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<span>Subfields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Climate data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topics_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Topics of research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics_of_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topics of research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topics_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climatological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climatological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Climatological processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climatological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Climate classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_variability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_variability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Climate variability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_variability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_with_meteorology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_with_meteorology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Differences with meteorology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_with_meteorology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_weather_forecasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_weather_forecasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Use in weather forecasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_weather_forecasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Climatology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">96 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE" title="علم المناخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المناخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatolox%C3%ADa" title="Climatoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Climatoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जलवायु बिज्ञान – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जलवायु बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologiya" title="Klimatologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Klimatologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="জলবায়ুবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জলবায়ুবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кліматалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кліматалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кліматалёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кліматалёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जलवायु बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जलवायु बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Климатология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Климатология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologija" title="Klimatologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Klimatologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinadouriezh" title="Hinadouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hinadouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologia" title="Climatologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Climatologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Климатологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Климатологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinsoddeg" title="Hinsoddeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hinsoddeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatoloogia" title="Klimatoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Klimatoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Κλιματολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλιματολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatolog%C3%ADa" title="Climatología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Climatología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatscienco" title="Klimatscienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klimatscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologia" title="Klimatologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Klimatologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="اقلیم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقلیم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologie" title="Climatologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Climatologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%ADomeola%C3%ADocht" title="Clíomeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Clíomeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatolox%C3%ADa" title="Climatoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Climatoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%ED%9B%84%ED%95%99" title="기후학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기후학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Climatology" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կլիմայագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կլիմայագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जलवायुविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जलवायुविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologija" title="Klimatologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Klimatologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologio" title="Klimatologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Klimatologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologie" title="Climatologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Climatologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C3%B0urfarsfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Veðurfarsfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Veðurfarsfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologia" title="Climatologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Climatologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="קלימטולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלימטולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კლიმატოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კლიმატოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Климатология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Климатология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatoloji" title="Klimatoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Klimatoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatoloj%C3%AE" title="Klimatolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Klimatolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Климатология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Климатология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatolo%C4%A3ija" title="Klimatoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Klimatoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologija" title="Klimatologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Klimatologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatolojia" title="Climatolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Climatolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatulugia" title="Climatulugia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Climatulugia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatol%C3%B3gia" title="Klimatológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Klimatológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Климатологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Климатологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वातावरणशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वातावरणशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კლიმატოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კლიმატოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9-h%C3%A2iu-h%C5%8Fk" title="Ké-hâiu-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ké-hâiu-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologie" title="Klimatologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Klimatologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%97%E5%80%99%E5%AD%A6" title="気候学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="気候学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologia" title="Climatologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Climatologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iqlimshunoslik" title="Iqlimshunoslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Iqlimshunoslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="اقلیم پېژندنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اقلیم پېژندنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologia" title="Klimatologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Klimatologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologia" title="Climatologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Climatologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologie" title="Climatologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Climatologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Климатология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Климатология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologia" title="Climatologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Climatologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologjia" title="Klimatologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Klimatologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="දේශගුණ විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දේශගුණ විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Climatology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatol%C3%B3gia" title="Klimatológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Klimatológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologija" title="Klimatologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Klimatologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%88%DA%BE%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ئاووھەواناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئاووھەواناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Климатологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Климатологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologija" title="Klimatologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Klimatologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmastotiede" title="Ilmastotiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ilmastotiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi" title="Klimatologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Klimatologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="காலநிலையியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="காலநிலையியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Климатология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Климатология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ภูมิอากาศวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิอากาศวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D2%9B%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Иқлимшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Иқлимшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0klim_bilimi" title="İklim bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İklim bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatologi%C3%BDa" title="Klimatologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Klimatologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кліматологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кліматологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climato%C5%82ozia" title="Climatołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Climatołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%AD_h%E1%BA%ADu_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Khí hậu học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khí hậu học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatolohiya" title="Klimatolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Klimatolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E5%80%99%E5%AD%A6" title="气候学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="气候学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="קלימאטאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קלימאטאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E5%AD%B8" title="氣候學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="氣候學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klimatolociye" title="Klimatolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Klimatolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_scientist&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate scientist">Climate scientist</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Climate Research" redirects here. For the journal of that name, see <a href="/wiki/Climate_Research_(journal)" title="Climate Research (journal)"><i>Climate Research</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_(1980-2016).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png/440px-K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png/660px-K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png/880px-K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger_climate_classification_%281980-2016%29.png 2x" data-file-width="16486" data-file-height="10000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen-Geiger climate classification</a> (1980–2016)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><caption class="sidebar-outer-title"><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric sciences</a></caption><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg/260px-ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg/390px-ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg/520px-ISS-48_Towering_cumulonimbus_and_other_clouds_over_the_Earth_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology" title="Synoptic scale meteorology">Atmospheric dynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atmospheric_dynamics" title="Category:Atmospheric dynamics">category</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Category:Atmospheric chemistry">category</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Weather" title="Category:Weather">category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Weather" title="Portal:Weather">portal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tropical_cyclones" title="Category:Tropical cyclones">category</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Climatology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate" title="Category:Climate">category</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">portal</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Aeronomy" title="Aeronomy">Aeronomy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeronomy" title="Aeronomy">Aeronomy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <b>Glossaries</b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Glossary of meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tropical_cyclone_terms" title="Glossary of tropical cyclone terms">Glossary of tropical cyclone terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tornado_terms" title="Glossary of tornado terms">Glossary of tornado terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary of climate change</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atmospheric_sciences" title="Template:Atmospheric sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atmospheric_sciences" title="Template talk:Atmospheric sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Climatology</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κλίμα</span></span>, <i>klima</i>, "slope"; and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-λογία</span></span>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logia">-logia</a></i>) or <b>climate science</b> is the scientific study of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate concerns the atmospheric condition during an extended to indefinite period of time; weather is the condition of the atmosphere during a relative brief period of time. The main topics of research are the study of <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate variability">climate variability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">mechanisms of climate changes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern climate change">modern climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Climatology_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Climatology-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This topic of study is regarded as part of the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric sciences">atmospheric sciences</a> and a subdivision of <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, which is one of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth sciences</a>. Climatology includes some aspects of <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemistry</a>. </p><p>The main methods employed by climatologists are the analysis of observations and <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">modelling</a> of the physical processes that determine climate. Short term <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weather forecasting</a> can be interpreted in terms of knowledge of longer-term phenomena of climate, for instance climatic cycles such as the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO), the <a href="/wiki/Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation" title="Madden–Julian oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</a> (MJO), the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a> (NAO), the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_oscillation" title="Arctic oscillation">Arctic oscillation</a> (AO), the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a> (PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate models</a> are used for a variety of purposes from studying the dynamics of the weather and climate system to predictions of future climate.<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Climatology_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Climatology-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></div> <p>The Greeks began the formal study of climate; in fact the word climate is derived from the Greek word klima, meaning "slope", referring to the slope or inclination of the Earth's axis. Arguably the most influential classic text concerning climate was <i>On Airs, Water and Places</i><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> written by <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> about 400 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>. This work commented on the effect of climate on human health and cultural differences between Asia and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea that climate controls which populations excel depending on their climate, or <i><a href="/wiki/Climatic_determinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Climatic determinism">climatic determinism</a></i>, remained influential throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese scientist <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) inferred that climates naturally shifted over an enormous span of time, after observing <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboos</a> found underground near Yanzhou (modern <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> province), a dry-climate area unsuitable at that time for the growth of bamboo.