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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_phases_of_sea_surface_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Three phases of sea surface temperature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Three_phases_of_sea_surface_temperature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Three phases of sea surface temperature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Three_phases_of_sea_surface_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neutral_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutral_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Neutral phase </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutral_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-El_Niño_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#El_Niño_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 El Niño phase </div> </a> <ul id="toc-El_Niño_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-La_Niña_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_Niña_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 La Niña phase </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_Niña_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional_phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Transitional phases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Variations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Variations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ENSO_Modoki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ENSO_Modoki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 ENSO Modoki </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ENSO_Modoki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ENSO_Costero" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ENSO_Costero"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 ENSO Costero </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ENSO_Costero-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring_and_declaration_of_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring_and_declaration_of_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Monitoring and declaration of conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring_and_declaration_of_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_global_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_ENSO_on_global_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Effects of ENSO on global climate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_global_climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects of ENSO on global climate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_global_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investigations_regarding_tipping_points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigations_regarding_tipping_points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Investigations regarding tipping points </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investigations_regarding_tipping_points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_weather_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_ENSO_on_weather_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Effects of ENSO on weather patterns </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_weather_patterns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects of ENSO on weather patterns subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_ENSO_on_weather_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tropical_cyclones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_cyclones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Tropical cyclones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_cyclones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_influence_on_tropical_Atlantic_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_influence_on_tropical_Atlantic_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Remote influence on tropical Atlantic Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_influence_on_tropical_Atlantic_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_humans_and_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_humans_and_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Impacts on humans and ecosystems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_on_humans_and_ecosystems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts on humans and ecosystems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_humans_and_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Economic impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_social_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_social_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Health and social impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_social_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Ecological consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coral_bleaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_bleaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Coral bleaching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_bleaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Impacts by region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_by_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts by region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Antarctica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6.1 Isthmus of Tehuantepec </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Pacific islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.8 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galápagos_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galápagos_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.8.1 Galápagos Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galápagos_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_geologic_timescales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_geologic_timescales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 In geologic timescales </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_geologic_timescales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-During_human_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#During_human_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 During human history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-During_human_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Related patterns </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_patterns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Related patterns subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Related_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Madden–Julian_oscillation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madden–Julian_oscillation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Madden–Julian oscillation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madden–Julian_oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Link_to_the_El_Niño-Southern_oscillation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Link_to_the_El_Niño-Southern_oscillation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.1 Link to the El Niño-Southern oscillation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Link_to_the_El_Niño-Southern_oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_decadal_oscillation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_decadal_oscillation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Pacific decadal oscillation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_decadal_oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2.1 Mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Meridional_Mode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Meridional_Mode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Pacific Meridional Mode </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Meridional_Mode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" > 29 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%B0%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="تذبذب النينو الجنوبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تذبذب النينو الجنوبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-%C3%91embovava_%C3%91embyvogua" title="El Niño-Ñembovava Ñembyvogua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="El Niño-Ñembovava Ñembyvogua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="एल नीनो-सदर्न ऑसलेशन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एल नीनो-सदर्न ऑसलेशन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Habagatan_na_Osilasyon" title="El Niño–Habagatan na Osilasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="El Niño–Habagatan na Osilasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Ji%C5%BEn%C3%AD_oscilace" title="El Niño – Jižní oscilace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="El Niño – Jižní oscilace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_sydlige_oscillation" title="El Niño sydlige oscillation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="El Niño sydlige oscillation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Oscilaci%C3%B3n_del_Sur" title="El Niño-Oscilación del Sur – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="El Niño-Oscilación del Sur" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Suda_Oscilado" title="El Niño Suda Oscilado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="El Niño Suda Oscilado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%E2%80%93%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ال نینو–نوسان جنوبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ال نینو–نوسان جنوبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENSO" title="ENSO – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="ENSO" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Oscillation_australe" title="El Niño – Oscillation australe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="El Niño – Oscillation australe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%98%EB%8B%88%EB%87%A8_%EB%82%A8%EB%B0%A9%EC%A7%84%EB%8F%99" title="엘니뇨 남방진동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="엘니뇨 남방진동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC_%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%B8_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Էլ Նինյո հարավային տատանում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլ Նինյո հարավային տատանում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Ninyo" title="El-Ninyo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="El-Ninyo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Osilasi_Selatan" title="El Niño–Osilasi Selatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="El Niño–Osilasi Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Oscillation_del_Sud" title="El Niño Oscillation del Sud – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="El Niño Oscillation del Sud" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB" title="എൽനിനോ സതേൺ ഓസിലേഷൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എൽനിനോ സതേൺ ഓസിലേഷൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaran_Selatan_El_Ni%C3%B1o" title="Getaran Selatan El Niño – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Getaran Selatan El Niño" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8B%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A7%E3%83%BB%E5%8D%97%E6%96%B9%E6%8C%AF%E5%8B%95" title="エルニーニョ・南方振動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エルニーニョ・南方振動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Oscylacja_Po%C5%82udniowa" title="El Niño–Oscylacja Południowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="El Niño–Oscylacja Południowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" 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href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7" title="لا نینا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لا نینا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%BE_-_%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Ел Нињо - Јужна осцилација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ел Нињо - Јужна осцилација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dao_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_Nam" title="Dao động phương Nam – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dao động phương Nam" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"El Niño" and "ENSO" redirect here. For the Japanese motif, see <a href="/wiki/Ens%C5%8D" title="Ensō">Ensō</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="El Niño (disambiguation)">El Niño (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enso_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Enso (disambiguation)">Enso (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:201px;max-width:201px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:196px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAA_Nino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Impacts of El Niño on climate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/NOAA_Nino.jpg/199px-NOAA_Nino.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/NOAA_Nino.jpg/299px-NOAA_Nino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/NOAA_Nino.jpg/398px-NOAA_Nino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="613" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:196px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAA_Nina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Impacts of La Niña on climate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NOAA_Nina.jpg/185px-NOAA_Nina.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NOAA_Nina.jpg/278px-NOAA_Nina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/NOAA_Nina.jpg/370px-NOAA_Nina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="660" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Changes to temperature and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> during El Niño (left) and La Niña (right). The top two maps are for December to February, the bottom two are for June to August.