The experiment created a situation in which participants were strongly incentivized to develop a sense of expected behaviors in his or her subpopulation, but occasionally would find themselves in a totally new situation in which their behaviors were not in-line with <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">social norms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The results showed that players generally developed an inclination to pair behavior with a marker, especially if it had resulted in a positive payoff. As linkages at an individual level increase, <a href="/wiki/Covariation" class="mw-redirect" title="Covariation">covariation</a> (of marker and behavior) at an aggregate level also increases. In the experiment, there was a significant increase in participants requesting for partners with the same-shape choice as it progressed, although the initial choice of shape had no effect on payoffs. Toward the end of the experiment, this number stood at a substantial 87%, indicating the presence of in-group favoritism. </p><p>Their study supported the hypothesis that the formation of cultural groups alters selective pressure facing individuals, and thus leads to certain behavioral traits being advantageous.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, if such selective pressures were present in past civilizations, where membership in a certain group is correlated with a certain behavioral norm, the emergence of in-group biases where it is beneficial to act in differing manners to members of the same group is certainly plausible.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racial_and_ethnic_differences">Racial and ethnic differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Racial and ethnic differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States political <a href="/wiki/Candidate" title="Candidate">candidates</a> sharing racial and ethnic background was extremely or very important for 25% of Black Americans, for 17% of Hispanic Americans, 16% of Asian American, and 5% of White Americans according to a 2023 <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> study.<sup id="cite_ref-l611_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-l611-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_differences">Gender differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gender differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automatic_bias_for_own_gender">Automatic bias for own gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Automatic bias for own gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women-are-wonderful_effect" title="Women-are-wonderful effect">Women-are-wonderful effect</a></div> <p>Rudman and Goodwin conducted research on <a href="/wiki/Gender_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender bias">gender bias</a> that measured gender preferences without directly asking the participants. Subjects at <a href="/wiki/Purdue" class="mw-redirect" title="Purdue">Purdue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rutgers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutgers">Rutgers</a> University participated in computerized tasks that measured automatic attitudes based on how quickly a person categorizes pleasant and unpleasant attributes with each gender. Such a task was done to discover whether people associate pleasant words (good, happy, and sunshine) with women, and unpleasant words (bad, trouble, and pain) with men.<sup id="cite_ref-googleusercontent.com1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-googleusercontent.com1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This research found that while both women and men have more favorable views of women, women's in-group biases were 4.5 times stronger<sup id="cite_ref-googleusercontent.com1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-googleusercontent.com1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> than those of men and only women (not men) showed cognitive balance among in-group bias, identity, and self-esteem, revealing that men lack a mechanism that bolsters automatic preference for their own gender.<sup id="cite_ref-googleusercontent.com1_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-googleusercontent.com1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2023 United States study 22% of women and 13% of men found at least somewhat important that political candidates share their gender.<sup id="cite_ref-l611_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-l611-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competition_2">Competition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using a <a href="/wiki/Public_goods_game" title="Public goods game">public goods game</a>, Van Vugt, De Cremer, and Janssen found that men contributed more to their group in the face of outside competition from another group; there was no distinct difference amongst women's contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity-based_favoritism">Ethnicity-based favoritism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ethnicity-based favoritism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2001 Fershtman and Gneezy found that men showed in-group biases in a <a href="/wiki/Trust_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust game">"trust" game</a> based on ethnicity, whereas this tendency was not present in women.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study aims to identify <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic discrimination">ethnic discrimination</a> in <a href="/wiki/Israelis" title="Israelis">Israeli Jewish</a> society, and was conducted on 996 Israeli undergraduates. Groups were separated based on whether the participant's name was typically ethnically Eastern or <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazic</a>. Similar to a dictator game, subjects were instructed to divide a sum of money (20 <a href="/wiki/Israeli_new_shekel" title="Israeli new shekel">NIS</a>) between themselves and another player. Player A was told that any money sent over to Player B would be tripled, and Player B would receive details of the experiment, including the name of Player A and the transferred sum. Subsequently, Player B would have a choice of whether to send any money back. </p><p>The experiment found that despite sharing similar average transfer values (10.63 for women and 11.42 for men), women did not display significant in-group biases when it came to recipients with either Ashkenazic or Eastern sounding names. However, a bias against Eastern sounding names was present amongst men.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, men showed more bias for Ashkenazic men compared to women, but the opposite was true for Eastern names.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This result may seem counter-intuitive, as participants appear to share more in common if they were both male. Thus, we would expect Eastern females to be more marginalized, but is actually consistent with other studies which studied discrimination against Afro-American women.<sup id="cite_ref-Epstein_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epstein-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_age">Developmental age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Developmental age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2008 Fehr, Bernhard, and Rockenbach, in a study conducted on children, found that boys displayed in-group favoritism from ages 3–8, whereas girls did not display such tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experiment involved usage of an "envy game", a modified version of the <a href="/wiki/Dictator_game" title="Dictator game">dictator game</a>. A possible explanation posited by researchers relied on an evolutionary basis.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They theorized that <a href="/wiki/Parochialism" title="Parochialism">parochialism</a> and favoring members of the same group may have been particularly advantageous as it strengthened the individuals group position in intergroup conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As males were the ones who were frequently at the forefront of such conflicts in the past, and thus bore the majority of the costs of conflicts in terms of injury or death, evolution may have favored a greater sensitivity in males in situations which resulted in an advantageous payoff for their in-group. Thus males tended to show in-group biases from a younger age than females, as was evident in the experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_examples">Other examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenian_Genocide_denial">Armenian Genocide denial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Armenian Genocide denial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian genocide denial</a></div> <p>A 2013 study found that Turks with a stronger in-group bias were less likely to acknowledge the in-group responsibility for the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2008_US_Presidential_elections">2008 US Presidential elections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 2008 US Presidential elections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study conducted during the 2008 Presidential elections showcased how group identities were dynamic.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study was carried out among 395 Democrats from Cambridge, MA, using an Economics <a href="/wiki/Dictator_game" title="Dictator game">dictator game</a>. Subjects were given $6 to divide between themselves and another person. The recipients remained anonymous, apart from which candidate they supported in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party presidential primaries">Democratic Primaries</a>. </p><p>Data were collected in three separate periods. June 10 to 18 (after <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>'s concession speech on June 7); August 9 to 14, before the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention" title="Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a> on the 25; and September 2 to 5, in the buildup to the Presidential elections. The results showed that men displayed significant in-group favoritism from June all the way to the DNC in August. This in-group bias, however, was not present in September. Women displayed no significant in-group favoritism throughout. </p><p>The experiment suggested that group identities are flexible and can change over time.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers theorized that in-group bias was strong in June, as the competition to be the Democratic nominee in the elections was still recent and thus salient. A lack of actual electoral conflict (against the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a>) caused perception of salient groupings to remain throughout August.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only in September did the in-group favoritism subside as a superordinate goal shared between groups was now present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Wikipedia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research analyzing articles about 35 inter-group conflicts (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>) by comparing the corresponding language versions of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> (e.g., English, Spanish) found evidence for in-group favoritism: While the "<a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">in-group</a>" was systematically preferred and presented in a more favorable light, the "<a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">out-group</a>" was presented as more immoral and more responsible for the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-Oeberst_bjso.12356_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oeberst_bjso.12356-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were substantial variations between conflicts, however, and additional analyses revealed in-group favoritism to be more pronounced in more recent conflicts and in articles written predominantly by "in-group" members.<sup id="cite_ref-Oeberst_bjso.12356_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oeberst_bjso.12356-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Versus_out-group_negativity">Versus out-group negativity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Versus out-group negativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Group_conflict" title="Group conflict">Group conflict</a></div> <p>Social psychologists have long made the distinction between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, where outgroup negativity is the act of punishing or placing burdens upon the outgroup.<sup id="cite_ref-Tajfel_&_Turner_(1979)_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tajfel_&_Turner_(1979)-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, a significant body of research exists that attempts to identify the relationship between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, as well as conditions that will lead to outgroup negativity.