<sup id="cite_ref-BowdenBurek2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BowdenBurek2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometers</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> allowed for systematic recordkeeping, that began as early as 1640–1642 in England.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early climate researchers include <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Halley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Halley">Edmund Halley</a>, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> (1706–1790) first mapped the course of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> for use in sending mail from North America to Europe. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> (1822–1911) invented the term <i><a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">anticyclone</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a> (1906–1985) fostered the use of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">statistical analysis</a> in climatology. </p><p>During the early 20th century, climatology mostly emphasized the description of regional climates. This descriptive climatology was mainly an applied science, giving farmers and other interested people statistics about what the normal weather was and how great chances were of extreme events.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To do this, climatologists had to define a <i><a href="/wiki/Climate_normal" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate normal">climate normal</a></i>, or an average of weather and <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">weather extremes</a> over a period of typically 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinsonHenderson-Sellers19994–5_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinsonHenderson-Sellers19994–5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While scientists knew of past climate change such as the <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">ice ages</a>, the concept of climate as changing only very gradually was useful for descriptive climatology. This started to change during the decades that followed, and while the <a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">history of climate change science</a> started earlier, climate change only became one of the main topics of study for climatologists during the 1970s and afterward.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinsonHenderson-Sellers19995–6_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinsonHenderson-Sellers19995–6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg/220px-Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg/330px-Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg/440px-Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="849" /></a><figcaption>Map of the average temperature over 30 years. Data sets formed from the long-term average of historical weather parameters are sometimes called a "climatology".</figcaption></figure> <p>Various subtopics of climatology study different aspects of climate. There are different categorizations of the sub-topics of climatology. The <a href="/wiki/American_Meteorological_Society" title="American Meteorological Society">American Meteorological Society</a> for instance identifies descriptive climatology, scientific climatology and applied climatology as the three subcategories of climatology, a categorization based on the complexity and the purpose of the research.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applied climatologists apply their expertise to different industries such as <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangGillies2012IX_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangGillies2012IX-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> is the attempt to reconstruct and understand past climates by examining records such as <a href="/wiki/Ice_cores" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice cores">ice cores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Growth_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth ring">tree rings</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dendroclimatology" title="Dendroclimatology">dendroclimatology</a>). <a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a> uses these same records to help determine hurricane frequency over millennia. <a href="/wiki/Historical_climatology" title="Historical climatology">Historical climatology</a> is the study of climate as related to human history and is thus concerned mainly with the last few thousand years. </p><p>Boundary-layer climatology concerns exchanges in water, energy and momentum near surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further identified subtopics are physical climatology, dynamic climatology, <a href="/wiki/Tornado_climatology" title="Tornado climatology">tornado climatology</a>, regional climatology, <a href="/wiki/Bioclimatology" title="Bioclimatology">bioclimatology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology" title="Synoptic scale meteorology">synoptic</a> climatology. The study of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">hydrological cycle</a> over long time scales is sometimes termed hydroclimatology, in particular when studying the effects of climate change on the water cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years, such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. Knowledge of the atmosphere and its dynamics is also embodied in <a href="/wiki/Model_(abstract)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (abstract)">models</a>, either <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">statistical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical</a>, which help by integrating different observations and testing how well they match. Modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates. </p><p>Climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes which govern climate. Climate is governed by physical principles which can be expressed as <a href="/wiki/Differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential equations">differential equations</a>. These equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained by using numerical methods to create <a href="/wiki/Global_climate_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Global climate model">global climate models</a>. Climate is sometimes modeled as a <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_process" title="Stochastic process">stochastic process</a> but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are otherwise too complicated to analyze. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_data">Climate data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Climate data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The collection of a long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorologists have recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observing satellites</a> and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> ice extracted from <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As measuring technology changes over time, records of data often cannot be compared directly. As cities are generally warmer than the areas surrounding, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega20118_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega20118-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Models">Models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Climate_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate models">Climate models</a></div> <p>Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any unbalance results in a change of the average temperature of the Earth. Most climate models include the radiative effects of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. These models predict a trend of increase of <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">surface temperatures</a>, as well as a more rapid increase of temperature at higher latitudes. </p><p>Models can range from relatively simple to complex: </p> <ul><li>A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy.</li> <li>This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally.</li> <li>Coupled atmosphere–ocean–<a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> <a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">global climate models</a> discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.</li> <li>Earth system models further include the biosphere.</li></ul> <p>Additionally, they are available with different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models are computational very demanding and only few global datasets exists. Examples are ICON <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth's land surface areas).