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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excavations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Excavations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excavations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Classical dating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Old_Babylonian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Babylonian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Old Babylonian period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Babylonian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Babylon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Babylon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Middle Babylon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Babylon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assyrian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assyrian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Assyrian period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assyrian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Babylonian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Neo-Babylonian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Persian conquest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Hellenistic period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewed_Persian_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewed_Persian_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Renewed Persian rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewed_Persian_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Muslim conquest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iraqi_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraqi_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.1 Iraqi government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraqi_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_US_and_Polish_occupation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_US_and_Polish_occupation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.2 Under US and Polish occupation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_US_and_Polish_occupation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present-day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present-day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.3 Present-day </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present-day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cultural importance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_importance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural importance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biblical_narrative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_narrative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Biblical narrative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_narrative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babylon_in_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babylon_in_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Babylon in art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Babylon_in_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Babylon</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 112 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-112" aria-hidden="true" > 112 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%89%A2%E1%88%8E%E1%8A%95" title="ባቢሎን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ባቢሎን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%C5%8Dn" title="Babilōn – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Babilōn" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%92%DC%92%DC%A0" title="ܒܒܠ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܒܒܠ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Բաբելոն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բաբելոն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia_(ciud%C3%A1)" title="Babilonia (ciudá) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Babilonia (ciudá)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil" title="Babil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Babil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="ব্যাবিলন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্যাবিলন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa-p%C3%AD-l%C3%BBn" title="Pa-pí-lûn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pa-pí-lûn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавілон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вавілон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Бабілён – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бабілён" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%C3%B3" title="Babiló – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Babiló" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyl%C3%B3n" title="Babylón – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Babylón" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paabel" title="Paabel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paabel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CE%B2%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Βαβυλώνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βαβυλώνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia_(ciudad)" title="Babilonia (ciudad) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Babilonia (ciudad)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilono" title="Babilono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Babilono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia_(hiria)" title="Babilonia (hiria) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Babilonia (hiria)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_(%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1)" title="بابل (دولت‌شهر) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بابل (دولت‌شهر)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylone" title="Babylone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Babylone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Bhabl%C3%B3in" title="An Bhablóin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Bhablóin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia" title="Babilonia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Babilonia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%B9%8C%EB%A1%A0" title="바빌론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바빌론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Բաբելոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բաբելոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2" title="बाबिल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बाबिल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia" title="Babilonia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Babilonia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab%C3%BDlon" title="Babýlon – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Babýlon" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia_(citt%C3%A0_antica)" title="Babilonia (città antica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Babilonia (città antica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%91%D7%9C" title="בבל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בבל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಬ್ಯಾಬಿಲೋನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬ್ಯಾಬಿಲೋನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბაბილონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბაბილონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babeli" title="Babeli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Babeli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab%C3%AEl_(bajar)" title="Babîl (bajar) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Babîl (bajar)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia" title="Babilonia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Babilonia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilona" title="Babilona – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Babilona" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonas" title="Babilonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Babilonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%C3%B4na" title="Babilôna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Babilôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonja" title="Babilonja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Babilonja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papurona" title="Papurona – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Papurona" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="बॅबिलोन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बॅबिलोन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბაბილონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბაბილონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82)" title="بابل (العراق) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بابل (العراق)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%83-b%C4%AB-l%C3%B9ng" title="Bă-bī-lùng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Bă-bī-lùng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%B1%E1%80%98%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6" title="ဘေဘီလုံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘေဘီလုံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_Matanitu_ki_Papiloni" title="Na Matanitu ki Papiloni – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Na Matanitu ki Papiloni" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_(stad)" title="Babylon (stad) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Babylon (stad)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="बेबिलोन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बेबिलोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%93%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3" title="バビロン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バビロン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Бабил – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Бабил" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%C3%B2nia" title="Babilònia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Babilònia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobil" title="Bobil – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bobil" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8" title="ਬੇਬੀਲੋਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੇਬੀਲੋਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%C3%B3nia" title="Babilónia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Babilónia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papilun" title="Papilun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Papilun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Баабыл – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Баабыл" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Malo_o_Papelonia" title="Le Malo o Papelonia – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Le Malo o Papelonia" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babiloni" title="Babiloni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Babiloni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%B7%D0%BB%D1%A1%D0%BD%D1%8A" title="Вавѷлѡнъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Вавѷлѡнъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baabiyloon" title="Baabiyloon – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Baabiyloon" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonya_(lungsod)" title="Babilonya (lungsod) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Babilonya (lungsod)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="பாபிலோன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாபிலோன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil" title="Babil – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Babil" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99" title="บาบิโลน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บาบิโลน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Бобил – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бобил" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil_(antik_kent)" title="Babil (antik kent) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Babil (antik kent)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Вавилон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вавилон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84" title="بابل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بابل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Babylon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paab%C3%B5l" title="Paabõl – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Paabõl" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E5%80%AB" title="巴比倫 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="巴比倫" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilonia" title="Babilonia – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Babilonia" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babilon" title="Babilon – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Babilon" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6" title="巴比伦 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="巴比伦" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%91%D7%9C" title="בבל – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בבל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E5%80%AB" title="巴比倫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="巴比倫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%AF%94%E4%BC%A6" title="巴比伦 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="巴比伦" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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.geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Babylon&params=32_32_33_N_44_25_16_E_type:landmark">32°32′33″N 44°25′16″E / 32.54250°N 44.42111°E / 32.54250; 44.42111</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Mesopotamian city in Iraq</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Babilu" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Babalu_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Babalu (disambiguation)">Babalu (disambiguation)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Babylon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Babylon (disambiguation)">Babylon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Babalon" title="Babalon">Babalon</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Babylon</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname">Bābilim</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Street_in_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A partial view of the ruins of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/250px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/375px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/500px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A reconstructed portion of the ruins of Babylon</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_physical_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq"><img alt="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/250px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/375px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/500px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="1260" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:55.457%;left:57.344%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Iraq</div>Show map of Iraq</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Near_East_non_political.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq"><img alt="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/250px-Near_East_non_political.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/375px-Near_East_non_political.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/500px-Near_East_non_political.png 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="842" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:52.098%;left:52.488%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Babylon lies near the center of Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Babylon (Near East)</div>Show map of Near East</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alternative name</th><td class="infobox-data nickname"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: بابل Bābil</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>: 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 Bābilim<a href="#cite_note-Cam-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>: 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 KÁ.DIG̃IR.RAKI<a href="#cite_note-Cam-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic language">Imperial Aramaic</a>: 𐡁𐡁𐡋 Bāḇel<a href="#cite_note-Cam-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: ܒܒܠ Bāḇel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 Bābiru</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Βαβυλών Babylṓn</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: בָּבֶל Bāvel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>: 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 Babili</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a>: Karanduniash, Karduniash</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Hillah" title="Hillah">Hillah</a>, Babil Governorate, Iraq</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Babylon&params=32_32_33_N_44_25_16_E_type:landmark">32°32′33″N 44°25′16″E / 32.54250°N 44.42111°E / 32.54250; 44.42111</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">9 km2 (3.5 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1894 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data">c. 1000 AD</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data">Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Chaldean, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, Muslim caliphate</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Archaeologists</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam" title="Hormuzd Rassam">Hormuzd Rassam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koldewey" title="Robert Koldewey">Robert Koldewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taha_Baqir" title="Taha Baqir">Taha Baqir</a>, recent Iraqi <a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologist</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">Ruined</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ownership</th><td class="infobox-data">Public</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><div style="border:4px solid #0177D3; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;"> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official name</th><td class="infobox-data">Babylon</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criteria</th><td class="infobox-data">Cultural: (iii), (vi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Designated</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_by_year_of_inscription#2019_(43rd_session)" title="List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription">2019</a> (43rd <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Committee" title="World Heritage Committee">session</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reference no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/278">278</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Arab_states" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states">Arab States</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">special characters</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a>.