<a href="#cite_note-Wald_2021-1">[1]</a></div></div></div></div> El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variations in <a href="/wiki/Winds" class="mw-redirect" title="Winds">winds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> over the tropical <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. Those variations have an irregular pattern but do have some semblance of cycles. The occurrence of ENSO is not predictable. It affects the climate of much of the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</a>, and has links (<a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a>) to higher-latitude regions of the world. The warming phase of the sea surface temperature is known as "El Niño" and the cooling phase as "La Niña". The Southern Oscillation is the accompanying <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric oscillation">atmospheric oscillation</a>, which is coupled with the sea temperature change. El Niño is associated with higher than normal air <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level pressure">sea level pressure</a> over Indonesia, Australia and across the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>. La Niña has roughly the reverse pattern: high pressure over the central and eastern Pacific and lower pressure through much of the rest of the tropics and subtropics.<a href="#cite_note-CPC_ENSO-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Climate_Change_2007-3">[3]</a> The two phenomena last a year or so each and typically occur every two to seven years with varying intensity, with neutral periods of lower intensity interspersed.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> El Niño events can be more intense but La Niña events may repeat and last longer. A key mechanism of ENSO is the Bjerknes feedback (named after <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a> in 1969) in which the atmospheric changes alter the sea temperatures that in turn alter the atmospheric winds in a positive feedback. Weaker easterly <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> result in a surge of warm surface waters to the east and reduced ocean upwelling on the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>. In turn, this leads to warmer sea surface temperatures (called El Niño), a weaker <a href="/wiki/Walker_circulation" title="Walker circulation">Walker circulation</a> (an east-west overturning circulation in the atmosphere) and even weaker trade winds. Ultimately the warm waters in the western tropical Pacific are depleted enough so that conditions return to normal. The exact mechanisms that cause the oscillation are unclear and are being studied. Each country that monitors the ENSO has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño or La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests.<a href="#cite_note-December_2014_EU2-5">[5]</a> El Niño and La Niña affect the global climate and disrupt normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.<a href="#cite_note-NIWA_El_Niño/La_Niña-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-How_Much_Do_El_Niño-7">[7]</a> El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term surface cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on timescales of around ten years.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> The countries most affected by ENSO are <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> that are bordering the Pacific Ocean and are dependent on agriculture and fishing. In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate variability</a> phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 23  Future trends in ENSO due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> are uncertain,<a href="#cite_note-Collins10-11">[11]</a> although climate change exacerbates the effects of droughts and floods. The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> summarized the scientific knowledge in 2021 for the future of ENSO as follows: "In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 113  The scientific consensus is also that "it is very likely that rainfall variability related to changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 114  <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_terminology">Definition and terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SOI.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SOI.svg/220px-SOI.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SOI.svg/330px-SOI.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SOI.svg/440px-SOI.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Southern Oscillation Index timeseries from 1876 to 2024. The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of El Niño. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> waters.</figcaption></figure> The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases in the oscillation which are deemed to occur when specific ocean and atmospheric conditions are reached or exceeded.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> An early recorded mention of the term "El Niño" ("The Boy" in Spanish) to refer to climate occurred in 1892, when <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilo_Carrillo_Mart%C3%ADnez" class="extiw" title="es:Camilo Carrillo Martínez">Captain Camilo Carrillo</a> told the geographical society congress in <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> that Peruvian sailors named the warm south-flowing current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Although pre-Columbian societies were certainly aware of the phenomenon, the indigenous names for it have been lost to history.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The capitalized term El Niño refers to the <a href="/wiki/Christ_Child" title="Christ Child">Christ Child</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, because periodic warming in the Pacific near <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> is usually noticed around <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DFG-15">[15]</a> Originally, the term El Niño applied to an annual weak warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> at about <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> time.<a href="#cite_note-Definition-16">[16]</a> However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The original phrase, El Niño de <a href="/wiki/Nochebuena" class="mw-redirect" title="Nochebuena">Navidad</a>, arose centuries ago, when <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> fishermen named the weather phenomenon after the newborn Christ.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> La Niña ("The Girl" in Spanish) is the colder counterpart of El Niño, as part of the broader ENSO <a href="/wiki/Climate_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate pattern">climate pattern</a>. In the past, it was also called an anti-El Niño<a href="#cite_note-USNOAA-NOS-NinoNina-19">[19]</a> and El Viejo, meaning "the old man."<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> A negative phase exists when atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and the west Pacific is abnormally high and pressure over the east Pacific is abnormally low, during El Niño episodes, and a positive phase is when the opposite occurs during La Niña episodes, and pressure over Indonesia is low and over the west Pacific is high.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamentals">Fundamentals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fundamentals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LaNina.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram showing a cross-section of the Pacific and related phenomena" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/LaNina.png/220px-LaNina.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/LaNina.png/330px-LaNina.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/LaNina.png/440px-LaNina.png 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>The West Pacific is typically warmer than the East Pacific. The warmer waters lead to more cloudiness, rainfall, and low air pressure over the West Pacific. The buildup of warm waters towards the west also leads to a thicker layer of warm ocean water that lowers the depth of the thermocline.</figcaption></figure> On average, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">temperature of the ocean surface</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_East_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical East Pacific">tropical East Pacific</a> is roughly 8–10 °C (14–18 °F) cooler than in the <a href="/wiki/West_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="West Pacific">tropical West Pacific</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> (SST) of the West Pacific northeast of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> averages around 28–30 °C (82–86 °F). SSTs in the East Pacific off the western coast of South America are closer to 20 °C (68 °F). Strong <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> near the equator push water away from the East Pacific and towards the West Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a> This water is slowly warmed by the Sun as it moves west along the equator.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_and_Australia-23">[23]</a> The ocean surface near <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> is typically around 0.5 m (1.5 ft) higher than near <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> because of the buildup of water in the West Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_ENSO_Pacific-24">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a>, or the transitional zone between the <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer#Oceanic_mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">warmer waters near the ocean surface</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">cooler waters of the deep ocean</a>,<a href="#cite_note-What_ENSO_IRI-25">[25]</a> is pushed downwards in the West Pacific due to this water accumulation.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_ENSO_Pacific-24">[24]</a> The total weight of a <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">column of ocean water</a> is almost the same in the western and east Pacific. Because the warmer waters of the upper ocean are slightly less dense than the cooler deep ocean, the thicker layer of warmer water in the western Pacific means the thermocline there must be deeper. The difference in weight must be enough to drive any deep water return flow.<a href="#cite_note-Sarachik_and_Cane_2010-26">[26]</a>: 12  Consequently, the thermocline is tilted across the tropical Pacific, rising from an average depth of about 140 m (450 ft) in the West Pacific to a depth of about 30 m (90 ft) in the East Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_ENSO_Pacific-24">[24]</a> Cooler deep ocean water takes the place of the outgoing surface waters in the East Pacific, rising to the ocean surface in a process called <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-ENSO_and_Australia-23">[23]</a> Along the western coast of South America, water near the ocean surface is pushed westward due to the combination of the trade winds and the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a>. Colder water from deeper in the ocean rises along the <a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">continental margin</a> to replace the near-surface water.<a href="#cite_note-OceanMotion-27">[27]</a> This process cools the East Pacific because the thermocline is closer to the ocean surface, leaving relatively little separation between the deeper cold water and the ocean surface.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_ENSO_Pacific-24">[24]</a> Additionally, the northward-flowing <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a> carries colder water from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pacific">East Pacific</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a> The combination of the Humboldt Current and upwelling maintains an area of cooler ocean waters off the coast of Peru.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-ENSO_and_Australia-23">[23]</a> The West Pacific lacks a cold <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean current</a> and has less upwelling as the trade winds are usually weaker than in the East Pacific, allowing the West Pacific to reach warmer temperatures. These warmer waters provide energy for the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">upward movement of air</a>. As a result, the warm West Pacific has on average more cloudiness and rainfall than the cool East Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a> ENSO describes a <a href="/wiki/Quasiperiodicity" title="Quasiperiodicity">quasi-periodic</a> change of both oceanic and atmospheric conditions over the tropical Pacific Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a> These changes affect <a href="/wiki/Weather_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather pattern">weather patterns</a> across much of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_and_Australia-23">[23]</a> The tropical Pacific is said to be in one of three states of ENSO (also called "phases") depending on the atmospheric and oceanic conditions.