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_of_research">Topics of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Topics of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topics that climatologists study comprise three main categories: <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate variability">climate variability</a>, mechanisms of climatic change, and modern changes of climate.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climatological_processes">Climatological processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Climatological processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various factors affect the average state of the atmosphere at a particular location. For instance, midlatitudes will have a pronounced <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasonal cycle</a> of temperature whereas <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical regions</a> show little variation of temperature over a year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201825_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega201825-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another major variable of climate is continentality: the distance to major water bodies such as <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so that land close to it has typically less difference of temperature between <a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> and summer than areas further from it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The atmosphere interacts with other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a>, with winds generating <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> that transport heat around the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_classification">Climate classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Climate classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classification is an important method of simplifying complicated processes. Different <a href="/wiki/Climate_classification" title="Climate classification">climate classifications</a> have been developed over the centuries, with the first ones in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. How climates are classified depends on what the application is. A <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind energy</a> producer will require different information (wind) in a classification than someone more interested in agriculture, for whom precipitation and temperature are more important.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018159_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018159-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely used classification, the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="Köppen climate classification">Köppen climate classification</a>, was developed during the late nineteenth century and is based on vegetation. It uses monthly data concerning temperature and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018160_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_variability">Climate variability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Climate variability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are different types of variability: recurring patterns of temperature or other climate variables. They are quantified with different indices. Much in the way the <a href="/wiki/Dow_Jones_Industrial_Average" title="Dow Jones Industrial Average">Dow Jones Industrial Average</a>, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations of stock prices in general, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each index typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into a generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which effect the global climate system. </p><p><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for much of the global variability of temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has a cycle between two and seven years.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a> is a mode of variability that is mainly contained to the lower atmosphere, the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>. The layer of atmosphere above, the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> is also capable of creating its own variability, most importantly the <a href="/wiki/Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation" title="Madden–Julian oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</a> (MJO), which has a cycle of approximately 30 to 60 days. The <a href="/wiki/Interdecadal_Pacific_oscillation" title="Interdecadal Pacific oscillation">Interdecadal Pacific oscillation</a> can create changes in the Pacific Ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Climate change occurs when changes of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a> result in new <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> patterns that remain for an extended period of time. This duration of time can be as brief as a few decades to as long as millions of years. The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also gives off energy to <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a>. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-WEB-NASA-EnergyBalance_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WEB-NASA-EnergyBalance-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate change also influences the average <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Modern_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern climate change">Modern climate change</a> is caused largely by the human emissions of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> from the burning of fossil fuel which increases <a href="/wiki/Surface_air_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface air temperature">global mean surface temperatures</a>. Increasing temperature is only one aspect of modern climate change, which also includes observed changes of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storm_track" title="Storm track">storm tracks</a> and cloudiness. Warmer temperatures are causing further changes of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">widespread melt of glaciers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and shifts of flora and fauna.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_with_meteorology">Differences with meteorology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Differences with meteorology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, which emphasises short term <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> systems lasting no more than a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes of long-term average weather patterns in relation to atmospheric conditions. <a href="/wiki/Category:Climatologists" title="Category:Climatologists">Climatologists</a> study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predict</a> future <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. </p><p>Phenomena of climatological interest include the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_boundary_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric boundary layer">atmospheric boundary layer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">circulation patterns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">radiative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat_flux" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent heat flux">latent</a>), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation, <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_weather_forecasting">Use in weather forecasting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Use in weather forecasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a></div> <p>A relative difficult method of forecast, the analog technique requires remembering a previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a difficult technique is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event of the future.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some refer to this type of forecasting as pattern recognition, which remains a useful method of estimating rainfall over data voids such as oceans using knowledge of how satellite imagery relates to precipitation rates over land,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution of the future. A variation of this theme, used for medium range forecasting, is known as <a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a>, when systems in other locations are used to help determine the location of a system within the regime surrounding.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One method of using teleconnections are by using climate indices such as ENSO-related phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-rules"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_as_complex_networks" title="Climate as complex networks">Climate as complex networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatic_geomorphology" title="Climatic geomorphology">Climatic geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_reanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate reanalysis">Climate reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_rainfall_climatology" title="Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology">Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_climatology" title="Urban climatology">Urban climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists" title="List of climate scientists">List of climate scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_climate_scientists_and_activists" title="List of women climate scientists and activists">List of women climate scientists and activists</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Climate Prediction Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/outreach/glossary.shtml#C">Climate Glossary.