</div></div> </div> Babylon was an ancient city located on the lower <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> river in southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, within modern-day <a href="/wiki/Hillah" title="Hillah">Hillah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, about 85 kilometres (55 miles) south of modern day <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian-speaking</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. Its rulers established two important empires in antiquity, the 19th–16th century BC <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a>, and the 7th–6th century BC <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>. Babylon was also used as a regional capital of other empires, such as the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. Babylon was one of the most important urban centres of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>, until its decline during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>. Nearby ancient sites are <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dilbat" title="Dilbat">Dilbat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kutha" title="Kutha">Kutha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablet</a> from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> (2217–2193 BC), of the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city, subject to the Akkadian Empire. After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian Dynasty</a> for a few decades, before the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>, which encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon. The town became part of a small independent <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> with the rise of the first Babylonian Empire, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a>, in the 17th century BC. The <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> king <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> founded the short-lived Old Babylonian Empire in the 16th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, and Babylon eclipsed <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> as the region's holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a>, and Babylon spent long periods under <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> domination. After the Assyrians destroyed and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, from 626 to 539 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a> were ranked as one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a>, allegedly existing between approximately 600 BC and AD 1. However, there are questions about whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon even existed, as there is no mention within any extant Babylonian texts of its existence.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim</a> empires. The last known habitation of the town dates from the 11th century, when it was referred to as the "small village of Babel". It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-6">[6]</a> Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890 (3½ sq. mi.)<a href="#cite_note-mieroop-7">[7]</a> to 900 ha (2,200 acres).<a href="#cite_note-boiy-8">[8]</a> The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, descriptions in other classical writing, especially by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, and second-hand descriptions, citing the work of <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berossus" title="Berossus">Berossus</a>—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006140–142-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> inscribed Babylon as a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in 2019. The site receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of whom are Iraqis.<a href="#cite_note-:6-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-11">[11]</a> Construction is rapidly increasing, which has caused encroachments upon the ruins.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg/220px-Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg/330px-Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg/440px-Map_of_Babylon_with_major_areas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8271" data-file-height="11698" /></a><figcaption>A map of Babylon, with major areas and modern-day villages</figcaption></figure> The spelling Babylon is the Latin representation of <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> Babylṓn (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CE%B2%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%8E%CE%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:Βαβυλών">Βαβυλών</a>), derived from the native (<a href="/wiki/Babylonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian language">Babylonian</a>) Bābilim, meaning "gate of the <a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">god(s)</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> spelling was <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%86%8D%F0%92%80%AD%F0%92%8A%8F%F0%92%86%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠">𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠</a> (KÁ.DIG̃IR.RAKI). This would correspond to the Sumerian phrase Kan dig̃irak.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The sign 𒆍 (KÁ) is the logogram for "gate", 𒀭 (<a href="/wiki/Dingir" title="Dingir">DIG̃IR</a>) means "god", and 𒊏 (RA) represents the <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabic coda">coda</a> of the word dig̃ir (-r) followed by the genitive suffix -ak. The final 𒆠 (<a href="/wiki/Ki_(cuneiform)" title="Ki (cuneiform)">KI</a>) is a determinative indicating that the previous signs are to be understood as a place name. <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a>, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> name.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a> to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignace_Gelb" title="Ignace Gelb">I. J. Gelb</a> in 1955 argued that the original name was Babilla, of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly named places in <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian Bāb-ili(m), and that the Sumerian name Kan-dig̃irak was a loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name.<a href="#cite_note-Gelb_1955-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-15">[15]</a> The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian" <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> (Bab-<a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">Il</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylon,_1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Babylon%2C_1932.jpg/220px-Babylon%2C_1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Babylon%2C_1932.jpg/330px-Babylon%2C_1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Babylon%2C_1932.jpg/440px-Babylon%2C_1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3922" data-file-height="2847" /></a><figcaption>Babylon in 1932</figcaption></figure> A fragmentary inscription dating to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period</a>, likely in the Akkadian language, refers to an unknown lord who was the governor (ENSI) of BAR.KI.BAR and constructed the temple for <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>, indicating that the city could very well be Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-:8-21">[21]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic III">ED III</a> period, sign placement was relatively fluid and so the KI sign could be seen as the determinative, with the name of the city as BAR.BAR, perhaps pronounced Babbar.<a href="#cite_note-:9-22">[22]</a> Paul-Alain Beaulieu proposes that the original name could mean "shining" "glowing" or "white". It would be likely that it was later read as Babbir, and then Babbil by swapping the consonant r with l.<a href="#cite_note-:8-21">[21]</a> The earliest unambiguous mention to the city Babylon came from one of <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri's</a> year names, spelled as KA.DINGIR.KI,<a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-15">[15]</a> indicating that the folk etymology was already widely known in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Akkad#Sargonic_dynasty_(c._2334_–_2193_BC)" title="List of kings of Akkad">Sargonic period</a>. However, the original form of the name (Babbar/Babbir) was not forgotten, as seen from the phonetic spelling ba-ab-bí-lum in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and the spellings Pambalu and Babalu in the <a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-22">[22]</a> Another attested spelling for the city of Babylon is TIN.TIR.KI, attested sparsely in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Babylonian period">Old Babylonian period</a> but grew in popularity in the Late 2nd Millennium BC and was in widespread usage in the 1st Millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-:8-21">[21]</a> The spelling E.KI also appears in the 1st Millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-21">[21]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, the name appears as Babel (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%91%D7%9C" class="extiw" title="wikt:בבל">בָּבֶל</a> Bavel, <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tib.</a> בָּבֶל Bāḇel; <a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: ܒܒܠ Bāwēl, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic language">Imperial Aramaic</a>: בבל Bāḇel; in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: بَابِل Bābil), interpreted in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> to mean "<a href="/wiki/Confusion_of_tongues" class="mw-redirect" title="Confusion of tongues">confusion</a>",<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> from the verb bilbél (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%9C" class="extiw" title="wikt:בלבל">בלבל</a>, "to confuse").<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The modern English verb, to babble ("to speak foolish, excited, or confusing talk"), is popularly thought to derive from this name but there is no direct connection.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> literature, the name appears as Bāveru.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like <a href="/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a> within Babylon's sphere of influence, and <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dalley2005-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Archaeology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg/220px-Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg/330px-Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg/440px-Plan_of_Ruins_of_Babylon_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>A map of ruins in 1905, with locations and names of villages</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> From the accounts of modern travellers, I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more, and less, than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state, of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said: "Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area. There stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus." – I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety and extent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Rich" title="Claudius Rich">Claudius J. Rich</a>, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon (1815), pp. 1–2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006175-31">[31]</a></cite> </div> The site covers an area of about 1,000 hectares (3¾ sq. mi.), with about 450 hectares (1¾ sq. mi.) within the several kilometer (mile) long city walls, containing a number of mounds, the most prominent of which are Kasr, Merkes (13 meters; 43' above the plain), Homera, Ishin-Aswad, Sahn, Amran, and Babil.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> It is roughly bisected by the Shatt Al-Hillah, a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphrates river">Euphrates river</a>, which has shifted slightly since ancient times. The local water table has risen, making excavation of lower levels difficult. Prior to the heavy use of baked bricks in the reign of Neo-Babylonian ruler <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> (605–562 BC), construction at Babylon was primarily of unbaked brick, with the occasional use of baked bricks or bitumen.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <ul><li>Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it was the location of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Babylonian">Neo-Babylonian</a> ziggurat <a href="/wiki/Etemenanki" title="Etemenanki">Etemenanki</a> of Nebuchadnezzar II. It lies in the center of the site and rises to 19 meters (62') above the plain.</li> <li>Amran Ibn Ali – about 22 meters (72') high and at the south of the site. It is the site of <a href="/wiki/Esagila" title="Esagila">Esagila</a>, a temple of <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a> that also contained shrines to <a href="/wiki/Ea_(Babylonian_god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea (Babylonian god)">Ea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nabu" title="Nabu">Nabu</a>.</li> <li>Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> remains are here. Most of the remains of the ziggurat Etemenanki were heaped here when it was demolished by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 331 BC.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Babil – a mound about 25 meters (80') high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.</li></ul> Subsequent excavation, looting, and reconstruction have reduced these original heights found by the German excavators. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excavations">Excavations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Excavations">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Rich" title="Claudius Rich">Claudius Rich</a>, working for the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> in Baghdad, excavated Babylon in 1811–12 and again in 1817.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Captain <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mignan" title="Robert Mignan">Robert Mignan</a> explored the site briefly in 1827. In 1829, he completed a map of Babylon which includes the location of several villages.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Loftus_(archaeologist)" title="William Loftus (archaeologist)">William Loftus</a> visited there in 1849.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard" title="Austen Henry Layard">Austen Henry Layard</a> made some soundings during a brief visit in 1850 before abandoning the site.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Confluence_of_the_Tigris_and_Euphrates_near_Al-Qurnah.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption>The location of the <a href="/wiki/Qurnah_Disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Qurnah Disaster">Qurnah Disaster</a>, where hundreds of cases of antiquities from Fresnel's mission were lost in 1855</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/220px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/330px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG/440px-Charles_Le_Brun_-_Entry_of_Alexander_into_Babylon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4018" data-file-height="2661" /></a><figcaption>"Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting by <a href="/wiki/Charles_LeBrun" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles LeBrun">Charles LeBrun</a>, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Hellenistic architecture</a>.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Fulgence_Fresnel" title="Fulgence Fresnel">Fulgence Fresnel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Oppert" title="Julius Oppert">Julius Oppert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Felix_Thomas" title="Felix Thomas">Felix Thomas</a> heavily excavated Babylon from 1852 to 1854.<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Much of their work was lost in the <a href="/wiki/Qurnah_Disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Qurnah Disaster">Qurnah Disaster</a>, when a transport ship and four rafts sank on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river in May 1855.<a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[45]</a> They had been carrying over 200 crates of artifacts from various excavation missions, when they were attacked by Tigris river pirates near <a href="/wiki/Al-Qurnah" title="Al-Qurnah">Al-Qurnah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Recovery efforts, assisted by the Ottoman authorities and British Residence in Baghdad, loaded the equivalent of 80 crates on a ship for <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a> in May 1856.<a href="#cite_note-:2-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[45]</a> Few antiquities from the Fresnel mission made it to France.<a href="#cite_note-:3-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a> Subsequent efforts to recover the lost antiquities from the Tigris, including a Japanese expedition in 1971–72, have been largely unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-:2-48">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon,_Mesopotamia,_Iraq..