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_Nutshell-28">[28]</a> When the tropical Pacific roughly reflects the average conditions, the state of ENSO is said to be in the neutral phase. However, the tropical Pacific experiences occasional shifts away from these average conditions. If trade winds are weaker than average, the effect of upwelling in the East Pacific and the flow of warmer ocean surface waters towards the West Pacific lessen. This results in a cooler West Pacific and a warmer East Pacific, leading to a shift of cloudiness and rainfall towards the East Pacific. This situation is called El Niño. The opposite occurs if trade winds are stronger than average, leading to a warmer West Pacific and a cooler East Pacific. This situation is called La Niña and is associated with increased cloudiness and rainfall over the West Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-BOM_About_ENSO-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bjerknes_feedback">Bjerknes feedback</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bjerknes feedback">edit</a>]</div> The close relationship between ocean temperatures and the strength of the trade winds was first identified by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a> in 1969. Bjerknes also hypothesized that ENSO was a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> system where the associated changes in one component of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a> (the ocean or atmosphere) tend to reinforce changes in the other.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2017-29">[29]</a>: 86  For example, during El Niño, the reduced contrast in ocean temperatures across the Pacific results in weaker trade winds, further reinforcing the El Niño state. This process is known as Bjerknes feedback.<a href="#cite_note-Rise_El_Nino-30">[30]</a> Although these associated changes in the ocean and atmosphere often occur together, the state of the atmosphere may resemble a different ENSO phase than the state of the ocean or vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_Nutshell-28">[28]</a> Because their states are closely linked, the variations of ENSO may arise from changes in both the ocean and atmosphere and not necessarily from an initial change of exclusively one or the other.<a href="#cite_note-What_El_Nino_Scripps-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rise_El_Nino-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">Conceptual models</a> explaining how ENSO operates generally accept the Bjerknes feedback hypothesis. However, ENSO would perpetually remain in one phase if Bjerknes feedback were the only process occurring.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2017-29">[29]</a>: 88  Several theories have been proposed to explain how ENSO can change from one state to the next, despite the positive feedback.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_2018-32">[32]</a> These explanations broadly fall under two categories.<a href="#cite_note-Yang_et_al._2018-33">[33]</a> In one view, the Bjerknes feedback naturally triggers <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedbacks</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] that end and reverse the abnormal state of the tropical Pacific. This perspective implies that the processes that lead to El Niño and La Niña also eventually bring about their end, making ENSO a self-sustaining[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] process.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2017-29">[29]</a>: 88  Other theories view the state of ENSO as being changed by irregular and external phenomena such as the <a href="/wiki/Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation" title="Madden–Julian oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropical_instability_waves" title="Tropical instability waves">tropical instability waves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Westerly_wind_burst" title="Westerly wind burst">westerly wind bursts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2017-29">[29]</a>: 90  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walker_circulation">Walker circulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Walker circulation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Walker_circulation" title="Walker circulation">Walker circulation</a></div> The three phases of ENSO relate to the Walker circulation, which was named after <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Walker_(physicist)" title="Gilbert Walker (physicist)">Gilbert Walker</a> who discovered the Southern Oscillation during the early twentieth century. The Walker circulation is an east-west overturning circulation in the vicinity of the equator in the Pacific. Upward air is associated with high sea temperatures, convection and rainfall, while the downward branch occurs over cooler sea surface temperatures in the east. During El Niño, as the sea surface temperatures change so does the Walker Circulation. Warming in the eastern tropical Pacific weakens or reverses the downward branch, while cooler conditions in the west lead to less rain and downward air, so the Walker Circulation first weakens and may reverse.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>: 185 ] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Oscillation">Southern Oscillation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Southern Oscillation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png/238px-Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png" decoding="async" width="238" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png/357px-Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png/476px-Fig4a_ENSOindices_Nino3.4only_large.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="610" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The regions where the air pressure are measured and compared to generate the Southern Oscillation Index</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:125px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Soi-map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Soi-map.png/238px-Soi-map.png" decoding="async" width="238" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Soi-map.png/357px-Soi-map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Soi-map.png/476px-Soi-map.png 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="379" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Southern Oscillation Index correlated with mean sea level pressure.</div></div></div></div></div> The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of ENSO. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> waters. The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference between <a href="/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> (in the Pacific) and <a href="/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory" title="Darwin, Northern Territory">Darwin, Australia</a> (on the Indian Ocean).<a href="#cite_note-Aus-35">[35]</a> El Niño episodes have negative SOI, meaning there is lower pressure over Tahiti and higher pressure in Darwin. La Niña episodes on the other hand have positive SOI, meaning there is higher pressure in Tahiti and lower in Darwin. Low atmospheric pressure tends to occur over warm water and high pressure occurs over cold water, in part because of <a href="/wiki/Deep_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep convection">deep convection</a> over the warm water. El Niño episodes are defined as sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in a decrease in the strength of the Pacific <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a>, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. La Niña episodes are defined as sustained cooling of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in an increase in the strength of the Pacific <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation_in_Australia" title="Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia">opposite effects in Australia</a> when compared to El Niño. Although the Southern Oscillation Index has a long <a href="/w/index.php?title=Station_record&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Station record (page does not exist)">station record</a> going back to the 1800s, its reliability is limited due to the latitudes of both Darwin and Tahiti being well south of the Equator, so that the surface air pressure at both locations is less directly related to ENSO.<a href="#cite_note-EQSOI-36">[36]</a> To overcome this effect, a new index was created, named the Equatorial Southern Oscillation Index (EQSOI).<a href="#cite_note-EQSOI-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Indexes-37">[37]</a> To generate this index, two new regions, centered on the Equator, were defined. The western region is located over Indonesia and the eastern one over the equatorial Pacific, close to the South American coast.<a href="#cite_note-EQSOI-36">[36]</a> However, data on EQSOI goes back only to 1949.<a href="#cite_note-EQSOI-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea surface height">Sea surface height</a> (SSH) changes up or down by several centimeters in Pacific equatorial region with the ESNO: El Niño causes a positive SSH anomaly (raised sea level) because of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> while La Niña causes a negative SSH anomaly (lowered sea level) via contraction.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Three_phases_of_sea_surface_temperature">Three phases of sea surface temperature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Three phases of sea surface temperature">edit</a>]</div> The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that quasi-periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases which require certain changes to take place in both the ocean and the atmosphere before an event is declared.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> The cool phase of ENSO is La Niña, with SST in the eastern Pacific below average, and air pressure high in the eastern Pacific and low in the western Pacific. The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-CPC_ENSO2-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:612px;max-width:612px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ENSO_-_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ENSO_-_normal.svg/200px-ENSO_-_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ENSO_-_normal.svg/300px-ENSO_-_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/ENSO_-_normal.svg/400px-ENSO_-_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="285" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Neutral phase: Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward the west. Warm pool in the west drives deep atmospheric convection. In the east local winds cause nutrient-rich cold water to upwell at the Equator and along the South American coast.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg/200px-ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg/300px-ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg/400px-ENSO_-_El_Ni%C3%B1o.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="394" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">El Niño phase: Warm water pool approaches the South American coast. The absence of cold upwelling increases warming. Warm water and atmospheric convection move eastwards. In strong El Niños the deeper thermocline off South America means upwelled water is warm and nutrient poor.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg/200px-ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg/300px-ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg/400px-ENSO_-_La_Ni%C3%B1a.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="185" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">La Niña phase: Warm water is farther west than usual.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutral_phase">Neutral phase</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Neutral phase">edit</a>]</div> If the temperature variation from climatology is within 0.5 °C (0.9 °F), ENSO conditions are described as neutral. Neutral conditions are the transition between warm and cold phases of ENSO. Sea surface temperatures (by definition), tropical precipitation, and wind patterns are near average conditions during this phase.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Close to half of all years are within neutral periods.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> During the neutral ENSO phase, other climate anomalies/patterns such as the sign of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Oscillation">North Atlantic Oscillation</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93North_American_teleconnection_pattern" title="Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern">Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern</a> exert more influence.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="El_Niño_phase">El Niño phase</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: El Niño phase">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sst_9798_animated.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sst_9798_animated.gif/250px-Sst_9798_animated.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sst_9798_animated.gif/375px-Sst_9798_animated.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Sst_9798_animated.gif 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="282" /></a><figcaption>Loop of the <a href="/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="1997–98 El Niño event">1997–98 El Niño event</a> showing extreme <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> (SST) anomalies in the east tropical Pacific</figcaption></figure> El Niño conditions are established when the Walker circulation weakens or reverses and the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley circulation">Hadley circulation</a> strengthens,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] leading to the development of a band of warm ocean water in the central and east-central equatorial <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> (approximately between the <a href="/wiki/International_Date_Line" title="International Date Line">International Date Line</a> and <a href="/wiki/120th_meridian_west" title="120th meridian west">120°W</a>), including the area off the west coast of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> as <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> of cold water occurs less or not at all offshore.