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006013653/http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/outreach/glossary.shtml#C">Archived</a> 2006-10-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_is_Climatology-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-What_is_Climatology_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-What_is_Climatology_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/WhatisClimatology.aspx">"What is Climatology?"</a>. <i>drought.unl.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190802133122/https://drought.unl.edu/404error.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/DroughtBasics/WhatisClimatology.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=How+Climatology+Is+Different+From+Meteorology&rft.date=2019-07-03&rft.aulast=Oblack&rft.aufirst=Rachelle&rft.au=McDougal%2C+Holt&rft.au=weather.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fwhat-is-climatology-3443689&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega201825-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201825_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRohliVega2018">Rohli & Vega 2018</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRohliVega2018">Rohli & Vega 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega201854_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRohliVega2018">Rohli & Vega 2018</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018159-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018159_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRohliVega2018">Rohli & Vega 2018</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018160-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohliVega2018160_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRohliVega2018">Rohli & Vega 2018</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClimate_Prediction_Center2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Climate_Prediction_Center" title="Climate Prediction Center">Climate Prediction Center</a> (19 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090827143632/http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensofaq.shtml#HOWOFTEN">"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Centers_for_Environmental_Prediction" title="National Centers for Environmental Prediction">National Centers for Environmental Prediction</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensofaq.shtml#HOWOFTEN">the original</a> on 27 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ENSO+FAQ%3A+How+often+do+El+Ni%C3%B1o+and+La+Ni%C3%B1a+typically+occur%3F&rft.pub=National+Centers+for+Environmental+Prediction&rft.date=2005-12-19&rft.au=Climate+Prediction+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2Fensostuff%2Fensofaq.shtml%23HOWOFTEN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WEB-NASA-EnergyBalance-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WEB-NASA-EnergyBalance_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/EnergyBalance">"Climate and Earth's Energy Budget"</a>. <i>earthobservatory.nasa.gov</i>. 14 January 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191002090444/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/EnergyBalance">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earthobservatory.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=Climate+and+Earth%27s+Energy+Budget&rft.date=2009-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2Ffeatures%2FEnergyBalance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191202114510/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/global-warming-effects/">"Global Warming Effects"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. 14 January 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/global-warming-effects/">the original</a> on 2 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Global+Warming+Effects&rft.date=2019-01-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fenvironment%2Fglobal-warming%2Fglobal-warming-effects%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/mth/oth.rxml">Other Forecasting Methods: climatology, analogue and numerical weather prediction.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070519200402/http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/mth/oth.rxml">Archived</a> 2007-05-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 16 February 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth C. Allen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADP006190">Pattern Recognition Techniques Applied to the NASA-ACTS Order-Wire Problem.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714214614/http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADP006190">Archived</a> 14 July 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 16 February 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weather Associates, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weatherassociates.com/courses.htm">The Role of Teleconnections & Ensemble Forecasting in Extended- to Medium-Range Forecasting.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070622105708/http://www.weatherassociates.com/courses.htm">Archived</a> 2007-06-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 16 February 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thinkquest.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/20901/teleconnections.htm">Teleconnections: Linking El Niño with Other Places.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070420054354/http://library.thinkquest.org/20901/teleconnections.htm">Archived</a> 20 April 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 16 February 2007.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinsonHenderson-Sellers1999" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Peter J. Robinson; Henderson-Sellers, Ann (1999). <i>Contemporary Climatology</i>. Harlow, England: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582276314" title="Special:BookSources/0582276314"><bdi>0582276314</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Climatology&rft.place=Harlow%2C+England&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0582276314&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.+Robinson&rft.au=Henderson-Sellers%2C+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohliVega2018" class="citation book cs1">Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018). <i>Climatology</i> (fourth ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781284126563" title="Special:BookSources/9781284126563"><bdi>9781284126563</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climatology&rft.edition=fourth&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781284126563&rft.aulast=Rohli&rft.aufirst=Robert.+V.&rft.au=Vega%2C+Anthony+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohliVega2011" class="citation book cs1">Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2011). <i>Climatology</i> (second ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climatology&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Rohli&rft.aufirst=Robert.+V.&rft.au=Vega%2C+Anthony+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangGillies2012" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Shih-Yu; Gillies, Robert R., eds. (2012). <i>Modern Climatology</i>. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-953-51-0095-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-953-51-0095-9"><bdi>978-953-51-0095-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Climatology&rft.place=Rijeka%2C+Croatia&rft.pub=InTech&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-953-51-0095-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_Uglow" title="Jenny Uglow">Jenny Uglow</a>, "What the Weather Is" (review of Sarah Dry, <i>Waters of the World: The Story of the Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2019, 332 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 56–58.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Climatology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Climatology" class="extiw" title="v:Climatology">Climatology</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science2017.globalchange.gov/">Climate Science Special Report</a> – U.S. Global Change Research Program</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://climexp.knmi.nl">KNMI Climate Explorer</a> The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute's Climate Explorer graphs climatological relationships of spatial and temporal data.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/climate/climogy.htm">Climatology as a Profession</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070713170313/http://www.aip.org/history/climate/climogy.htm">Archived</a> 2007-07-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Amer. Inst. of Physics account of the history of the discipline of climatology in the 20th century</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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