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg/220px-Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg/330px-Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg/440px-Original_tiles_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Original tiles of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Henry_Rawlinson,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet">Henry Rawlinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Smith_(Assyriologist)" title="George Smith (Assyriologist)">George Smith</a> worked there briefly in 1854.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The next excavation was conducted by <a href="/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam" title="Hormuzd Rassam">Hormuzd Rassam</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. Work began in 1879, continuing until 1882, and was prompted by widespread looting of the site. Using industrial scale digging in search of artifacts, Rassam recovered a large quantity of cuneiform tablets and other finds. The zealous excavation methods, common at the time, caused significant damage to the archaeological context.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Many tablets had appeared on the market in 1876 before Rassam's excavation began.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_(sirrush)_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon,_Mesopotamia,_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg/220px-Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg/330px-Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg/440px-Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u_%28sirrush%29_and_aurochs_on_either_side_of_the_processional_street._Ancient_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mu%C5%A1%E1%B8%ABu%C5%A1%C5%A1u" title="Mušḫuššu">Mušḫuššu</a> (sirrush) and <a href="/wiki/Auroch" class="mw-redirect" title="Auroch">aurochs</a> on either side of the processional street. Ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia, Iraq.</figcaption></figure> A team from the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Orient-Gesellschaft" title="Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft">German Oriental Society</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koldewey" title="Robert Koldewey">Robert Koldewey</a> conducted the first scientific <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">archaeological excavations</a> at Babylon. The work was conducted daily from 1899 until 1917. A major problem for Koldewey was the large scale mining of baked bricks, which began in the 19th century and which were mainly sourced from the time of Nebuchadnezzar II. At the time, excavations for brick mining, for various building projects, including the Hindiya dam were under way.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The primary efforts of the dig involved the temple of <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a> and the processional way leading up to it, as well as the city wall.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Artifacts, including pieces of the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> and hundreds of recovered tablets, were sent back to Germany, where Koldewey's colleague <a href="/wiki/Walter_Andrae" title="Walter Andrae">Walter Andrae</a> reconstructed them into displays at the <a href="/wiki/Vorderasiatisches_Museum_Berlin" title="Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin">Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> These included 967 clay tablets, with 564 tablets from the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonian period</a>, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> The German archaeologists fled before <a href="/wiki/Middle-Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-Eastern theatre of World War I">oncoming British troops</a> in 1917, and again, many objects went missing in the following years.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> Further work by the <a href="/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute" title="German Archaeological Institute">German Archaeological Institute</a> was conducted by Heinrich J. Lenzen in 1956 and Hansjörg Schmid in 1962, working the Hellenistic, Parthian, Sasanian, and Arabic levels of the site. Lenzen's work dealt primarily with the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> theatre, and Schmid focused on the temple ziggurat <a href="/wiki/Etemenanki" title="Etemenanki">Etemenanki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> A topographical survey at the site was conducted in 1974, followed in 1977 by a review of the stratigraphical position of the main monuments and reconsideration of ancient water levels, by the Turin Centre for Archaeological Research and Excavations in the Middle East and Asia, and the Iraqi-Italian Institute of Archaeological Sciences.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The focus was on clearing up issues raised by re-examination of the old German data. Additional work in 1987–1989 concentrated on the area surrounding the Ishara and <a href="/wiki/Ninurta" title="Ninurta">Ninurta</a> temples in the Shu-Anna city-quarter of Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> A number of Iraqi excavations have occurred at Babylon, the earliest in 1938. From 1979–1981 excavation and restoration work was conducted at the Ninmah Temple, Istar Temple, and the Southern Palace.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Occasional excavations and restorations continued in the 1970s and 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> During the restoration efforts in Babylon, the Iraqi State Organization for Antiquities and Heritage conducted extensive research, excavation and clearing, but wider publication of these archaeological activities has been limited.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Most of the known tablets from all modern excavations remain unpublished.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg/220px-Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg/330px-Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg/440px-Dynastic_Chronicle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1014" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_William_King" title="Leonard William King">Leonard William King</a> of fragment K. 8532, a part of the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_Chronicle" title="Dynastic Chronicle">Dynastic Chronicle</a> listing rulers of Babylon grouped by dynasty</figcaption></figure> The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, descriptions in other classical writing, especially by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, and second-hand descriptions citing the work of <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berossus" title="Berossus">Berossus</a>—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006140–142-9">[9]</a> Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleitarchus" title="Cleitarchus">Cleitarchus</a>. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information.<a href="#cite_note-MacGinnis-78">[78]</a> Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haradum" title="Haradum">Haradum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_references">Early references</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early references">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg/220px-Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg/330px-Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg/440px-Ancient_Remains_in_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Brick structures in Babylon, 2016</figcaption></figure> The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) of the Akkadian Empire. References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for <a href="/wiki/Annunitum" title="Annunitum">Annūnı̄tum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ilaba" title="Ilaba">Ilaba</a>. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a>, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an <a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensí">ensi</a> as local governor.<a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles#Provenanced_Chronicles" title="Babylonian Chronicles">Weidner Chronicle</a> (also known as ABC 19) states that <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 23rd century BC in the <a href="/wiki/Short_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Short chronology">short chronology</a>, had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad". (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, rather than Sargon of Akkad.<a href="#cite_note-Dalley2005-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_dating">Classical dating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical dating">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a>, quoted by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> and in <a href="/wiki/George_Syncellus" title="George Syncellus">George Syncellus</a>'s Chronographia, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, <a href="/wiki/Belus_(Babylonian)" title="Belus (Babylonian)">Belus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> A similar figure is found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Berossus" title="Berossus">Berossus</a>, who, according to Pliny,<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of <a href="/wiki/Phoroneus" title="Phoroneus">Phoroneus</a>, indicating 2243 BC. <a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus of Byzantium</a> wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by <a href="/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos" title="Hellanicus of Lesbos">Hellanicus of Lesbos</a> for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the <a href="/wiki/23rd_century_BC" title="23rd century BC">23rd century BC</a>. However, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical, post-cuneiform accounts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_(ca._1800_a.C).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg/220px-Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg/330px-Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg/440px-Relieve_Reina_de_la_Noche_%28ca._1800_a.C%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7501" data-file-height="10000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Burney_Relief" title="Burney Relief">Queen of the Night</a> relief. The figure could be an aspect of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a>, Babylonian goddess of sex and love.</figcaption></figure> The first attested mention of Babylon was in the late 3rd millennium BC during the Akkadian Empire reign of ruler <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> one of whose year names mentions building two temples there. Babylon was ruled by ensi (governors) for the empire. Some of the known governors were Abba, Arši-aḫ, Itūr-ilum, Murteli, Unabatal, and Puzur-Tutu. After that nothing is heard of the city until the time of Sumu-la-El. After around 1950 BC Amorite kingdoms will appear in Uruk and Larsa in the south.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Babylonian_period">Old Babylonian period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Old Babylonian period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg/220px-Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg/330px-Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg/440px-Hammurabi%27s_Babylonia_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>A map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon his death in 1750 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_Seal,_Old_Babylonian,_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg/220px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg/330px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg/440px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>Old Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>. This seal was probably made in a workshop at <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> (about 65 km or 40 mi north of Babylon on the map above) either during, or shortly before, the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> It depicts the king making an animal offering to the sun god <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_Seal,_Old_Babylonian,_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg/220px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg/330px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg/440px-Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1747" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>Linescan camera image of the cylinder seal above, reversed to resemble an impression</figcaption></figure> According to a Babylonian king list, <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> rule in Babylon began (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 19th or 18th century BC) with a chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a>, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of <a href="/wiki/Kazallu" title="Kazallu">Kazallu</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a>, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a>. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a regional sphere of influence for Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory. Its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a>'s short-lived empire about a century later. Hammurabi (r. 1792–1750 BC) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, including <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna" title="Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bad-tibira" title="Bad-tibira">Bad-tibira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a>, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> to the east, and the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> to the northwest. After a conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a>, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign. After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. From this time, Babylon supplanted <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a> as the major religious centers of southern Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's empire destabilized after his death. The far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the native <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>, and the Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state. After the destruction of the city the <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a> rose to control the region. Texts from Old Babylon often include references to <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a>, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, and <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon's rising political power.<a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Babylon">Middle Babylon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle Babylon">edit</a>]</div> In 1595 BC,<a href="#cite_note-86">[a]</a> the city was sacked by <a href="/wiki/Mursili_I" title="Mursili I">Mursili I</a>, ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a>. Thereafter, the <a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite dynasty</a> took power in the city of Babylon, renaming it Karduniash, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until 1160 BC. <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylon</a> was weakened during the <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a> era, and as a result, Kassite Babylon began paying <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> to the Pharaoh of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a>, following his eighth campaign against Mitanni.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365–1053 BC) to the north, and <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city. By 1155 BC, after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including the <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a> in the 11th century BC, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> in the 9th century BC, entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assyrian_period">Assyrian period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Assyrian period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sennacherib.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sennacherib.jpg/220px-Sennacherib.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sennacherib.jpg/330px-Sennacherib.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sennacherib.jpg/440px-Sennacherib.jpg 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Sennacherib of Assyria during his <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Halule" title="Battle of Halule">Babylonian war</a>, relief from his palace in <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a></figcaption></figure> During the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–609 BC), Babylonia was under constant <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> domination or direct control. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Merodach-Baladan</a>, in alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Elamites" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamites">Elamites</a>, and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. The destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the god <a href="/wiki/Nisroch" title="Nisroch">Nisroch</a> was considered an act of atonement. Consequently, his successor, <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence for part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son, the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> prince <a href="/wiki/Shamash-shum-ukin" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamash-shum-ukin">Shamash-shum-ukin</a>, who eventually started a civil war in 652 BC against his own brother, <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>, who ruled in <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples against Assyria, including <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a> of southern Mesopotamia, and the <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> dwelling in the deserts south of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated. Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a>. An Assyrian governor named <a href="/wiki/Kandalanu" title="Kandalanu">Kandalanu</a> was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensive <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Ashurbanipal" title="Library of Ashurbanipal">library</a> at Ninevah.