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_Change_2007-3">[3]</a> This warming causes a shift in the atmospheric circulation, leading to higher <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure#Surface" title="Atmospheric pressure">air pressure</a> in the western Pacific and lower in the eastern Pacific,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> with rainfall reducing over Indonesia, India and northern Australia, while rainfall and tropical cyclone formation increases over the tropical Pacific Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?3-46">[46]</a> The low-level surface <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a>, which normally blow from east to west along the equator, either weaken or start blowing from the other direction.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Nutshell-12">[12]</a> El Niño phases are known to happen at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two years.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2005-47">[47]</a> The average period length is five years. When this warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño "conditions"; when its duration is longer, it is classified as an El Niño "episode".<a href="#cite_note-administration1-48">[48]</a> <div class="center"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_drvqpnryjld3qpp6b7jrhshlfysdpqu"></map><img usemap="#timeline_drvqpnryjld3qpp6b7jrhshlfysdpqu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/drvqpnryjld3qpp6b7jrhshlfysdpqu.png" /></div></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Timeline of El Niño episodes between 1900 and 2024.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_ONIs-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-BoM_El_Nino-50">[50]</a></div>It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events between 1900 and 2024, with the <a href="/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="1982–83 El Niño event">1982–83</a>, <a href="/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="1997–98 El Niño event">1997–98</a> and <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%9316_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" class="mw-redirect" title="2014–16 El Niño event">2014–16</a> events among the strongest on record.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Since 2000, El Niño events have been observed in 2002–03, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2009–10, <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%9316_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" class="mw-redirect" title="2014–16 El Niño event">2014–16</a>, 2018–19,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and <a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" class="mw-redirect" title="2023–24 El Niño event">2023–24</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Major ENSO events were recorded in the years 1790–93, 1828, 1876–78, 1891, 1925–26, 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98, 2014–16, and 2023–24.<a href="#cite_note-Davis20012-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> During strong El Niño episodes, a secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the far eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="La_Niña_phase">La Niña phase</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: La Niña phase">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"La Niña" redirects here. For the ship, see <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a" title="Niña">Niña</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Niña (disambiguation)">Niña (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg/300px-Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg/450px-Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg/600px-Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_November_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Sea surface <a href="/wiki/Temperature_anomaly" title="Temperature anomaly">temperature anomalies</a> in November 2007, showing La Niña conditions</figcaption></figure> An especially strong Walker circulation causes La Niña, which is considered to be the cold oceanic and positive atmospheric phase of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather phenomenon, as well as the opposite of El Niño weather pattern,<a href="#cite_note-USNOAA-NOS-NinoNina-19">[19]</a> where <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> across the eastern equatorial part of the central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3–5 °C (5.4–9 °F). The phenomenon occurs as strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface away from South America, across the Pacific Ocean towards Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-USNOAA-NOS-NinoNina-19">[19]</a> As this warm water moves west, cold water from the deep sea <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">rises to the surface</a> near South America.<a href="#cite_note-USNOAA-NOS-NinoNina-19">[19]</a> The movement of so much heat across a quarter of the planet, and particularly in the form of temperature at the ocean surface, can have a significant effect on weather across the entire planet. <a href="/wiki/Tropical_instability_waves" title="Tropical instability waves">Tropical instability waves</a> visible on sea surface temperature maps, showing a tongue of colder water, are often present during neutral or La Niña conditions.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> La Niña is a complex weather pattern that occurs every few years,<a href="#cite_note-USNOAA-NOS-NinoNina-19">[19]</a> often persisting for longer than five months. El Niño and La Niña can be indicators of weather changes across the globe. <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane" title="Atlantic hurricane">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">Pacific hurricanes</a> can have different characteristics due to lower or higher <a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">wind shear</a> and cooler or warmer sea surface temperatures. <div class="center"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_4cmuuehqln7bttwq4vqu5sf0uw0xcwe"></map><img usemap="#timeline_4cmuuehqln7bttwq4vqu5sf0uw0xcwe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/4cmuuehqln7bttwq4vqu5sf0uw0xcwe.png" /></div>A timeline of all La Niña episodes between 1900 and 2023.<a href="#cite_note-Cold_&_Warm_Episodes-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Note that each forecast agency has a different criteria for what constitutes a La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests. </div> La Niña events have been observed for hundreds of years, and occurred on a regular basis during the early parts of both the 17th and 19th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Since the start of the 20th century, La Niña events have occurred during the following years:<a href="#cite_note-La-Nina-declaration-announcement-authorities-65">[65]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 10em;margin: 0 1.6em;"> <ol><li>1903–04</li> <li>1906–07</li> <li>1909–11</li> <li>1916–18</li> <li>1924–25</li> <li>1928–30</li> <li>1938–39</li> <li>1942–43</li> <li>1949–51</li> <li>1954–57</li> <li>1964–65</li> <li>1970–72</li> <li>1973–76</li> <li>1983–85</li> <li>1988–89</li> <li>1995–96</li> <li>1998–2001</li> <li>2005–06</li> <li>2007–08</li> <li>2008–09</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932012_La_Ni%C3%B1a_event" title="2010–2012 La Niña event">2010–12</a></li> <li>2016</li> <li>2017–18</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_La_Ni%C3%B1a_event" title="2020–2023 La Niña event">2020–23</a></li></ol></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_phases">Transitional phases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transitional phases">edit</a>]</div> Transitional phases at the onset or departure of El Niño or La Niña can also be important factors on global weather by affecting <a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnections</a>. Significant episodes, known as Trans-Niño, are measured by the Trans-Niño index (TNI).<a href="#cite_note-TNI-66">[66]</a> Examples of affected short-time climate in North America include precipitation in the Northwest US<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> and intense tornado activity in the contiguous US.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variations">Variations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Variations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ENSO_Modoki">ENSO Modoki</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: ENSO Modoki">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enso-index-map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Enso-index-map.png/200px-Enso-index-map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Enso-index-map.png/300px-Enso-index-map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Enso-index-map.png/400px-Enso-index-map.png 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="305" /></a><figcaption>Map showing Niño/Niña 1 to 4 regions, 3 and 4 being west and far west and much larger than 1 and 2 a coastal Peruvian/Ecuadorian zone differing subtly north–south</figcaption></figure> The first ENSO pattern to be recognised, called Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO, to distinguish if from others,<a href="#cite_note-Yu2009-69">[69]</a> involves temperature anomalies in the eastern Pacific. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, variations of ENSO conditions were observed, in which the usual place of the temperature anomaly (Niño 1 and 2) is not affected, but an anomaly also arises in the central Pacific (Niño 3.4).<a href="#cite_note-Larkin2007-70">[70]</a> The phenomenon is called Central Pacific (CP) ENSO,<a href="#cite_note-Yu2009-69">[69]</a> "dateline" ENSO (because the anomaly arises near the <a href="/wiki/International_dateline" class="mw-redirect" title="International dateline">dateline</a>), or ENSO "Modoki" (Modoki is <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> for "similar, but different").<a href="#cite_note-link.springer.com-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-72">[72]</a> There are variations of ENSO additional to the EP and CP types, and some scientists argue that ENSO exists as a continuum, often with hybrid types.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The effects of the CP ENSO are different from those of the EP ENSO. The El Niño Modoki is associated with more hurricanes more frequently making landfall in the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Kim2009-74">[74]</a> La Niña Modoki leads to a rainfall increase over <a href="/wiki/North_West_Australia" title="North West Australia">northwestern Australia</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Murray%E2%80%93Darling_basin" title="Murray–Darling basin">Murray–Darling basin</a>, rather than over the eastern portion of the country as in a conventional EP La Niña.<a href="#cite_note-LNModoki-75">[75]</a> Also, La Niña Modoki increases the frequency of cyclonic storms over <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a>, but decreases the occurrence of severe storms in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> overall.<a href="#cite_note-LNM_Indian-76">[76]</a> The first recorded El Niño that originated in the central Pacific and moved toward the east was in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Recent Central Pacific El Niños happened in 1986–87, 1991–92, 1994–95, 2002–03, 2004–05 and 2009–10.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Furthermore, there were "Modoki" events in 1957–59,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> 1963–64, 1965–66, 1968–70, 1977–78 and 1979–80.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Some sources say that the El Niños of 2006-07 and 2014-16 were also Central Pacific El Niños.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Recent years when La Niña Modoki events occurred include 1973–1974, 1975–1976, 1983–1984, 1988–1989, 1998–1999, 2000–2001, 2008–2009, 2010–2011, and 2016–2017.<a href="#cite_note-LNM-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-ENSO_SA-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Modoki-authorities-86">[86]</a> The recent discovery of ENSO Modoki has some scientists believing it to be linked to global warming.<a href="#cite_note-Yeh2009-87">[87]</a> However, comprehensive satellite data go back only to 1979. More research must be done to find the correlation and study past El Niño episodes. More generally, there is no scientific consensus on how/if <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> might affect ENSO.<a href="#cite_note-Collins10-11">[11]</a> There is also a scientific debate on the very existence of this "new" ENSO. A number of studies dispute the reality of this statistical distinction or its increasing occurrence, or both, either arguing the reliable record is too short to detect such a distinction,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> finding no distinction or trend using other statistical approaches,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> or that other types should be distinguished, such as standard and extreme ENSO.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Likewise, following the asymmetric nature of the warm and cold phases of ENSO, some studies could not identify similar variations for La Niña, both in observations and in the climate models,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> but some sources could identify variations on La Niña with cooler waters on central Pacific and average or warmer water temperatures on both eastern and western Pacific, also showing eastern Pacific Ocean currents going to the opposite direction compared to the currents in traditional La Niñas.