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourhis_&_Gagnon_(2003)_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourhis_&_Gagnon_(2003)-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mummendey_&_Otten_(2003)_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mummendey_&_Otten_(2003)-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turner_&_Reynolds_(2003)_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner_&_Reynolds_(2003)-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Struch and Schwartz found support for the predictions of <a href="/wiki/Belief_congruence" title="Belief congruence">belief congruence</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-struch1989_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-struch1989-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The belief congruence theory concerns itself with the degree of similarity in beliefs, attitudes, and values <i>perceived</i> to exist between individuals. This theory also states that dissimilarity increases negative orientations towards others. When applied to <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial discrimination</a>, the belief congruence theory argues that the perceived dissimilarity of beliefs has more of an impact on racial <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> than does <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (human classification)">race</a> itself. </p><p>Research finds evidence of in-group bias in police investigations<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and judicial decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_relationship">Biological relationship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Biological relationship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. During conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. Further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23144787_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23144787-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. </p><p>Further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. The in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. A study done in the Netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21220339_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21220339-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25140135_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25140135-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in <a href="/wiki/Xenophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenophobic">xenophobic</a> tendencies secondary to this effect. Thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In-group_derogation">In-group derogation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In-group derogation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cross-cultural studies have found that in-group derogation, the tendency to criticize members of one's own group or culture more harshly than members of outside groups, is more common among members of disadvantaged and minority groups than among members of the majority or dominant group. According to Ma-Kellams, Spencer-Rodgers and Peng, <a href="/wiki/System_justification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="System justification theory">system justification theory</a> seeks to explain why "minorities sometimes endorse system-justifying views of their group". They said their research into in-group favoritism and derogation partially supported this theory, but that the theory failed to address all of the nuances.<sup id="cite_ref-MaKellams_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaKellams-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ma-Kellams et al. also found that, compared to individualist cultures, people from collectivist cultures, such as <a href="/wiki/East_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian">East Asian</a> cultures, tended to judge their own group members less favorably than they judged outsiders, whereas people from individualist cultures were inclined to judge members of their own group more favorably than they judged outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-MaKellams_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaKellams-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">Social identity theory</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and <a href="/wiki/Freudian" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudian">Freudian</a> theorists explain in-group derogation as the result of a negative <a href="/wiki/Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a>, which they believe is then extended to the group.<sup id="cite_ref-MaKellams_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaKellams-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ma-Kellams et al. theorized that "ingroup derogation may be more culturally normative and less troubling for East Asians" as evidenced by the fact that East Asians were also likely to report high levels of positive affect (emotion) towards members of their in-group, demonstrating ambivalence towards the unfavorable characteristics they had acknowledged about their in-group. According to Ma-Kellam et al., culturally-ingrained attitudes and beliefs, rather than low self-esteem, may play a role in collectivist cultures' in-group derogation, due to their ability to tolerate holding seemingly contradictory views.<sup id="cite_ref-MaKellams_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaKellams-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ingroup_identity" title="Common ingroup identity">Common ingroup identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intergroup_bias" title="Linguistic intergroup bias">Linguistic intergroup bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalization">Marginalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marking_your_own_homework" title="Marking your own homework">Marking your own homework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_boy_network" title="Old boy network">Old boy network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation" title="Social dominance orientation">Social dominance orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_projection" title="Social projection">Social projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parochial_altruism" title="Parochial altruism">Parochial altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup favoritism</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_favoritism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-aronson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aronson_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aronson_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aronson_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aronson_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aronson, E., Wilson, T. 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(April 1981). "Self-serving and group-serving bias in attribution". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Social Psychology">Journal of Social Psychology</a></i>. <b>113</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">201–</span>211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00224545.1981.9924371">10.1080/00224545.1981.9924371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Self-serving+and+group-serving+bias+in+attribution&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E201-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.date=1981-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00224545.1981.9924371&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft.au=Doria%2C+Janet+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEffersonLaliveFehr2008" class="citation journal cs1">Efferson, Charles; Lalive, Rafael; Fehr, Ernst (2008-09-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_3349730A2242.P001/REF.pdf">"The Coevolution of Cultural Groups and Ingroup Favoritism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Science</i>. <b>321</b> (5897): <span class="nowrap">1844–</span>1849. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...321.1844E">2008Sci...321.1844E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1155805">10.1126/science.1155805</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18818361">18818361</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32927015">32927015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Coevolution+of+Cultural+Groups+and+Ingroup+Favoritism&rft.volume=321&rft.issue=5897&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1844-%3C%2Fspan%3E1849&rft.date=2008-09-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1155805&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32927015%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18818361&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...321.1844E&rft.aulast=Efferson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Lalive%2C+Rafael&rft.au=Fehr%2C+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fserval.unil.ch%2Fresource%2Fserval%3ABIB_3349730A2242.P001%2FREF.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuTarnitaChristakisWang2012" class="citation journal cs1">Fu, Feng; Tarnita, Corina E.; Christakis, Nicholas A.; Wang, Long; Rand, David G.; Nowak, Martin A. (2012-06-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3380441">"Evolution of in-group favoritism"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>2</b>: 460. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012NatSR...2E.460F">2012NatSR...2E.460F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep00460">10.1038/srep00460</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3380441">3380441</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22724059">22724059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+in-group+favoritism&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=460&rft.date=2012-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3380441%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22724059&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep00460&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012NatSR...2E.460F&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Feng&rft.au=Tarnita%2C+Corina+E.&rft.au=Christakis%2C+Nicholas+A.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Long&rft.au=Rand%2C+David+G.&rft.au=Nowak%2C+Martin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3380441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumner2014" class="citation book cs1">Sumner, William Graham (23 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1003045387"><i>Folkways : a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals</i></a> (Reprint, 2014 ed.). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/3833/3/2008_Fehr_NatureV.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-02-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Egalitarianism+in+young+children&rft.volume=454&rft.issue=7208&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1079-%3C%2Fspan%3E1083&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature07155&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4430780%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18756249&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.454.1079F&rft.aulast=Fehr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft.au=Bernhard%2C+Helen&rft.au=Rockenbach%2C+Bettina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2Fid%2Feprint%2F3833%2F3%2F2008_Fehr_NatureV.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilali2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bilali, Rezarta (2013). "National Narrative and Social Psychological Influences in Turks' Denial of the Mass Killings of Armenians as Genocide: Understanding Denial". <i>Journal of Social Issues</i>. <b>69</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">16–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjosi.12001">10.1111/josi.12001</a>. <q>Interestingly, in-group glorification and perceived threat differentially predicted Turks' construals of harm inflicted during the mass violence. In-group glorification minimized perceived in-group perpetration (i.e., predicted less perceived harm inflicted by Turks), whereas in-group threat elevated the perceived in-group victimization. These results are in line with the idea that in-group glorification is driven by identity-enhancing motives (i.e., perceiving the in-group in a positive light via minimizing in-group perpetration).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+Issues&rft.atitle=National+Narrative+and+Social+Psychological+Influences+in+Turks%27+Denial+of+the+Mass+Killings+of+Armenians+as+Genocide%3A+Understanding+Denial&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjosi.12001&rft.aulast=Bilali&rft.aufirst=Rezarta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandPfeifferDreberSheketoff2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rand, David G.; Pfeiffer, Thomas; Dreber, Anna; Sheketoff, Rachel W.; Wernerfelt, Nils C.; Benkler, Yochai (2009-04-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2664153">"Dynamic remodeling of in-group bias during the 2008 presidential election"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>106</b> (15): <span class="nowrap">6187–</span>6191. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..106.6187R">2009PNAS..106.6187R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0811552106">10.1073/pnas.0811552106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2664153">2664153</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19332775">19332775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dynamic+remodeling+of+in-group+bias+during+the+2008+presidential+election&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6187-%3C%2Fspan%3E6191&rft.date=2009-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2664153%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19332775&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0811552106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..106.6187R&rft.aulast=Rand&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Pfeiffer%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Dreber%2C+Anna&rft.au=Sheketoff%2C+Rachel+W.&rft.au=Wernerfelt%2C+Nils+C.&rft.au=Benkler%2C+Yochai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2664153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oeberst_bjso.12356-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oeberst_bjso.12356_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oeberst_bjso.12356_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOeberstBeckMatschkeIhme2019" class="citation journal cs1">Oeberst, Aileen; Beck, Ina; Matschke, Christina; Ihme, Toni Alexander; Cress, Ulrike (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbjso.12356">"Collectively biased representations of the past: Ingroup Bias in Wikipedia articles about intergroup conflicts"</a>. <i>British Journal of Social Psychology</i>. <b>59</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">791–</span>818. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbjso.12356">10.1111/bjso.12356</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-6665">0144-6665</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31788823">31788823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Collectively+biased+representations+of+the+past%3A+Ingroup+Bias+in+Wikipedia+articles+about+intergroup+conflicts&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E791-%3C%2Fspan%3E818&rft.date=2019-12&rft.issn=0144-6665&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31788823&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fbjso.12356&rft.aulast=Oeberst&rft.aufirst=Aileen&rft.au=Beck%2C+Ina&rft.au=Matschke%2C+Christina&rft.au=Ihme%2C+Toni+Alexander&rft.au=Cress%2C+Ulrike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fbjso.12356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bourhis_&_Gagnon_(2003)-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bourhis_&_Gagnon_(2003)_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourhisGagnon2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bourhis, Richard Y.; Gagnon, André (2003). "Social Orientations in the Minimal Group Paradigm". In Brown, R.; Gaertner, S. L. (eds.). <i>Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes</i>. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. pp. <span class="nowrap">89–</span>111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470693421.ch5">10.1002/9780470693421.ch5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69342-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69342-1"><bdi>978-0-470-69342-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Orientations+in+the+Minimal+Group+Paradigm&rft.btitle=Blackwell+Handbook+of+Social+Psychology%3A+Intergroup+Processes&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E111&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470693421.ch5&rft.isbn=978-0-470-69342-1&rft.aulast=Bourhis&rft.aufirst=Richard+Y.&rft.au=Gagnon%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mummendey_&_Otten_(2003)-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mummendey_&_Otten_(2003)_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMummendeyOtten2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mummendey, Amélie; Otten, Sabine (2003). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Social+Psychology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=I+Am+Against+Us%3F+Unpacking+Cultural+Differences+in+Ingroup+Favoritism+via+Dialecticism&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18906927%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21084525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0146167210388193&rft.aulast=Ma-Kellams&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft.au=Spencer-Rodgers%2C+Julie&rft.au=Peng%2C+Kaiping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2Fde368aee792644844160fc314d062579aa06895d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+favoritism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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id="Biases273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_bias_on_Wikipedia" title="Ideological bias on Wikipedia">Ideological bias on Wikipedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fallacies" title="Category:Fallacies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_psychology214" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_psychology" title="Template:Social psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_psychology" title="Template talk:Social psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_psychology214" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">Interpersonal relationships</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falling_in_love" title="Falling in love">Falling in love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Similarity_(psychology)" title="Similarity (psychology)">Similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical attractiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love" title="Triangular theory of love">Triangular theory of love</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenting style">Parenting style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conflict_(process)" title="Conflict (process)">Conflict</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Outgroup homogeneity">Outgroup homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">Stereotype threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_association_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit association test">Implicit association test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm" title="Minimal group paradigm">Minimal group paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory" title="Realistic conflict theory">Realistic conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation" title="Social dominance orientation">Social dominance orientation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foot-in-the-door_technique" title="Foot-in-the-door technique">Foot-in-the-door technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Door-in-the-face_technique" title="Door-in-the-face technique">Door-in-the-face technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autokinetic_effect" title="Autokinetic effect">Autokinetic effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model" title="Elaboration likelihood model">Elaboration likelihood model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_psychology)" title="Reciprocity (social psychology)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-concealment" title="Self-concealment">Self-concealment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety" title="Social anxiety">Social anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stress" title="Social stress">Social stress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belongingness" title="Belongingness">Belongingness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">Social identity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation" title="Social facilitation">Social facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_loafing" title="Social loafing">Social loafing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">Social cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_development" title="Group development">Group development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">Group polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a 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