<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Babylonian_Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Neo-Babylonian Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki,_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg/220px-Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg/330px-Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg/440px-Cuneiform_cylinder-_inscription_of_Nebuchadnezzar_II_commemorating_the_reconstruction_of_Etemenanki%2C_the_ziggurat_at_Babylon_MET_ME86_11_284.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>A cuneiform cylinder from reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, honoring the exorcism and reconstruction of the ziggurat <a href="/wiki/Etemenanki" title="Etemenanki">Etemenanki</a> by Nabopolassar.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylon_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Babylon_relief.jpg/220px-Babylon_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Babylon_relief.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="251" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>Detail of a relief from the reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum" title="Pergamon Museum">Pergamon Museum</a>, Berlin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg/220px-Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg/330px-Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg/440px-Ishtar_Gate_at_Berlin_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of the blue-tiled Ishtar Gate, Pergamon Museum, Berlin, which was the northern entrance to Babylon. It was named for the goddess of love and war. Bulls and dragons, symbols of the god <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>, decorated the gate.</figcaption></figure> Under <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a>, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and the allied Medo-Babylonian armies destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 626 BC and 609 BC. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes called the Chaldean) Empire.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his son <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> (604–561 BC).<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including the <a href="/wiki/Etemenanki" title="Etemenanki">Etemenanki</a> <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a>, and the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a>—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in the <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum" title="Pergamon Museum">Pergamon Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a>, said to have been built for his homesick wife, <a href="/wiki/Amytis_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Amytis of Babylon">Amytis</a>. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koldewey" title="Robert Koldewey">Robert Koldewey</a> speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location. <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Stephanie Dalley</a> has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located near the Assyrian capital, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> Nebuchadnezzar is also notoriously associated with the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">Babylonian exile</a> of the Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians, in which ethnic groups in conquered areas were <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">deported en masse</a> to the capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour200688–89-93">[92]</a> According to the Hebrew Bible, he <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">destroyed</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">Solomon's Temple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">exiled</a> the Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles" title="Babylonian Chronicles">Babylonian Chronicles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BabylonianChronicles-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_conquest">Persian conquest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Persian conquest">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></div> In 539 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, with a military engagement known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a>. Babylon's walls were considered impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates, or through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops upstream diverted the Euphrates River, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city through the lowered water. The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach. The account was elaborated upon by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a><a href="#cite_note-Herodotus-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGinnis-78">[78]</a> and is mentioned in parts of the Hebrew Bible.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and broad wall, cemented with <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to the city. He writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among them <a href="/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">eat nothing but fish</a>. The hundred gates can be considered a reference to <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>. Following the pronouncement of <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Henry_Sayce" class="mw-redirect" title="Archibald Henry Sayce">Archibald Henry Sayce</a> in 1883, Herodotus' account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. However, recently, Dalley and others have suggested taking Herodotus' account seriously.<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006107–115-99">[98]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/150px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/225px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/300px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Babylonian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>A Babylonian soldier in the Achaemenid army, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 470 BC, <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> tomb</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">2 Chronicles</a> 36 of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, to return to their own lands. The text found on the <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a> has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] because the text identifies only Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea. Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">Satrapy</a> (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a center of learning and scientific advancement. In <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> were revitalized, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative capital of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>, who was the most important god, but by the reign of <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 BC (<a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_III" title="Nebuchadnezzar III">Nebuchadnezzar III</a>), 521 BC (<a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_IV" title="Nebuchadnezzar IV">Nebuchadnezzar IV</a>) and 482 BC (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However, these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, until <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s entry in 331 BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period">edit</a>]</div> In October of 331 BC, <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> king of the Persian Empire, was defeated by the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonian</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>, occupying Babylon. Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. However, following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebuchadnezzar">Nebuchadnezzar</a>, his empire was divided amongst his generals, the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">decades of fighting</a> soon began. Babylon declined somewhat in importance but remained active throughout this period.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renewed_Persian_rule">Renewed Persian rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Renewed Persian rule">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonia#Persian_Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia § Persian Babylonia</a></div> Under the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empires</a>, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province of these <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empires</a> for nine centuries, until after AD 650.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although it was captured briefly by <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> in AD 116 to be part of the newly conquered province of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a>, his successor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> relinquished his conquests east of the Euphrates river, which became again the Roman Empire's eastern boundary.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> However, Babylon maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Examples of their culture are found in the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostic">Gnostic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaean</a> religion, <a href="/wiki/East_Syrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="East Syrian Rite">Eastern Rite</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">the religion</a> of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a>. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries, and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> until well after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab/Islamic conquest</a>. Coins from the Parthian, Sasanian and Arabic periods excavated in Babylon demonstrate the continuity of settlement there.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_conquest">Muslim conquest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Muslim conquest">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></div> In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was conquered and settled by the expanding <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> Empire, and a period of <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> Christianity eventually became marginalized. Ibn Hawqal (10th century) and the Arab scholar, al-Qazwini (13th century), describe Babylon (Babil) as a small village.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148-105">[104]</a> The latter described a well referred to as the 'Dungeon of Daniel' that was visited by Christians and Jews during holidays. The grave-shrine of Amran ibn Ali was visited by Muslims. According to medieval Arabic writings, Babylon was a popular site to extract bricks,<a href="#cite_note-OP2011-2">[2]</a> which were used to build cities from Baghdad to Basra.<a href="#cite_note-Reade2009-106">[105]</a> European travellers, in many cases, could not discover the city's location, or mistook <a href="/wiki/Fallujah" title="Fallujah">Fallujah</a> for it. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela" title="Benjamin of Tudela">Benjamin of Tudela</a>, a 12th-century traveller, mentions Babylon, but it is not clear if he went there. Others referred to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148–151-107">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_della_Valle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro della Valle">Pietro della Valle</a> travelled to the village of Babil in Babylon in the 17th century and noted the existence of both baked and dried <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbricks</a> cemented with <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reade2009-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Modern era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png/220px-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png/330px-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png/440px-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_-_Lion_of_Babylon.png 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Babylon_(statue)" title="Lion of Babylon (statue)">Lion of Babylon</a></figcaption></figure> The eighteenth century saw an increasing flow of travellers to Babylon, including <a href="/wiki/Carsten_Niebuhr" title="Carsten Niebuhr">Carsten Niebuhr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_de_Beauchamp" title="Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp">Pierre-Joseph de Beauchamp</a>, as well as measurements of its latitude.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Beauchamp's memoir, published in English translation in 1792, provoked the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> to direct its agents in Baghdad and Basra to acquire Mesopotamian relics for shipment to London.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006169–173-110">[109]</a> By 1905, there were several villages in Babylon, one of which was Qwaresh with about 200 households located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls. The village grew due to the need for laborers during the German Oriental Society excavations between 1899–1917.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iraqi_government">Iraqi government</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Iraqi government">edit</a>]</div> The site of Babylon has been a cultural asset to Iraq since the creation of the modern Iraqi state in 1921. The site was officially protected and excavated by the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration</a>, which later became the <a href="/wiki/Hashemite_Kingdom_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq">Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq</a>, and its successors: the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">Iraqi Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a>, also officially called the Iraqi Republic, and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Iraq">Republic of Iraq</a>. Babylonian images periodically appear on Iraqi postcards and stamps. In the 1960s, a replica of the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> and a reconstruction of Ninmakh Temple were built on site.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2011-111">[110]</a> In February 1978, the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'athist">Ba'athist</a> government of Iraq under <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, began the "Archaeological Restoration of Babylon Project": reconstructing features of the ancient city atop its ruins. These features included the Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with 250 rooms, five courtyards, and a 30-meter (100') entrance arch. The project reinforced the Processional Way, the <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Babylon_(statue)" title="Lion of Babylon (statue)">Lion of Babylon</a>, and an amphitheater constructed in the city's Hellenistic era. In 1982, the government minted a set of seven coins, displaying iconic features of Babylon. A Babylon International Festival was held in September 1987, and annually thereafter until 2002, excepting 1990 and 1991, to showcase this work. The proposed reconstruction of the Hanging Gardens and the great ziggurat never took place.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2009-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Curtis2011-111">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> Hussein installed a portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins and inscribed his name on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after Hussein's downfall.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> Similar projects were conducted at <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, to demonstrate the magnificence of Arab achievement.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> completely removed the village of Qwaresh, displacing its residents.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> He later constructed a modern palace in that area called Saddam Hill, over some of the old ruins, in the pyramidal style of a <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a>. In 2003, he intended to have a <a href="/wiki/Aerial_lift" title="Aerial lift">cable car</a> line constructed over Babylon, but plans were halted by the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Under_US_and_Polish_occupation">Under US and Polish occupation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Under US and Polish occupation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv/220px--WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="121" data-durationhint="315" data-mwtitle="WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="352" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="352" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="352" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv/WMF_Future_of_Babylon.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="234" /></video><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund" title="World Monuments Fund">World Monuments Fund</a> video on conservation of Babylon</figcaption></figure> Following the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>, the area around Babylon came under the control of <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a> troops, before being handed over to <a href="/wiki/Polish_involvement_in_the_2003_invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq">Polish forces</a> in September 2003.<a href="#cite_note-McCarty-117">[116]</a> US forces under the command of General <a href="/wiki/James_T._Conway" title="James T. Conway">James T. Conway</a> of the <a href="/wiki/I_Marine_Expeditionary_Force" title="I Marine Expeditionary Force">I Marine Expeditionary Force</a> were criticized for building the military base "Camp Alpha", with a <a href="/wiki/Helipad" title="Helipad">helipad</a> and other facilities on ancient Babylonian ruins during the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a>. US forces occupied the site for some time and caused irreparable damage to the archaeological record. In a report of the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>'s Near East department, John Curtis described how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote of the occupation forces: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">They caused substantial damage to the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a>, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a></blockquote> A US military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum".<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out" and criticised <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces" title="Polish Armed Forces">Polish troops</a> for causing "terrible damage" to the site.<a href="#cite_note-Marozzi-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> Poland resolved in 2004 to place the city under Iraq control, and commissioned a report titled Report Concerning the Condition of the Preservation of the Babylon Archaeological Site, which it presented at a meeting in December 2004.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis2009-112">[111]</a> In 2005, the site was handed over to the Iraqi Ministry of Culture.<a href="#cite_note-McCarty-117">[116]</a> In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former Chief of Staff for the I Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. He also claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage by other looters.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> An April 2006 article stated that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have plans to restore Babylon, making it into a cultural center.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> Two museums and a library, containing replicas of artifacts and local maps and reports, were raided and destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:848px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon, 2005"><img alt="Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon photographed in 2005" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg/840px-The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="840" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg/1260px-The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg/1680px-The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8400" data-file-height="1800" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_historical_city_of_Babylon.jpg" title="File:The historical city of Babylon.jpg"> </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon, 2005</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Present-day">Present-day</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Present-day">edit</a>]</div> In May 2009, the provincial government of <a href="/wiki/Babil_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Babil Governorate">Babil</a> reopened the site to tourists. Over 35,000 people visited in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-:6-10">[10]</a> An oil pipeline runs through an outer wall of the city.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> In July 2019, the site of Babylon was inscribed as a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-11">[11]</a> Thousands of people reside in Babylon within the perimeter of the ancient outer city walls, and communities in and around them are "rapidly developing from compact, dense settlements to sprawling suburbia despite laws restricting constructions".<a href="#cite_note-auto-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> Modern villages include Zwair West, Sinjar Village, Qwaresh, and Al-Jimjmah, among which the first two are better off economically.<a href="#cite_note-:5-128">[127]</a> Most residents primarily depend on daily wage earning or have government jobs in <a href="/wiki/Hillah" title="Hillah">Al-Hillah</a>. Some cultivate dates, citrus fruits, figs, fodder for livestock and limited cash crops, although income from the land alone is not enough to sustain a family.<a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> Both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims live in Sinjar village, with mosques for both groups.<a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> The State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) is the main authority responsible for the conservation of the archeological site. They are assisted by Antiquity and Heritage Police, and maintain a permanent presence there. The <a href="/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund" title="World Monuments Fund">World Monuments Fund</a> is involved in research and conservation. The SBAH Provincial Inspectorate Headquarters is located within the boundaries of the ancient inner city walls on the east side. Several staff members and their families reside in subsidized housing in this area. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_importance">Cultural importance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cultural importance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png/220px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png/330px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png/440px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_65r_3.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>A 1493 <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a>, depicting the fall of Babylon</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png/220px-The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png/330px-The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png/440px-The_walls_of_Babylon_and_the_temple_of_Bel.png 2x" data-file-width="2151" data-file-height="1464" /></a><figcaption>"The Walls of Babylon and the Temple of Bel (Or Babel)", by 19th-century illustrator <a href="/wiki/William_Simpson_(Scottish_artist)" title="William Simpson (Scottish artist)">William Simpson</a> – influenced by early archaeological investigations</figcaption></figure> Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the appearance of Babylon was largely a mystery, and typically envisioned by Western artists as a hybrid between ancient Egyptian, classical Greek, and contemporary Ottoman culture.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> Due to Babylon's historical significance as well as references to it in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, the word "Babylon" in various languages has acquired a generic meaning of a large, bustling diverse city. Examples include: <ul><li>Babylon is used in <a href="/wiki/Reggae" title="Reggae">reggae</a> music as a concept in the <a href="/wiki/Rastafari_movement#Zion_vs._Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rastafari movement">Rastafari</a> belief system, denoting the materialistic <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> world, or any form of imperialist evil. It is believed that Babylon actively seeks to exploit and oppress the people of the world, specifically people of African descent. It is believed by Rastafarians that Babylon attempts to forbid the smoking of ganja because this sacred herb opens minds to the truth.<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylon_5" title="Babylon 5">Babylon 5</a> – A <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> series set on a futuristic <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space station</a> that acts as a trading and diplomatic nexus between many different cultures. Many stories focus on the theme of different societies and cultures uniting, respecting differences, and learning from each other rather than fighting or looking on each other with prejudice and suspicion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylon_A.D." title="Babylon A.D.">Babylon A.D.</a> takes place in New York City, decades in the future.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babilonas" class="mw-redirect" title="Babilonas">Babilonas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> name for "Babylon") is a real estate development in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Chromatica" title="Chromatica">Babylon</a>" is a song by <a href="/wiki/Lady_Gaga" title="Lady Gaga">Lady Gaga</a> that uses allusions to ancient Biblical themes to discuss gossip.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternals_(film)" title="Eternals (film)">Eternals</a> (2021), depicts Babylon on its greatest extent and is shown to be protected and aided in its development by the eternals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_narrative">Biblical narrative</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Biblical narrative">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> Babel (Babylon) is described as founded by <a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a> and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Calneh" title="Calneh">Calneh</a>—all of them in <a href="/wiki/Shinar" title="Shinar">Shinar</a> ("Calneh" is now sometimes translated not as a proper name but as the phrase "all of them"). Another story is given in Genesis 11, which describes a united human race, speaking one language, migrating to Shinar to establish a city and tower—the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>. God halts construction of the tower by scattering humanity across the earth and confusing their communication so they are unable to understand each other in the same language. After Hezekiah, the king of Judah, became ill, Baladan, king of Babylon, sent a letter and gifts to him. Hezekiah showed all of his treasures to the delegation, and the prophet Isaiah later said to him: "Behold, the days are coming when everything that is in your house, and what your fathers have stored up to this day, will be carried to Babylon; nothing will be left."<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> Some 200 years later, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, invaded Judah, laid siege to Jerusalem and deported the Jews to Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> The prophet Daniel lived in Babylon for most of his life. Nebuchadnezzar made Daniel ruler over the entire province of Babylon for having interpreted his dream. Years later, Belshazzar held a banquet, at which fingers of a hand appeared and wrote on a wall. Daniel was called to provide an interpretation of the writings, upon which he explained that God had put an end to Belshazzar's kingdom. Belshazzar was killed that very night, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> The Book of Isaiah says the following regarding Babylon: "It will be like Sodom and Gomorrah when God overthrew them. It will never be inhabited or lived in for all generations; no Arab will pitch his tent there; no shepherds will make their flocks lie down there."<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">Book of Jeremiah</a> says that Babylon will "never again be inhabited" and that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it" and that it will be a land in which "no one of mankind passes".<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> The territories of Babylon, <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bozrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozrah">Bozrah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, Hazor, and the sons of <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a> are all predicted in the Bible to become like Sodom and Gomorrah, or uninhabited forever.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor against which righteous believers must struggle.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon with <a href="/wiki/Lucifer" title="Lucifer">Lucifer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, sometimes conflated with <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour200691–101-138">[137]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a> refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "<a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a>", riding on a <a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns</a>, and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">apocalyptic literature</a> believe this <a href="/wiki/Babylon_(New_Testament)" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylon (New Testament)">New Testament "Babylon"</a> to be a <a href="/wiki/Dysphemism" title="Dysphemism">dysphemism</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> Other scholars suggest that Babylon in the book of Revelation has a symbolic significance that extends beyond mere identification with the first century Roman empire.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Babylon_in_art">Babylon in art</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Babylon in art">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_(Versailles).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nebuchadnezzar II ordering the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon to please his consort Amytis, René-Antoine Houasse, 1676"><img alt="Nebuchadnezzar II ordering the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon to please his consort Amytis, René-Antoine Houasse, 1676" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg/120px-Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg/180px-Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg/240px-Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse_-_Nabuchodonosor_et_Semiramis_fait_%C3%A9lever_les_jardins_de_Babylone_%28Versailles%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="953" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> ordering the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a> to please his consort <a href="/wiki/Amytis_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Amytis of Babylon">Amytis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Houasse" title="René-Antoine Houasse">R<bdi>ené-Antoine Houasse</bdi></a>, 1676</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_fall_of_Babylon;_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fall of Babylon, mezzotint by John Martin, 1831"><img alt="The Fall of Babylon, mezzotint by John Martin, 1831" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg/120px-The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg/180px-The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg/240px-The_fall_of_Babylon%3B_Cyrus_the_Great_defeating_the_Chaldean_Wellcome_V0034440.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3348" data-file-height="2161" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mezzotint" title="Mezzotint">mezzotint</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a>, 1831</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Daughters of Jerusalem Weeping by the Waters of Babylon by John Martin, 1834"><img alt="The Daughters of Jerusalem Weeping by the Waters of Babylon by John Martin, 1834" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/120px-John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/180px-John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg/240px-John_Martin_-_The_Daughters_of_Jerusalem_Weeping_by_the_Waters_of_Babylon_-_B1975.4.639_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1211" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Daughters of Jerusalem Weeping by the Waters of Babylon by <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a>, 1834</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Alexander the Great receiving the keys of Babylon, by Johann Georg Platzer, c. 1740"><img alt="Alexander the Great receiving the keys of Babylon, by Johann Georg Platzer, c. 1740" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg/120px-Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg/180px-Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg/240px-Johann_Georg_Platzer_-_Alexander_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_empf%C3%A4ngt_die_Schl%C3%BCssel_von_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2165" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> receiving the keys of Babylon, by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Platzer" title="Johann Georg Platzer">Johann Georg Platzer</a>, c. 1740</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Figured Apocalypse of the Dukes of Savoy – Escorial E Vit.5 – Fall of Babylon, 15th century"><img alt="Figured Apocalypse of the Dukes of Savoy – Escorial E Vit.5 – Fall of Babylon, 15th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png/120px-Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png/180px-Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png/240px-Apocalypse_figur%C3%A9e_des_ducs_de_Savoie_-_Escorial_E_Vit.5_-_Fall_of_Babylon.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="548" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Figured Apocalypse of the Dukes of Savoy – Escorial E Vit.5 – <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a>, 15th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Walls of Babylon by Antonio Tempesta, 1610"><img alt="The Walls of Babylon by Antonio Tempesta, 1610" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg/120px-The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg/180px-The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg/240px-The_Walls_of_Babylon_LACMA_65.37.292.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1625" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Walls of Babylon by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Tempesta" title="Antonio Tempesta">Antonio Tempesta</a>, 1610</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1563"><img alt="The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1563" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/120px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/180px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/240px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21952" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/The_Tower_of_Babel_(Bruegel)" title="The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)">The Tower of Babel</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a>, 1563</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities of the ancient Near East">Cities of the ancient Near East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates_Tunnel" title="Euphrates Tunnel">Euphrates Tunnel</a> – Legendary tunnel under the river Euphrates</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehoiachin%27s_Rations_Tablets" title="Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets">Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kings_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Kings of Babylon">List of Kings of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Daniel" title="Tomb of Daniel">Tomb of Daniel</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Please see <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Chronology of the ancient Near East">Chronology of the ancient Near East</a> for more discussion on dating events in the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">2nd millennium BC</a>, including the Sack of Babylon. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cam-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cam_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cam_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cam_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsGaddHammond1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/I._E._S._Edwards" title="I. E. S. Edwards">Edwards, I. E. S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/C._J._Gadd" title="C. J. Gadd">Gadd, C. J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, N. G. L.</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTsRnQEACAAJ">Prolegomena and Prehistory</a>. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 1 Part 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29821-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29821-6"><bdi>978-0-521-29821-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519011417/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTsRnQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2019-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prolegomena+and+Prehistory&rft.series=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29821-6&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=I.+E.+S.&rft.au=Gadd%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Hammond%2C+N.+G.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZTsRnQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OP2011-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OP2011_2-6">g</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/1904365/Excavated_and_Unexcavated_Libraries_in_Babylon">[1]</a>Pedersén, Olof, "Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries in Babylon", Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Margarete van Ess and Joachim Marzahn, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 47-68, 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2017). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Wiley. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-119-45907-1. Retrieved 2022-08-27. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Finkel (1988) P.58. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Finkel, Irving and Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7141-1171-1. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandler-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Chandler_6-0">^</a> Tertius Chandler. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census (1987), St. David's University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080211233018/http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD">"etext.org"</a>. Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. 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See <a href="/wiki/Historical_urban_community_sizes" title="Historical urban community sizes">Historical urban community sizes</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-mieroop-7"><a href="#cite_ref-mieroop_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieroop1997" class="citation book cs1">Mieroop, Marc van de (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_YKlbIp9pYMC&pg=PA95">The Ancient Mesopotamian City</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191588457" title="Special:BookSources/9780191588457"><bdi>9780191588457</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200518225103/https://books.google.com/books?id=_YKlbIp9pYMC&pg=PA95">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-05-18. 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Layard</a>, "<a href="//archive.org/details/discoveriesinru00layagoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:discoveriesinru00layagoog">Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon</a>", New York: Harper & Brothers, 1853 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Volrath_Hilprecht" title="Hermann Volrath Hilprecht">H V. Hilprecht</a>, "<a href="//archive.org/details/explorationsinb00steigoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:explorationsinb00steigoog">Exploration in the Bible Lands During the 19th Century</a>", Philadelphia: A. J. Holman and Company, 1903 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillet1922" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pillet, Maurice (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5730001x">L'expédition scientifique et artistique de Mésopotamie et de Médie, 1851-1855 / Maurice Pillet,...</a> (in French). Bibliothèque nationale de France: É. Champion (Paris). Retrieved 2021-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27exp%C3%A9dition+scientifique+et+artistique+de+M%C3%A9sopotamie+et+de+M%C3%A9die%2C+1851-1855+%2F+Maurice+Pillet%2C...&rft.place=Biblioth%C3%A8que+nationale+de+France&rft.pub=%C3%89.+Champion+%28Paris%29&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Pillet&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k5730001x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> J. Oppert, "Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie exécutée par ordre du gouvernement de 1851 à 1854", Tome I: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_abSOZ6sClWQC">"Rélation du voyage et résultat de l'expédition</a>", 1863 Tome II: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5Elhp7ufax4C">Déchiffrement des inscriptions cuneiforms</a>", 1859 (also as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-543-74939-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-543-74939-8">0-543-74939-8</a>) (in French) </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_45-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsen,_M.T.1996" class="citation book cs1">Larsen, M.T. (1996). The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 344–9, 350–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315862859">10.4324/9781315862859</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317949954" title="Special:BookSources/9781317949954"><bdi>9781317949954</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquest+of+Assyria%3A+Excavations+in+an+Antique+Land&rft.pages=344-9%2C+350-3&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315862859&rft.isbn=9781317949954&rft.au=Larsen%2C+M.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts" class="citation journal cs1">Potts, D. T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44717694">"Potts 2020. 'Un coup terrible de la fortune:' A. Clément and the Qurna disaster of 1855. in Finkel, I.L. and Simpson, St J., eds. In Context: The Reade Festschrift. Oxford: Archaeopress"</a>. Archaeopress Archaeology: 235–244. Retrieved 2021-04-13 – via Academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeopress+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Potts+2020.+%27Un+coup+terrible+de+la+fortune%3A%27+A.+Cl%C3%A9ment+and+the+Qurna+disaster+of+1855.+in+Finkel%2C+I.L.+and+Simpson%2C+St+J.%2C+eds.+In+Context%3A+The+Reade+Festschrift.+Oxford%3A+Archaeopress.&rft.pages=235-244&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F44717694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_D._Pfister2021" class="citation web cs1">Samuel D. Pfister (20 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/the-qurnah-disaster/">"The Qurnah Disaster: Archaeology & Piracy in Mesopotamia"</a>. Bible History Daily. Retrieved 13 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+History+Daily&rft.atitle=The+Qurnah+Disaster%3A+Archaeology+%26+Piracy+in+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2021-01-20&rft.au=Samuel+D.+Pfister&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalarchaeology.org%2Fdaily%2Fthe-qurnah-disaster%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNamio_Egami" class="citation web cs1">Namio Egami. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/orient1960/8/0/8_0_1/_pdf">"The Report of The Japan Mission For The Survey of Under-Water Antiquities At Qurnah: The First Season (1971-72)"</a>. pp. 1–45. Retrieved 2021-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Report+of+The+Japan+Mission+For+The+Survey+of+Under-Water+Antiquities+At+Qurnah%3A+The+First+Season+%281971-72%29&rft.pages=1-45&rft.au=Namio+Egami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Forient1960%2F8%2F0%2F8_0_1%2F_pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-25228697">[6]</a>Rawlinson, Henry C., "On the Birs Nimrud, or the Great Temple of Borsippa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 1–34, 1861 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormuzd_Rassam" title="Hormuzd Rassam">Hormuzd Rassam</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/asshurlandofnimr00rass/asshurlandofnimr00rass.pdf">Asshur and the Land of Nimrod: Being an Account of the Discoveries Made in the Ancient Ruins of Nineveh, Asshur, Sepharvaim, Calah, Babylon, Borsippa, Cuthah, and Van, etc</a>", Curts & Jennings, 1897 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Julian Reade, "Hormuzd Rassam and his discoveries", Iraq, vol. 55, pp. 39–62, 1993 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:515169/FULLTEXT01.pdf">[7]</a>Pedersén, O., "Work on a Digital Model of Babylon Using Archaeological and Textual Evidence", Mesopotamia 46, pp. 9–22, 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/wiedererstehende00kold">[8]</a><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koldewey" title="Robert Koldewey">Robert Koldewey</a>, "Das wieder erstehende Babylon, die bisherigen Ergebnisse der deutschen Ausgrabungen", J.C. Hinrichs, 1913; Agnes Sophia Griffith Johns (translator), <a href="//archive.org/details/ldpd_10797913_000" class="extiw" title="iarchive:ldpd 10797913 000">The Excavations at Babylon</a>, Macmillan and Co., 1914. "Up to the present time only about half the work has been accomplished, although since it began we have worked daily, both summer and winter, with from 200 to 250 workmen" (p. v). </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101068046869&seq=10">[9]</a>R. Koldewey, "Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa", WVDOG, vol. 15, pp. 37–49, 1911 (in German) </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/ischtar-tor-in-babylon-nach-den-ausgrabungen-durch-die-deutsche-orient-gesellschaft">[10]</a>R. Koldewey, "Das Ischtar-Tor in Babylon Nach Den Ausgrabungen Durch Die Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft", WVDOG, vol. 32, 1918 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> F. Wetzel, "Die Stadtmauren von Babylon", WVDOG, vol. 48, pp. 1–83, 1930 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> F. Wetzel and F.H. Weisbach, "Das Hauptheiligtum des Marduk in Babylon: Esagila und Etemenanki", WVDOG, vol. 59, pp. 1–36, 1938 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> F. Wetzel et al., "Das Babylon der Spätzeit", WVDOG, vol. 62, Gebr. Mann, 1957 (1998 reprint <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-2001-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-2001-3">3-7861-2001-3</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0293014">[11]</a>Di Chiara, Anita, et al., "An archaeomagnetic study of the Ishtar Gate, Babylon", Plos one 19.1, 2024 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilsel2012" class="citation book cs1">Bilsel, Can (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xG5xl81LoW4C&pg=PA163">Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlin's Pergamon Museum</a>. OUP Oxford. pp. 163–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957055-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957055-3"><bdi>978-0-19-957055-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2019-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antiquity+on+Display%3A+Regimes+of+the+Authentic+in+Berlin%27s+Pergamon+Museum&rft.pages=163-183&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957055-3&rft.aulast=Bilsel&rft.aufirst=Can&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxG5xl81LoW4C%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Douglas Frayne, "Babylon", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 323–438, 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763246&increment=64">[12]</a>Lenzen, H. J., "The Greek theatre in Babylon", Sumer 15, pp. 39, 1959 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Hansjörg Schmid, "Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon", Zabern, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8053-1610-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-8053-1610-0">3-8053-1610-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Schmidt, J., "Das Bīt Akītu von Babylon. Mit einem Beitrag von B. Finster", BaM 33, pp. 281–31, 2002 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> G. Bergamini, "Levels of Babylon Reconsidered", Mesopotamia, vol. 12, pp. 111–152, 1977 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763308&increment=29">[13]</a>G. Bergamini, "Preliminary Report on the 1987 Season of Excavations at Babylon, Iraq", Sumer 47, pp. 30–34, 1995 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> G. Bergamini, "Excavations in Shu-anna Babylon 1987", Mesopotamia, vol. 23, pp. 5–17, 1988 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> G. Bergamini, "Preliminary report on the 1988–1989 operations at Babylon Shu-Anna", Mesopotamia, vol. 25, pp. 5–12, 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=18">[14]</a>Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and the inner wall" Sumer 41, pp. 19, 22, Arabic section pp. 34–35, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=51">[15]</a>Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 41, pp. 52–54, Arabic section pp. 77–82, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=62">[16]</a>Al-Suba’ai, ‘Ata Allha Mohammed, "Ishtar temple and the residential quarter west of the temple", Sumer 41, pp. 63–66, Arabic pp. 101–107, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=57">[17]</a>Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structure", Sumer 41, pp. 58–59, Arabic section, pp. 94–97., 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=29">[18]</a>Isḥaq, Danial, "The excavations at the southern part of the procession street and the Nabû ša ḫarê temple", Sumer 41, pp. 30–33, Arabic section, pp. 48–54, Figs. 1–18, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=20">[19]</a>Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "Excavation at the northeastern part of the inner wall", Sumer 41, pp. 20–21, Arabic section, pp. 36–42, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Damerji, Moayad Said Basim, "Babylon – ka.dingir.ra – “gate of god”. The story of a city killed by legends and oblivion", Mesopotamia 47, pp. 1–102, 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> "Excavations in Iraq 1981–1982, Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Farouk N. H. Al-Rawi, Nabopolassar's Restoration Work on the Wall "Imgur-Enlil at Babylon, Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 1–13, 1985 </li> <li id="cite_note-MacGinnis-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacGinnis_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacGinnis_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGinnis1986" class="citation journal cs1">MacGinnis, John (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10243265">"Herodotus' Description of Babylon"</a>. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 33: 67–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2041-5370.1986.tb00185.x">10.1111/j.2041-5370.1986.tb00185.x</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211114165832/https://www.academia.edu/10243265">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+Classical+Studies&rft.atitle=Herodotus%27+Description+of+Babylon&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=67-86&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2041-5370.1986.tb00185.x&rft.aulast=MacGinnis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F10243265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Vedeler (2006), pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Records of the Past, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a>, 2nd series, Vol. 1, 1888, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> N.H. vii. 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, <a href="/wiki/George_Rawlinson" title="George Rawlinson">George Rawlinson</a>, Vol. 4, p. 526–527. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Rients de Boer. "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Vedeler (2006), pp. 8–15. "However, this later tradition is almost certainly a simplification or even a reworking of the actual events surrounding Sumu-abum, who was never regarded as an actual ancestor to the other kings of the Babylon I dynasty (Edzard 1957:122); in reality the relationship of Sumu-abum to Babylon was much more complex. It was long been noted that many of Sumu-abum's year names are identical or virtually identical to the year names of Sumu-la-el, whom we know for certain was king of Babylon. Goddeeris (2002:319–320) sums these parallels up as follows: Sa 1 and 2 / Sl 5 and 6: building the wall of Babylon. Sa 9 / Sl 'b': building the wall of Dilbat. Sa 13/14 / Sl 20/21: the destruction and seizure of Kazallu." </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldred1970" class="citation journal cs1">Aldred, Cyril (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3856046">"The Foreign Gifts Offered to Pharaoh"</a>. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 56: 105–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3856046">10.2307/3856046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0307-5133">0307-5133</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3856046">3856046</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211116130941/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3856046">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-16. Retrieved 2021-11-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Foreign+Gifts+Offered+to+Pharaoh&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=105-116&rft.date=1970&rft.issn=0307-5133&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3856046%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3856046&rft.aulast=Aldred&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3856046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparJursa2014" class="citation book cs1">Spar, Ira; Jursa, Michael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JbREBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA288">The Ebabbar Temple Archive and Other Texts from the Fourth to the First Millennium B.C.</a> Cuneiform Texts in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. IV. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 288–290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-327-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-327-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-327-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200518225924/https://books.google.com/books?id=JbREBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA288">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ebabbar+Temple+Archive+and+Other+Texts+from+the+Fourth+to+the+First+Millennium+B.C.&rft.series=Cuneiform+Texts+in+The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.pages=288-290&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-327-0&rft.aulast=Spar&rft.aufirst=Ira&rft.au=Jursa%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJbREBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradford2001" class="citation book cs1">Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dY86rHCI1I8C&pg=PA47">With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 47–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95259-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95259-4"><bdi>978-0-275-95259-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519030115/https://books.google.com/books?id=dY86rHCI1I8C&pg=PA47">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2019-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=With+Arrow%2C+Sword%2C+and+Spear%3A+A+History+of+Warfare+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=47-48&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-275-95259-4&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Alfred+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdY86rHCI1I8C%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Soden1994" class="citation book cs1">von Soden, Wolfram (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientorientint0000sode">The Ancient Orient</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientorientint0000sode/page/60">60</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0142-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0142-5"><bdi>978-0-8028-0142-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Orient&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0142-5&rft.aulast=von+Soden&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientorientint0000sode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). Babylonians, p. 165. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20222-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20222-8">0-520-20222-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Stephanie Dalley</a>, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, OUP <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966226-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966226-5">978-0-19-966226-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour200688–89-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour200688–89_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, pp. 88–89: "Preventing uprisings on the fringes of the empire was a major concern for Assyrian kings, and a number of policies developed to meet this need, among them mass deportations. When new territory was conquered or a rebellious vassal crushed, an increased imperial presence in the trouble spot was often complemented by the removal of large numbers of the indigenous population to the imperial core, effectively breaking up the rebellious population and reducing the potential for future resistance. This practice was effective, and continued throughout the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires until 539 BC and Cyrus's conquest of Babylon. The majority of the immigrant population were not slaves (Yamauchi 2002: 365), and some did rise to high status positions at the core of the empire (a possibility reflected in the career of the biblical Daniel, who rises to the status of trusted royal confidant)." </li> <li id="cite_note-BabylonianChronicles-94"><a href="#cite_ref-BabylonianChronicles_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx">"British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BC)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx">the original</a> on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Museum+%E2%80%93+Cuneiform+tablet+with+part+of+the+Babylonian+Chronicle+%28605%E2%80%93594+BC%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fhighlights%2Fhighlight_objects%2Fme%2Fc%2Fcuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html">"ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius"</a>. www.livius.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-05. Retrieved 2020-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=ABC+5+%28Jerusalem+Chronicle%29+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fcg-cm%2Fchronicles%2Fabc5%2Fjerusalem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herodotus-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herodotus_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herodotus_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodley1920" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Godley, Alfred Denis (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.178">"Ch. 178-200"</a>. Herodotus, The Histories. Vol. Book 1. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4559420">4559420</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230316054709/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.178">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-16. Retrieved 2019-08-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+178-200&rft.btitle=Herodotus%2C+The+Histories&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4559420&rft.aulast=Godley&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Denis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.perseus.org%2Fcitations%2Furn%3Acts%3AgreekLit%3Atlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1%3A1.178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988">; or see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170505040539/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Herobab.html">"Herodotus' Description of Babylon and the Babylonians"</a>. shsu.edu. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Herobab.html">the original</a> on 2017-05-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=shsu.edu&rft.atitle=Herodotus%27+Description+of+Babylon+and+the+Babylonians&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shsu.edu%2F~his_ncp%2FHerobab.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Isaiah 44:27 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Jeremiah 50–51 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006107–115-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour2006107–115_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, pp. 107–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press/statements/cyrus_cylinder.aspx">Cyrus Cylinder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111201041948/http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press/statements/cyrus_cylinder.aspx">Archived</a> 2011-12-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The British Museum. Retrieved July 23, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM">"Mesopotamia: The Persians"</a>. Wsu.edu:8080. 1999-06-06. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206180919/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+The+Persians&rft.pub=Wsu.edu%3A8080&rft.date=1999-06-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%3A8080%2F~dee%2FMESO%2FPERSIANS.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Nissen, Hans J. and Heine, Peter, "Alexander and the Seleucids in Babylonia (331–141 BCE)", From Mesopotamia to Iraq: A Concise History, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 114-119, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1997" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16524-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-16524-5"><bdi>0-415-16524-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trajan%3A+Optimus+Princeps&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-16524-5&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadner2020" class="citation book cs1">Radner, Karen (2020). A Short History of Babylon. Great Britain: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0169-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0169-0"><bdi>978-1-8386-0169-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Babylon&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-8386-0169-0&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-Reade2009-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reade2009_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reade2009_106-1">b</a> Julian E. Reade, "Disappearance and rediscovery"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 13–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148–151-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour2006148–151_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, pp. 148–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadner2020" class="citation book cs1">Radner, Karen (2020). A Short History of Babylon. Great Britain: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. Ch. 2, p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0169-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0169-0"><bdi>978-1-8386-0169-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Babylon&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=Ch.+2%2C+p.+21&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-8386-0169-0&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.17311/page/n5/mode/2up">[20]</a>Champdor, Albert, "Babylon", translated from French by Elsa Coult, 1958 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour2006169–173-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour2006169–173_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, pp. 169–173. </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis2011-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2011_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2011_111-1">b</a> John Curtis, "The Present Condition of Babylon"; in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtis2009-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2009_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtis2009_112-1">b</a> John Curtis, "The Site of Babylon Today"; in Finkel & Seymour, eds., Babylon (2009); pp. 213–220. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Paul Lewis, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/19/world/babylon-journal-ancient-king-s-instructions-to-iraq-fix-my-palace.html">Babylon Journal; Ancient King's Instructions to Iraq: Fix My Palace</a>" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171220204046/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/19/world/babylon-journal-ancient-king-s-instructions-to-iraq-fix-my-palace.html">archive</a>), New York Times, 19 April 1989. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2003-04-21/saddam-removed-from-ancient-babylon-brick-by-brick/1840416">Saddam removed from ancient Babylon 'brick by brick'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018113214/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2003-04-21/saddam-removed-from-ancient-babylon-brick-by-brick/1840416">Archived</a> 2017-10-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", ABC News 20 April 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Rothfield2009" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence Rothfield (1 Aug 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rapeofmesopotami00roth">The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226729435" title="Special:BookSources/9780226729435"><bdi>9780226729435</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rape+of+Mesopotamia%3A+Behind+the+Looting+of+the+Iraq+Museum&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009-08-01&rft.isbn=9780226729435&rft.au=Lawrence+Rothfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frapeofmesopotami00roth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mei.edu/publications/iraqs-ancient-city-babylon-gets-long-overdue-international-recognition">"Iraq's ancient city of Babylon gets long-overdue international recognition"</a>. Middle East Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211021113931/https://www.mei.edu/publications/iraqs-ancient-city-babylon-gets-long-overdue-international-recognition">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Institute&rft.atitle=Iraq%27s+ancient+city+of+Babylon+gets+long-overdue+international+recognition&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mei.edu%2Fpublications%2Firaqs-ancient-city-babylon-gets-long-overdue-international-recognition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarty-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCarty_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCarty_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthyKennedy2005" class="citation news cs1">McCarthy, Rory; Kennedy, Maev (2005-01-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/15/iraq.arts1">"Babylon wrecked by war"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160920172645/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/15/iraq.arts1">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2016-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Babylon+wrecked+by+war&rft.date=2005-01-15&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Maev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2005%2Fjan%2F15%2Firaq.arts1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajjaly,_Joanne_Farchakh2005" class="citation news cs1">Bajjaly, Joanne Farchakh (2005-04-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4461755.stm">"History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708233357/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4461755.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-08. Retrieved 2013-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=History+lost+in+dust+of+war-torn+Iraq&rft.date=2005-04-25&rft.au=Bajjaly%2C+Joanne+Farchakh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fmiddle_east%2F4461755.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeman2005" class="citation news cs1">Leeman, Sue (January 16, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2005/01/16/damage_seen_to_ancient_babylon/">"Damage seen to ancient Babylon"</a>. The Boston Globe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224434/http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2005/01/16/damage_seen_to_ancient_babylon/">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Damage+seen+to+ancient+Babylon&rft.date=2005-01-16&rft.aulast=Leeman&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Farticles%2F2005%2F01%2F16%2Fdamage_seen_to_ancient_babylon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marozzi-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Marozzi_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarozzi2016" class="citation news cs1">Marozzi, Justin (2016-08-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/08/lost-cities-1-babylon-iraq-war-history-mankind-greatest-heritage-site">"Lost cities #1: Babylon – how war almost erased 'mankind's greatest heritage site'"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200413012909/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/08/lost-cities-1-babylon-iraq-war-history-mankind-greatest-heritage-site">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2016-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Lost+cities+%231%3A+Babylon+%E2%80%93+how+war+almost+erased+%27mankind%27s+greatest+heritage+site%27&rft.date=2016-08-08&rft.aulast=Marozzi&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcities%2F2016%2Faug%2F08%2Flost-cities-1-babylon-iraq-war-history-mankind-greatest-heritage-site&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldheritagealert.org/Pages/news.htm">Heritage News from around the world</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160202162256/http://www.worldheritagealert.org/Pages/news.htm">Archived</a> 2016-02-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, World Heritage Alert!. Retrieved April 19, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Cornwell, Rupert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-colonel-offers-iraq-an-apology-of-sorts-for-devastation-of-babylon-474205.html">US colonel offers Iraq an apology of sorts for devastation of Babylon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110919065526/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/us-colonel-offers-iraq-an-apology-of-sorts-for-devastation-of-babylon-474205.html">Archived</a> 2011-09-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Independent, April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Gettleman, Jeffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/13/news/babylon.php">Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Herald_Tribune" title="International Herald Tribune">International Herald Tribune</a>, April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060612204629/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/13/news/babylon.php">Archived</a> June 12, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> McBride, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0699/ju99monu.htm">Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age of Saddam Hussein</a>, MetropolisMag. Retrieved April 19, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051210184039/http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0699/ju99monu.htm">Archived</a> December 10, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Maryam U. Musa, "The Situation of the Babylon Archaeological Site until 2006", in Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon2013" class="citation web cs1">Damon, Arawa (4 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/04/world/meast/iraq-babylon-tourism/">"Bringing Babylon back from the dead"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170606141233/http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/04/world/meast/iraq-babylon-tourism">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Bringing+Babylon+back+from+the+dead&rft.date=2013-04-04&rft.aulast=Damon&rft.aufirst=Arawa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2013%2F04%2F04%2Fworld%2Fmeast%2Firaq-babylon-tourism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2009" class="citation web cs1">Myers, Steven Lee (2 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170806111853/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/03/world/middleeast/03babylon.html">"Babylon Ruins Reopen in Iraq, to Controversy"</a>. The New York Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/03/world/middleeast/03babylon.html">the original</a> on 2017-08-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Babylon+Ruins+Reopen+in+Iraq%2C+to+Controversy&rft.date=2009-05-02&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Steven+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F05%2F03%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2F03babylon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-128"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/document/168482">"Maps and Plans: Excavations and Investigations at Babylon"</a>. unesco.