<a href="#cite_note-link.springer.com-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ENSO_Costero">ENSO Costero</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: ENSO Costero">edit</a>]</div> Coined by the Peruvian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Comit%C3%A9_Multisectorial_Encargado_del_Estudio_Nacional_del_Fen%C3%B3meno_El_Ni%C3%B1o&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño (page does not exist)">Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_Multisectorial_Encargado_del_Estudio_Nacional_del_Fen%C3%B3meno_El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="extiw" title="es:Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño">es</a>] (ENFEN),<a href="#cite_note-INOCAR-99">[99]</a> ENSO Costero, or ENSO Oriental, is the name given to the phenomenon where the sea-surface temperature anomalies are mostly focused on the South American coastline, especially from Peru and Ecuador.<a href="#cite_note-IMARPE-100">[100]</a> Studies point many factors that can lead to its occurrence,<a href="#cite_note-Coastalvar-101">[101]</a> sometimes accompanying, or being accompanied, by a larger EP ENSO occurrence,<a href="#cite_note-IMARPE-100">[100]</a> or even displaying opposite conditions from the observed ones in the other Niño regions when accompanied by Modoki variations.<a href="#cite_note-PhD-102">[102]</a> ENSO Costero events usually present more localized effects, with warm phases leading to increased rainfall over the coast of Ecuador, northern Peru and the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, and increased temperatures over the northern Chilean coast,<a href="#cite_note-INOCAR-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chile-103">[103]</a> and cold phases leading to droughts on the peruvian coast, and increased rainfall and decreased temperatures on its mountainous and jungle regions.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Because they don't influence the global climate as much as the other types, these events present lesser and weaker correlations to other significant ENSO features, neither always being triggered by <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin waves</a>,<a href="#cite_note-INOCAR-99">[99]</a> nor always being accompanied by proportional Southern Oscillation responses.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> According to the Coastal Niño Index (ICEN), strong El Niño Costero events include 1957, 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16, and La Niña Costera ones include 1950, 1954–56, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1967–68, 1970–71, 1975–76 and 2013.<a href="#cite_note-ICEN-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monitoring_and_declaration_of_conditions">Monitoring and declaration of conditions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Monitoring and declaration of conditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NinoRegions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/NinoRegions.png/220px-NinoRegions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/NinoRegions.png/330px-NinoRegions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/NinoRegions.png/440px-NinoRegions.png 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>The various "Niño regions" where sea surface temperatures are monitored to determine the current ENSO phase (warm or cold)</figcaption></figure> Currently, each country has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño event, which is tailored to their specific interests, for example:<a href="#cite_note-December_2014_EU2-5">[5]</a> <ul><li>In the United States, an El Niño is declared when the <a href="/wiki/Climate_Prediction_Center" title="Climate Prediction Center">Climate Prediction Center</a>, which monitors the <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperatures" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea surface temperatures">sea surface temperatures</a> in the Niño 3.4 region and the tropical Pacific, forecasts that the sea surface temperature will be .5 °C (0.90 °F) above average or more for the next several seasons.<a href="#cite_note-How?-107">[107]</a> The Niño 3.4 region stretches from the 120th to 170th meridians west longitude astride the equator five degrees of latitude on either side, are monitored. It is approximately 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) to the southeast of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. The most recent three-month average for the area is computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above (or below) normal for that period, then an El Niño (or La Niña) is considered in progress.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li> <li>The Australian <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Bureau of Meteorology</a> looks at the trade winds, Southern Oscillation Index, weather models and sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3 and 3.4 regions, before declaring an ENSO event.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan Meteorological Agency</a> declares that an ENSO event has started when the average five month sea surface temperature deviation for the Niño 3 region is over 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) for six consecutive months or longer.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian government">Peruvian government</a> declares that an ENSO Costero is under way if the sea surface temperature deviation in the Niño 1+2 regions equal or exceed 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) for at least three months.<a href="#cite_note-ICEN-106">[106]</a></li> <li>The United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a> also uses a several month period to determine ENSO state.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "episodes".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_ENSO_on_global_climate">Effects of ENSO on global climate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effects of ENSO on global climate">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3_examples_of_internal_climate_variability_(1950-2012),_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Southern_Oscillation,_the_Arctic_Oscillation,_and_the_North_Atlantic_Oscillation_(NOAA).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/3_examples_of_internal_climate_variability_%281950-2012%29%2C_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Southern_Oscillation%2C_the_Arctic_Oscillation%2C_and_the_North_Atlantic_Oscillation_%28NOAA%29.png/220px-thumbnail.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/3_examples_of_internal_climate_variability_%281950-2012%29%2C_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Southern_Oscillation%2C_the_Arctic_Oscillation%2C_and_the_North_Atlantic_Oscillation_%28NOAA%29.png/330px-thumbnail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/3_examples_of_internal_climate_variability_%281950-2012%29%2C_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o_%E2%80%93_Southern_Oscillation%2C_the_Arctic_Oscillation%2C_and_the_North_Atlantic_Oscillation_%28NOAA%29.png 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>This image shows three examples of internal climate variability measured between 1950 and 2012: the El Niño–Southern oscillation, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_oscillation" title="Arctic oscillation">Arctic oscillation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></figcaption></figure> In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate variability</a> phenomena. The other two main ones[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] are <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation" title="Atlantic multidecadal oscillation">Atlantic multidecadal oscillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 23  La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.<a href="#cite_note-NIWA_NZ-114">[114]</a> El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on decadal timescales.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> There is no sign that there are actual changes in the ENSO physical phenomenon due to climate change. Climate models do not simulate ENSO well enough to make reliable predictions. Future trends in ENSO are uncertain<a href="#cite_note-Collins10-11">[11]</a> as different models make different predictions.<a href="#cite_note-Merryfield2006-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guilyardi2009-116">[116]</a> It may be that the observed phenomenon of more frequent and stronger El Niño events occurs only in the initial phase of the global warming, and then (e.g., after the lower layers of the ocean get warmer, as well), El Niño will become weaker.<a href="#cite_note-Meehl2006-117">[117]</a> It may also be that the stabilizing and destabilizing forces influencing the phenomenon[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] will eventually compensate for each other.<a href="#cite_note-Philip2006-118">[118]</a> The consequences of ENSO in terms of the temperature anomalies and precipitation and weather extremes around the world are clearly increasing and associated with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. For example, recent scholarship (since about 2019) has found that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liu2022-121">[121]</a> Previously there was no consensus on whether climate change will have any influence on the strength or duration of El Niño events, as research alternately supported El Niño events becoming stronger and weaker, longer and shorter.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO_+_Climate_Change-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins102-123">[123]</a> Over the last several decades, the number of El Niño events increased, and the number of La Niña events decreased,<a href="#cite_note-Trenberth1996-124">[124]</a> although observation of ENSO for much longer is needed to detect robust changes.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Studies of historical data show the recent El Niño variation is most likely linked to global warming. For example, some results, even after subtracting the positive influence of decadal variation, are shown to be possibly present in the ENSO trend,<a href="#cite_note-Fedorov2000-126">[126]</a> the amplitude of the ENSO variability in the observed data still increases, by as much as 60% in the last 50 years.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang2008-127">[127]</a> A study published in 2023 by <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">CSIRO</a> researchers found that climate change may have increased by two times the likelihood of strong El Niño events and nine times the likelihood of strong La Niña events.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The study stated it found a consensus between different models and experiments.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> summarized the state of the art of research in 2021 into the future of ENSO as follows: <ul><li>"In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase"<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 113  and</li> <li>"It is very likely that rainfall variability related to changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 114  and</li> <li>"There is medium confidence that both ENSO amplitude and the frequency of high-magnitude events since 1950 are higher than over the period from 1850 and possibly as far back as 1400".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC2021-10">[10]</a>: 373 </li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investigations_regarding_tipping_points">Investigations regarding tipping points</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Investigations regarding tipping points">edit</a>]</div> The ENSO is considered to be a potential <a href="/wiki/Tipping_point_(climatology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipping point (climatology)">tipping element</a> in Earth's climate.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Global warming can strengthen the ENSO <a href="/wiki/Teleconnection" title="Teleconnection">teleconnection</a> and resulting extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> For example, an increase in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño events have triggered warmer than usual temperatures over the Indian Ocean, by modulating the Walker circulation.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> This has resulted in a rapid warming of the Indian Ocean, and consequently a weakening of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia" title="Monsoon of South Asia">Asian Monsoon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system#Formerly_considered_tipping_elements" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system § Formerly considered tipping elements</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system&action=edit#Formerly_considered_tipping_elements">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climate-tipping-points-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Climate-tipping-points-en.svg/300px-Climate-tipping-points-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Climate-tipping-points-en.svg/450px-Climate-tipping-points-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Climate-tipping-points-en.svg/600px-Climate-tipping-points-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="1409" /></a><figcaption>Earlier (2008) list of tipping elements in the climate system.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_Lenton2008-135">[135]</a> When compared to later lists, the major differences are that in 2008 ENSO, Indian summer monsoon, Arctic <a href="/wiki/Ozone_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozone hole">ozone hole</a> and all of <a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic sea ice">Arctic sea ice</a> were all listed as tipping points. Labrador-Irminger circulation, mountain glaciers and East Antarctic ice however were not included. This 2008 list also includes <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_bottom_water" title="Antarctic bottom water">Antarctic bottom water</a> (part of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation" title="Southern Ocean overturning circulation">Southern Ocean overturning circulation</a>), which was left out of the 2022 list, but included in some subsequent ones.