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200705155301/https://whc.unesco.org/document/168482">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unesco.org&rft.atitle=Maps+and+Plans%3A+Excavations+and+Investigations+at+Babylon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fdocument%2F168482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Liverani 2016, pp. 21–22. "In practice, the solution adopted to visualize cities which were in fact unknown was a mixture of classical (Greek) and Egyptian elements, with long colonnades, even built on more than one level—which will then prove totally foreign to the unfired brick architecture of Mesopotamian cities—and with plenty of obelisks and the odd sphinx. To this mixture is added, often and willingly, something of Ottoman architecture, showing cupolas and minarets, clearly useful in picturing an unchangeable Near East which therefore needed to retain elements of remote antiquity in a modern age." </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_MurrellSpencerMcFarlane1998" class="citation book cs1">Samuel Murrell; Spencer; McFarlane (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iesWzLHb_GUC&q=babylon">Chanting Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader</a>. Temple University Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566395847" title="Special:BookSources/9781566395847"><bdi>9781566395847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chanting+Down+Babylon%3A+The+Rastafari+Reader&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781566395847&rft.au=Samuel+Murrell&rft.au=Spencer&rft.au=McFarlane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiesWzLHb_GUC%26q%3Dbabylon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2010:10&version=nrsv">Genesis 10:10</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2020%3A12-19%2CIsaiah%2039&version=NASB">"Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 20:12-19, Isaiah 39 – New American Standard Bible"</a>. Bible Gateway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215300/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2020:12-19,Isaiah%2039&version=NASB">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+2+Kings+20%3A12-19%2C+Isaiah+39+%E2%80%93+New+American+Standard+Bible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3D2%2520Kings%252020%253A12-19%252CIsaiah%252039%26version%3DNASB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2024-25%2C2%20Chronicles%2036%2CJeremiah%2039%3A1-10&version=NASB">"Bible Gateway passage: 2 Kings 24-25, 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 39:1-10 – New American Standard Bible"</a>. Bible Gateway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215301/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2024-25,2%20Chronicles%2036,Jeremiah%2039:1-10&version=NASB">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+2+Kings+24-25%2C+2+Chronicles+36%2C+Jeremiah+39%3A1-10+%E2%80%93+New+American+Standard+Bible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3D2%2520Kings%252024-25%252C2%2520Chronicles%252036%252CJeremiah%252039%253A1-10%26version%3DNASB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel%205&version=ESV">"Bible Gateway passage: Daniel 5 – English Standard Version"</a>. Bible Gateway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215302/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel%205&version=ESV">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Daniel+5+%E2%80%93+English+Standard+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DDaniel%25205%26version%3DESV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2013%3A19-20&version=ESV">"Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19-20 – English Standard Version"</a>. Bible Gateway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215301/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2013:19-20&version=ESV">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Isaiah+13%3A19-20+%E2%80%93+English+Standard+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DIsaiah%252013%253A19-20%26version%3DESV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Jeremiah Chapters 50, 51". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah+50%2C+51&version=NASB">Prophecy against Babylon</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200537/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah+50,+51&version=NASB">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jeremiah+Chapters+50%2C+51&rft.btitle=Prophecy+against+Babylon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DJeremiah%2B50%252C%2B51%26version%3DNASB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2013%3A19-20%2CJeremiah%2049%3A17-18%2CJeremiah%2049%3A13%2CZephaniah%202%3A9%2CEzekiel%2026%3A14%2CEzekiel%2026%3A19-21%2CJeremiah%2049%3A33&version=ESV">"Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 13:19–20, Jeremiah 49:17–18, Jeremiah 49:13, Zephaniah 2:9, Ezekiel 26:14, Ezekiel 26:19–21, Jeremiah 49:33 – English Standard Version"</a>. Bible Gateway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602220201/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2013:19-20,Jeremiah%2049:17-18,Jeremiah%2049:13,Zephaniah%202:9,Ezekiel%2026:14,Ezekiel%2026:19-21,Jeremiah%2049:33&version=ESV">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Isaiah+13%3A19%E2%80%9320%2C+Jeremiah+49%3A17%E2%80%9318%2C+Jeremiah+49%3A13%2C+Zephaniah+2%3A9%2C+Ezekiel+26%3A14%2C+Ezekiel+26%3A19%E2%80%9321%2C+Jeremiah+49%3A33+%E2%80%93+English+Standard+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DIsaiah%252013%253A19-20%252CJeremiah%252049%253A17-18%252CJeremiah%252049%253A13%252CZephaniah%25202%253A9%252CEzekiel%252026%253A14%252CEzekiel%252026%253A19-21%252CJeremiah%252049%253A33%26version%3DESV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeymour200691–101-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeymour200691–101_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeymour2006">Seymour 2006</a>, pp. 91–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Merrill Tenney, New Testament Survey, Inter-varsity Press, 1985, p. 383 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Craig R. Koester, Revelation (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2014), 506, 684 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_2">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Cancik-Kirschbaum, Eva, Margarete van Ess, & Joachim Marzahn, eds. (2011). Babylon: Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022212-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022212-8">978-3-11-022212-8</a>.</li> <li>Finkel, I. L. and M. J. Seymour, eds. Babylon. Oxford University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-538540-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-538540-3">0-19-538540-3</a> . Exhibition organized by British Museum, Musée du Louvre & Réunion des Musées Nationaux, and Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Liverani" title="Mario Liverani">Liverani, Mario</a>. Imagining Babylon: The Modern Story of an Ancient City. Translated from Italian to English by Ailsa Campbell. Boston: De Gruyter, 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-602-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-602-6">978-1-61451-602-6</a>. Originally published as Immaginare Babele in 2013.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeymour2006" class="citation thesis cs1">Seymour, M. J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1445913/">The idea of Babylon: archaeology and representation in Mesopotamia</a> (Doctoral thesis). University College London. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/500097655">500097655</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+idea+of+Babylon%3A+archaeology+and+representation+in+Mesopotamia&rft.degree=Doctoral&rft.inst=University+College+London&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F500097655&rft.aulast=Seymour&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F1445913%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Vedeler, Harold Torger. A Social and Economic Survey of the Reign of Samsuiluna of Babylon (1794–1712 BC). PhD dissertation accepted at Yale, May 2006.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Abdul-Razzak, Wahbi, "Ishtar gate and its inner wall" Sumer 35, pp. 112–117, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li>Ali, Shah Mohammed, "The Southern Palace", Sumer 35, pp. 82–93, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://igj-iraq.org/igj/index.php/igj/article/download/1379/2014">[21]</a>Al-Assadi, Hind A., and Najah A. Abd, "Application of Georadar Method to Investigate Shallow Artifacts for Al-Maabid Area in Babylon Archaeological City", The Iraqi Geological Journal, pp. 288-295, 2024</li> <li>Al-Kassar, Awwad Abdul-Kareem, "Views and conclusions about the excavations of the northern part of the procession street for the year 1981" Sumer 41, Arabic section, pp. 137–138, 1985 (in Arabic)</li> <li>Alwan, Kamil Shihab, "The Vaulted Structures or the so-called Hanging Gardens", Sumer 35, pp. 127–136, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalley2021" class="citation book cs1">Dalley, Stephanie (2021). The City of Babylon: A History c. 2000 BC – AD 116. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-50177-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-50177-1"><bdi>978-1-316-50177-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+of+Babylon%3A+A+History+c.+2000+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+116&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-316-50177-1&rft.aulast=Dalley&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kamil, Ahmed Mohammed, "The inner wall of Babylon", Sumer 35, pp. 137–149, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_William_King" title="Leonard William King">King, L. W.</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Religion_and_Mythology" title="Babylonian Religion and Mythology">Babylonian Religion and Mythology</a>", 1899</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/pflastersteine-von-aiburschabu-in-babylon">[22]</a>Koldewey, Robert, "Pflastersteine Von Aiburschabu In Babylon", J. C. Hinrichs'sch Buchhandlung, 1901</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaul1997" class="citation journal cs1">Maul, Stefan (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/maul/ancientcapitals.html">"The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City – Reflection and Navel of the World"</a>. Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Presidential+Lectures+and+Symposia+in+the+Humanities+and+Arts&rft.atitle=The+Ancient+Middle+Eastern+Capital+City+%E2%80%93+Reflection+and+Navel+of+the+World&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Maul&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprelectur.stanford.edu%2Flecturers%2Fmaul%2Fancientcapitals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> – originally published in German <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Die altorientalische Hauptstadt – Abbild und Nabel der Wel". Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationale Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9–10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag: 109–124. 1997.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Orientalische+Stadt%3A+Kontinuitat.+Wandel.+Bruch.+1+Internationale+Colloquium+der+Deutschen+Orient-Gesellschaft.+9%E2%80%9310.+Mai+1996+in+Halle%2FSaale&rft.atitle=Die+altorientalische+Hauptstadt+%E2%80%93+Abbild+und+Nabel+der+Wel&rft.pages=109-124&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://ia902908.us.archive.org/14/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.529795/2015.529795.ruins-of.pdf">[23]</a>Maurice, Thomas, "Observations on the ruins of Babylon, as recently visited and described by Claudius James Rich, Esq. resident for the East India Company at Bagdad; with illustrative engravings", London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1816</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMommsenDicksonHaverfield2004" class="citation book cs1">Mommsen, Theodor; Dickson, William Purdie; Haverfield, Francis (2004). The provinces of the Roman Empire: from Caesar to Diocletian, Vol. II. Gorgias Press LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-026-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-026-2"><bdi>978-1-59333-026-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+provinces+of+the+Roman+Empire%3A+from+Caesar+to+Diocletian%2C+Vol.+II&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press+LLC&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-026-2&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rft.au=Dickson%2C+William+Purdie&rft.au=Haverfield%2C+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOates1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Oates" title="Joan Oates">Oates, Joan</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/babylon00oate">Babylon</a>. Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-02095-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-02095-7"><bdi>0-500-02095-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Babylon&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-500-02095-7&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbabylon00oate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27384-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27384-7">0-500-27384-7</a> (paperback)</li> <li>Nasir, Mohammad, "The Temple of Ishtar of Agade", Sumer 35, pp. 61–81, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li>Nasir, Mohammad, "The so-called Summer Palace (Nebuchadnezzar’s life palace)" Sumer 35, pp. 150–159, 1979 (in Arabic)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763297&increment=9">[24]</a>Sollberger, Edmond, "Babylon’s beginnings", Sumer 41, pp. 10–13, 1985</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna31842219">"Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon - NBC News"</a>. 10 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Experts%3A+Iraq+invasion+harmed+historic+Babylon+-+NBC+News&rft.date=2009-07-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna31842219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%86%8D%F0%92%80%AD%F0%92%8A%8F%F0%92%86%A0" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠">𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Babylon#Q5684" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Babylon">Babylon</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Babylon" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Babylon">Babylon</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/481389/Iranian-archaeologists-to-perform-survey-in-Babylon">Iranian archaeologists to perform survey in Babylon - Tehran Times - January 29, 2023</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/GoviB/boivin_ane_today_november_2022.pdf">Modern Wars and Ancient Governance: Archaeology and Textual Finds from First Millennium BCE Babylon – Odette Boivin – ANE Today – Nov 2022</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asor.org/anetoday/2022/09/babylonian-festival-and-ritual-humiliation">– The Babylonian Akītu Festival and the Ritual Humiliation of the King – Sam Mirelman – ANE Today – Sep 2022</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630190127/https://www.asor.org/anetoday/2022/09/babylonian-festival-and-ritual-humiliation/">Archived</a> 2023-06-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/en/e/altorient/forschungsprojekte/forschung/abgeschlossen_Das-Babylon-Projekt/index.html">The Babylon Project – Freie Universität Berlin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y25j">Babylon</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090421000617/http://www.iraqimage.com/pages/browse/Babylon.html">Iraq Image – Babylon Satellite Observation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/asp_meso_babylon/">Site Photographs of Babylon – Oriental Institute</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090427101003/http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/asp_meso_babylon/">Archived</a> 2009-04-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=51&letter=B">1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Babylon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/57688">Beyond Babylon: art, trade, and diplomacy in the second millennium B.C.</a>, Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 18, 2008-Mar. 15, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</li> <li>Osama S. M. Amin, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etc.worldhistory.org/travel/visiting-ancient-city-babylon/">Visiting the ancient city of Babylon</a>", Ancient History Et Cetera, 17 November 2014.</li> <li>Video of reconstructed palace: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OFZJnlSucc">Iraq elections: The palace that Nebuchadnezzar built</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1391042,00.html">Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna31842219">"Experts: Iraq invasion harmed historic Babylon"</a>. Associated Press. July 10, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Experts%3A+Iraq+invasion+harmed+historic+Babylon&rft.date=2009-07-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna31842219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABabylon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110812220343/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001831/183134e.pdf">UNESCO Final Report on Damage Assessment in Babylon</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5684#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/146198874">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjFMPmfgWFPhvPtg9pwKVC">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4004101-3">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh86001922">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge128703&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543966105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/893951">Pleiades</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/babil">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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