</figcaption></figure> The possibility that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a tipping element had attracted attention in the past.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_:2-136">[136]</a> Normally strong winds blow west across the South Pacific Ocean from <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Every two to seven years, the winds weaken due to pressure changes and the air and water in the middle of the Pacific warms up, causing changes in wind movement patterns around the globe. This is known as <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> and typically leads to <a href="/wiki/Drought_in_India" title="Drought in India">droughts in India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and increased flooding in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. In 2015/2016, this caused <a href="/wiki/Food_insecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Food insecurity">food shortages</a> affecting over 60 million people.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> El Niño-induced droughts may increase the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Amazon_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon wildfires">forest fires in the Amazon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_:9-138">[138]</a> The threshold for tipping was estimated to be between 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and 7 °C (13 °F) of global warming in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_nature.com-139">[139]</a> After tipping, the system would be in a more permanent El Niño state, rather than oscillating between different states. This has happened in Earth's past, in the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>, but the layout of the ocean was significantly different from now.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_:2-136">[136]</a> So far, there is no definitive evidence indicating changes in ENSO behaviour,<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_:9-138">[138]</a> and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report concluded that it is "virtually certain that the ENSO will remain the dominant mode of interannual variability in a warmer world."<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Consequently, the 2022 assessment no longer includes it in the list of likely tipping elements.<a href="#cite_note-Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system_ArmstrongMcKay2022Explainer-141">[141]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_ENSO_on_weather_patterns">Effects of ENSO on weather patterns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Effects of ENSO on weather patterns">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:642px;max-width:642px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg/189px-20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="189" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg/284px-20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg/378px-20210827_Global_surface_temperature_bar_chart_-_bars_color-coded_by_El_Ni%C3%B1o_and_La_Ni%C3%B1a_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Colored bars show how El Niño years (red, regional warming) and La Niña years (blue, regional cooling) relate to overall <a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">global warming</a>. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation has been linked to variability in longer-term global average temperature increase, with El Niño years usually corresponding to annual global temperature increases.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg/189px-1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg.png" decoding="async" width="189" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg/284px-1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg/378px-1994-_Global_average_temperature_during_June-July-August.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">2023's June-July-August season was the warmest on record globally by a large margin, as El Niño conditions continued to develop.<a href="#cite_note-Copernicus_202309-142">[142]</a> 1998—a very strong El Niño year—also experienced a global temperature spike.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg/252px-1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="252" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg/378px-1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg/504px-1940-_January_global_average_temperature_changes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Global average surface temperatures, shown here for each January since 1940, reached a record temperature change of 1.75 °C over pre-industrial levels in January 2025—despite the Earth being in a La Niña (regional cooling) phase.<a href="#cite_note-Copernicus_January2025-143">[143]</a></div></div></div></div></div> El Niño affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.<a href="#cite_note-NIWA_El_Niño/La_Niña-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-How_Much_Do_El_Niño-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropical_cyclones">Tropical cyclones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tropical cyclones">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hurricanes_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricanes and climate change">Hurricanes and climate change</a></div> Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a> closer to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">Westerlies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Areas west of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> tend to experience many fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During El Niño years, the break[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] in the <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a> tends to lie near <a href="/wiki/130th_meridian_east" title="130th meridian east">130°E</a>, which would favor the Japanese archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-China2-145">[145]</a> Based on modeled and observed <a href="/wiki/Accumulated_cyclone_energy" title="Accumulated cyclone energy">accumulated cyclone energy</a> (ACE), El Niño years usually result in less active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic Ocean, but instead favor a shift to <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a> activity in the Pacific Ocean, compared to La Niña years favoring above average hurricane development in the Atlantic and less so in the Pacific basin.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Over the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins#Atlantic_Ocean" title="Tropical cyclone basins">Atlantic Ocean</a>, vertical wind shear is increased, which inhibits tropical cyclone genesis and intensification, by causing the westerly winds to be stronger.<a href="#cite_note-TC_FAQ_G2-147">[147]</a> The atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean can also be drier and more stable during El Niño events, which can inhibit tropical cyclone genesis and intensification.<a href="#cite_note-TC_FAQ_G2-147">[147]</a> Within the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins#Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical cyclone basins">Eastern Pacific basin</a>: El Niño events contribute to decreased easterly vertical wind shear and favor above-normal hurricane activity.<a href="#cite_note-EPAC_Background-148">[148]</a> However, the impacts of the ENSO state in this region can vary and are strongly influenced by background climate patterns.<a href="#cite_note-EPAC_Background-148">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_basins#Western_Pacific" title="Tropical cyclone basins">Western Pacific basin</a> experiences a change in the location of where tropical cyclones form during El Niño events, with tropical cyclone formation shifting eastward, without a major change in how many develop each year.<a href="#cite_note-TC_FAQ_G2-147">[147]</a> As a result of this change, Micronesia is more likely, and China less likely, to be affected by tropical cyclones.<a href="#cite_note-China2-145">[145]</a> A change in the location of where tropical cyclones form also occurs within the Southern Pacific Ocean between 135°E and 120°W, with tropical cyclones more likely to occur within the Southern Pacific basin than the Australian region.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?2-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-TC_FAQ_G2-147">[147]</a> As a result of this change tropical cyclones are 50% less likely to make landfall on Queensland, while the risk of a tropical cyclone is elevated for island nations like <a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?2-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIWA-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_influence_on_tropical_Atlantic_Ocean">Remote influence on tropical Atlantic Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Remote influence on tropical Atlantic Ocean">edit</a>]</div> A study of climate records has shown that El Niño events in the equatorial Pacific are generally associated with a warm tropical North Atlantic in the following spring and summer.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> About half of El Niño events persist sufficiently into the spring months for the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere_Warm_Pool" title="Western Hemisphere Warm Pool">Western Hemisphere Warm Pool</a> to become unusually large in summer.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Occasionally, El Niño's effect on the Atlantic Walker circulation over South America strengthens the easterly trade winds in the western equatorial Atlantic region. As a result, an unusual cooling may occur in the eastern equatorial Atlantic in spring and summer following El Niño peaks in winter.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Cases of El Niño-type events in both oceans simultaneously have been linked to severe <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famines</a> related to the extended failure of <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> rains.<a href="#cite_note-Davis2001-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_on_humans_and_ecosystems">Impacts on humans and ecosystems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Impacts on humans and ecosystems">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impacts">Economic impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Economic impacts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif/220px-ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif/330px-ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif/440px-ElNinoBloom_1998JanJul.gif 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>El Niño has the most direct impacts on life in the equatorial Pacific, its effects propagate north and south along the coast of the Americas, affecting marine life all around the Pacific. Changes in chlorophyll-a concentrations are visible in this animation, which compares <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> in January and July 1998. Since then, scientists have improved both the collection and presentation of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> data.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive <a href="/wiki/Ocean_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a> and the reduction in easterly trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water, and its economic effect on local fishing for an international market can be serious.<a href="#cite_note-deadfish2-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">Developing countries</a> that depend on their own agriculture and fishing, particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean, are usually most affected by El Niño conditions. In this phase of the Oscillation, the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest in late December.<a href="#cite_note-DFG2-157">[157]</a> More generally, El Niño can affect commodity prices and the macroeconomy of different countries. It can constrain the supply of rain-driven agricultural commodities; reduce agricultural output, construction, and services activities; increase food prices; and may trigger social unrest in commodity-dependent poor countries that primarily rely on imported food.<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Cambridge-158">[158]</a> A University of Cambridge Working Paper shows that while Australia, Chile, Indonesia, India, Japan, New Zealand and South Africa face a short-lived fall in economic activity in response to an El Niño shock, other countries may actually benefit from an El Niño weather shock (either directly or indirectly through positive spillovers from major trading partners), for instance, Argentina, Canada, Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, most countries experience short-run inflationary pressures following an El Niño shock, while global energy and non-fuel commodity prices increase.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> The IMF estimates a significant El Niño can boost the GDP of the United States by about 0.5% (due largely to lower heating bills) and reduce the GDP of Indonesia by about 1.0%.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_social_impacts">Health and social impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Health and social impacts">edit</a>]</div> Extreme weather conditions related to the El Niño cycle correlate with changes in the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> diseases. For example, the El Niño cycle is associated with increased risks of some of the diseases transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Cycles of malaria in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> have now been linked to El Niño. Outbreaks of another mosquito-transmitted disease, Australian encephalitis (<a href="/wiki/Murray_Valley_encephalitis_virus" title="Murray Valley encephalitis virus">Murray Valley encephalitis</a>—MVE), occur in temperate south-east Australia after heavy rainfall and flooding, which are associated with La Niña events. A severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever occurred after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia during the 1997–98 El Niño.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> ENSO conditions have also been related to <a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_disease" title="Kawasaki disease">Kawasaki disease</a> incidence in Japan and the west coast of the United States,<a href="#cite_note-Ballester-163">[163]</a> via the linkage to tropospheric winds across the north Pacific Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Rod-164">[164]</a> ENSO may be linked to civil conflicts. Scientists at <a href="/wiki/The_Earth_Institute" title="The Earth Institute">The Earth Institute</a> of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, having analyzed data from 1950 to 2004, suggest ENSO may have had a role in 21% of all civil conflicts since 1950, with the risk of annual civil conflict doubling from 3% to 6% in countries affected by ENSO during El Niño years relative to La Niña years.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_consequences">Ecological consequences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ecological consequences">edit</a>]</div> During the 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16 ENSO events, large extensions of tropical forests experienced a prolonged dry period that resulted in widespread fires, and drastic changes in forest structure and tree species composition in Amazonian and Bornean forests. Their impacts do not restrict only vegetation, since declines in insect populations were observed after extreme drought and terrible fires during El Niño 2015–16.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Declines in habitat-specialist and disturbance-sensitive bird species and in large-frugivorous mammals were also observed in Amazonian burned forests, while temporary extirpation of more than 100 lowland butterfly species occurred at a burned forest site in Borneo. In seasonally dry tropical forests, which are more drought tolerant, researchers found that El Niño induced drought increased seedling mortality. In a research published in October 2022, researchers studied seasonally dry tropical forests in a national park in <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Mai" title="Chiang Mai">Chiang Mai</a> in Thailand for 7 years and observed that El Niño increased seedling mortality even in seasonally dry tropical forests and may impact entire forests in long run.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coral_bleaching">Coral bleaching</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Coral bleaching">edit</a>]</div> Following the El Nino event in 1997 – 1998, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory attributes the first large-scale <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> event to the warming waters.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Most critically, global mass bleaching events were recorded in 1997-98 and 2015–16, when around 75-99% losses of live coral were registered across the world. Considerable attention was also given to the collapse of Peruvian and Chilean anchovy populations that led to a severe fishery crisis following the ENSO events in 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98 and, more recently, in 2015–16. In particular, increased surface seawater temperatures in 1982-83 also lead to the probable extinction of two hydrocoral species in Panamá, and to a massive mortality of kelp beds along 600 km of coastline in Chile, from which kelps and associated biodiversity slowly recovered in the most affected areas even after 20 years. All these findings enlarge the role of ENSO events as a strong climatic force driving ecological changes all around the world – particularly in tropical forests and coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_by_region">Impacts by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Impacts by region">edit</a>]</div> Observations of ENSO events since 1950 show that impacts associated with such events depend on the time of year.<a href="#cite_note-Cascade2-171">[171]</a> While certain events and impacts are expected to occur, it is not certain that they will happen.<a href="#cite_note-Cascade2-171">[171]</a> The impacts that generally do occur during most El Niño events include below-average rainfall over Indonesia and northern South America, and above average rainfall in southeastern South America, eastern equatorial Africa, and the southern United States.<a href="#cite_note-Cascade2-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg/220px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg/330px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg/440px-Oxfam_East_Africa_-_A_family_gathers_sticks_and_branches_for_firewood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Between 50,000 and 100,000 people died during the <a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 East Africa drought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></figcaption></figure> La Niña results in wetter-than-normal conditions in southern Africa from December to February, and drier-than-normal conditions over equatorial east Africa over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The effects of El Niño on rainfall in southern Africa differ between the summer and winter rainfall areas. Winter rainfall areas tend to get higher rainfall than normal and summer rainfall areas tend to get less rain. The effect on the summer rainfall areas is stronger and has led to severe drought in strong El Niño events.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Sea surface temperatures off the west and south coasts of South Africa are affected by ENSO via changes in surface wind strength.<a href="#cite_note-Nhesvure_2020-176">[176]</a> During El Niño the south-easterly winds driving upwelling are weaker which results in warmer coastal waters than normal, while during La Niña the same winds are stronger and cause colder coastal waters. These effects on the winds are part of large scale influences on the tropical Atlantic and the <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_High" title="South Atlantic High">South Atlantic High</a>-pressure system, and changes to the pattern of westerly winds further south. There are other influences not known to be related to ENSO of similar importance. Some ENSO events do not lead to the expected changes.<a href="#cite_note-Nhesvure_2020-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antarctica">Antarctica</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Antarctica">edit</a>]</div> Many ENSO linkages exist in the high southern latitudes around <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Turner2004-177">[177]</a> Specifically, El Niño conditions result in <a href="/wiki/High-pressure_area" title="High-pressure area">high-pressure</a> anomalies over the <a href="/wiki/Amundsen_Sea" title="Amundsen Sea">Amundsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bellingshausen_Sea" title="Bellingshausen Sea">Bellingshausen</a> Seas, causing reduced <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> and increased poleward heat fluxes in these sectors, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>, conversely, tends to become colder with more sea ice during El Niño. The exact opposite heating and atmospheric pressure anomalies occur during La Niña.<a href="#cite_note-Yuan2004-178">[178]</a> This pattern of variability is known as the Antarctic dipole mode, although the Antarctic response to ENSO forcing is not ubiquitous.<a href="#cite_note-Yuan2004-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>, during the region's November–April rainy season, there is increased precipitation in the El Niño phase and reduced precipitation in the La Niña phase on average.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> During El Niño years: As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> to the east Pacific, it takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2010 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month. The years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical <a href="/wiki/Ridge_(meteorology)" title="Ridge (meteorology)">ridge</a> position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat in China.<a href="#cite_note-China-182">[182]</a> In March 2008, La Niña caused a drop in sea surface temperatures over Southeast Asia by 2 °C (3.6 °F). It also caused heavy rains over the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> Across most of the continent, El Niño and La Niña have more impact on climate variability than any other factor. There is a strong correlation between the strength of La Niña and rainfall: the greater the sea surface temperature and <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Southern_Oscillation">Southern Oscillation</a> difference from normal, the larger the rainfall change.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> During El Niño events, the shift in rainfall away from the Western Pacific may mean that rainfall across Australia is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?-185">[185]</a> Over the southern part of the continent, warmer than average temperatures can be recorded as weather systems are more mobile and fewer blocking areas of high pressure occur.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?-185">[185]</a> The onset of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon#Australia" title="Monsoon">Indo-Australian Monsoon</a> in tropical Australia is delayed by two to six weeks, which as a consequence means that rainfall is reduced over the northern tropics.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?-185">[185]</a> The risk of a significant bushfire season in south-eastern Australia is higher following an El Niño event, especially when it is combined with a positive <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Dipole" title="Indian Ocean Dipole">Indian Ocean Dipole</a> event.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_an_El_Niño?-185">[185]</a> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation_in_Australia" title="Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia">Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation_in_Australia&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> are present across most of <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Australia" title="Northern Australia">north</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Australia">east</a>, and are one of the main climate drivers of the country. Associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> alongside considerable wet periods that cause major floods. There exist three phases — El Niño, La Niña, and Neutral, which help to account for the different states of ENSO.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Since 1900, there have been 28 El Niño and 19 La Niña events in Australia including the current 2023 El Niño event, which was declared on 17th of September in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The events usually last for 9 to 12 months, but some can persist for two years, though the ENSO cycle generally operates over a time period from one to eight years.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Through <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a> years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above-average rainfall usually creating damaging floods due to stronger easterly <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> towards Australia, thus increasing moisture in the country. Conversely, <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> events will be associated with a weakening, or even a setback, of the prevailing trade winds, and this, results in reduced atmospheric moisture in the country.<a href="#cite_note-Effects_of_the_El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation_in_Australia_Aus-192">[192]</a> Many of the worst <a href="/wiki/Bushfires_in_Australia" title="Bushfires in Australia">bushfires in Australia</a> accompany ENSO events, and can be exacerbated by a positive <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Dipole" title="Indian Ocean Dipole">Indian Ocean Dipole</a>, where they would tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> El Niño's effects on <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> are controversial, complex and difficult to analyze, as it is one of several factors that influence the weather over the continent and other factors can overwhelm the signal.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation_in_the_United_States" title="Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States">Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States</a></div> La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño: above-average <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> across the northern <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rockies" title="Canadian Rockies">northern Rockies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>'s southern and eastern regions.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Meanwhile, precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states, as well as southern California, is below average.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> This also allows[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] for the development of many stronger-than-average hurricanes in the Atlantic and fewer in the Pacific. ENSO is linked to rainfall over Puerto Rico.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> During an El Niño, snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well-below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. During a La Niña, snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> In Canada, La Niña will, in general, cause a cooler, snowier winter, such as the near-record-breaking amounts of snow recorded in the La Niña winter of 2007–2008 in eastern Canada.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-cpc.noaa.gov-201">[201]</a> In the spring of 2022, La Niña caused above-average precipitation and below-average temperatures in the state of Oregon. April was one of the wettest months on record, and La Niña effects, while less severe, were expected to continue into the summer.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Over North America, the main temperature and precipitation impacts of El Niño generally occur in the six months between October and March.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Impacts-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-climate_impacts-204">[204]</a> In particular, the majority of Canada generally has milder than normal winters and springs, with the exception of eastern Canada where no significant impacts occur.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Within the United States, the impacts generally observed during the six-month period include wetter-than-average conditions along the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf Coast</a> between <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, while drier conditions are observed in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Impacts-203">[203]</a> Study of more recent weather events over California and the southwestern United States indicate that there is a variable relationship between El Niño and above-average precipitation, as it strongly depends on the strength of the El Niño event and other factors.<a href="#cite_note-ENSO:Impacts-203">[203]</a> Though it has been historically associated with high rainfall in California, the effects of El Niño depend more strongly on the "flavor"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] of El Niño than its presence or absence, as only "persistent El Niño" events lead to consistently high rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> To the north across <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, La Niña events lead to drier than normal conditions, while El Niño events do not have a correlation towards dry or wet conditions. During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, <a href="/wiki/Storm_track" title="Storm track">storm track</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> During La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> due to a more northerly storm track.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> During La Niña events, the storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal winter conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> During the El Niño portion of <a href="/wiki/ENSO" class="mw-redirect" title="ENSO">ENSO</a>, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, <a href="/wiki/Polar_jet_stream#Upper-level_variety" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar jet stream">polar jet stream</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec">Isthmus of Tehuantepec</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Isthmus of Tehuantepec">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tehuantepecer" title="Tehuantepecer">Tehuantepecer</a></div> The synoptic condition for the <a href="/wiki/Tehuantepecer" title="Tehuantepecer">Tehuantepecer</a>, a violent mountain-gap wind in between the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, is associated with <a href="/wiki/High-pressure_system" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure system">high-pressure system</a> forming in <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Madre_de_Oaxaca" title="Sierra Madre de Oaxaca">Sierra Madre</a> of Mexico in the wake of an advancing cold front, which causes winds to accelerate through the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec" title="Isthmus of Tehuantepec">Isthmus of Tehuantepec</a>. Tehuantepecers primarily occur during the cold season months for the region in the wake of cold fronts, between October and February, with a summer maximum in July caused by the westward extension of the Azores-Bermuda high pressure system. Wind magnitude is greater during El Niño years than during La Niña years, due to the more frequent cold frontal incursions during El Niño winters.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Tehuantepec winds reach 20 knots (40 km/h) to 45 knots (80 km/h), and on rare occasions 100 knots (190 km/h). The wind's direction is from the north to north-northeast.<a href="#cite_note-gloss-213">[213]</a> It leads to a localized acceleration of the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a> in the region, and can enhance <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorm</a> activity when it interacts with the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The effects can last from a few hours to six days.<a href="#cite_note-MWL1971-215">[215]</a> Between 1942 and 1957, La Niña had an impact that caused isotope changes in the plants of Baja California, and that had helped scientists to study his impact.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_islands">Pacific islands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Pacific islands">edit</a>]</div> During an El Niño event, New Zealand tends to experience stronger or more frequent westerly winds during their summer, which leads to an elevated risk of drier than normal conditions along the east coast.<a href="#cite_note-New_Zealand_El_Niño's_impacts-217">[217]</a> There is more rain than usual though on New Zealand's West Coast, because of the barrier effect of the North Island mountain ranges and the Southern Alps.<a href="#cite_note-New_Zealand_El_Niño's_impacts-217">[217]</a> Fiji generally experiences drier than normal conditions during an El Niño, which can lead to drought becoming established over the Islands.<a href="#cite_note-Fiji_ENSO_Update-218">[218]</a> However, the main impacts on the island nation is felt about a year after the event becomes established.<a href="#cite_note-Fiji_ENSO_Update-218">[218]</a> Within the Samoan Islands, below average rainfall and higher than normal temperatures are recorded during El Niño events, which can lead to droughts and forest fires on the islands.<a href="#cite_note-Clim_Jan_2016-219">[219]</a> Other impacts include a decrease in the sea level, possibility of coral bleaching in the marine environment and an increased risk of a tropical cyclone affecting Samoa.<a href="#cite_note-Clim_Jan_2016-219">[219]</a> In the late winter and spring during El Niño events, drier than average conditions can be expected in Hawaii.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> On Guam during El Niño years, dry season precipitation averages below normal, but the probability of a tropical cyclone is more than triple what is normal, so extreme short duration rainfall events are possible.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> On American Samoa during El Niño events, precipitation averages about 10 percent above normal, while La Niña events are associated with precipitation averaging about 10 percent below normal.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and strong. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean, including several portions of the South American west coast. The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> The effects during the months of February, March, and April may become critical along the west coast of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, El Niño reduces the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> industry. The reduction in upwelling leads to <a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">fish kills</a> off the shore of Peru.<a href="#cite_note-deadfish-225">[225]</a> The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events. <a href="/wiki/1972_Peruvian_anchoveta_crisis" title="1972 Peruvian anchoveta crisis">Peruvian fisheries collapsed during the 1970s</a> due to overfishing following the 1972 El Niño <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_anchoveta" title="Peruvian anchoveta">Peruvian anchoveta</a> reduction.<a href="#cite_note-perufish-226">[226]</a> The fisheries were previously the world's largest, however, this collapse led to the decline of these fisheries. During the 1982–83 event, <a href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">jack mackerel</a> and anchoveta populations were reduced, <a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">scallops</a> increased in warmer water, but <a href="/wiki/Hake" title="Hake">hake</a> followed cooler water down the continental slope, while <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardines</a> moved southward, so some catches decreased while others increased.<a href="#cite_note-Pearcy1987-227">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">Horse mackerel</a> have increased in the region during warm events. Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions create challenges for the fishing industry. Peruvian <a href="/wiki/Sardine" title="Sardine">sardines</a> have moved during El Niño events to <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chilean</a> areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for self-employed fishermen and industrial fleets. Southern <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> also experience wetter than normal conditions during El Niño years, but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central Chile receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the Peruvian-Bolivian <a href="/wiki/Altiplano" title="Altiplano">Altiplano</a> is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> Basin, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> During a time of La Niña, drought affects the coastal regions of Peru and Chile.<a href="#cite_note-GLOBE-229">[229]</a> From December to February, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Brazil">northern Brazil</a> is wetter than normal.<a href="#cite_note-GLOBE-229">[229]</a> La Niña causes higher than normal rainfall in the central <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, which in turn causes catastrophic flooding on the Llanos de Mojos of <a href="/wiki/Beni_Department" title="Beni Department">Beni Department</a>, Bolivia. Such flooding is documented from 1853, 1865, 1872, 1873, 1886, 1895, 1896, 1907, 1921, 1928, 1929 and 1931.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galápagos_Islands">Galápagos Islands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Galápagos Islands">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a> are a chain of volcanic islands, nearly 600 miles west of Ecuador, South America.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. These islands support a wide diversity of terrestrial and marine species.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> The ecosystem is based on the normal trade winds which influence upwelling of cold, nutrient rich waters to the islands.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> During an El Niño event the trade winds weaken and sometimes blow from west to east, which causes the Equatorial current to weaken, raising surface water temperatures and decreasing nutrients in waters surrounding the Galápagos. El Niño causes a trophic cascade which impacts entire ecosystems starting with primary producers and ending with critical animals such as sharks, penguins, and seals.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> The effects of El Niño can become detrimental to populations that often starve and die back during these years. Rapid evolutionary adaptations are displayed amongst animal groups during El Niño years to mitigate El Niño conditions.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_geologic_timescales">In geologic timescales</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: In geologic timescales">edit</a>]</div> Evidence is also strong for El Niño events during the early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> epoch 10,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> Different modes of ENSO-like events have been registered in <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimatic">paleoclimatic</a> archives, showing different triggering methods, feedbacks and environmental responses to the geological, atmospheric and oceanographic characteristics of the time. These paleorecords can be used to provide a qualitative basis for conservation practices.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Scientists have also found chemical signatures of warmer sea surface temperatures and increased rainfall caused by El Niño in coral specimens that are around 13,000 years old.<a href="#cite_note-Weather_Underground-238">[238]</a> In a paleoclimate study published in 2024, the authors suggest that El Niños had a strong influence on Earth's hothouse climate during the <a href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>. The increasing intensity and duration of El Niño events were associated with active volcanism, which resulted in the dieback of vegetation, an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a significant warming and disturbances in the circulation of air masses.<a href="#cite_note-Sun2024-239">[239]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Series/ epoch </th> <th>Age of archive / Location / Type of archive or proxy </th> <th>Description and references </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mid <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> </td> <td>4150 ya / Vanuatu Islands / Coral core </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a> in Vanuatu coral records, indication of shoaling of thermocline, is analyzed for Sr/Ca and U/Ca content, from which temperature is regressed. The temperature variability shows that during the mid-Holocene, changes in the position of the anticyclonic gyre produced average to cold (La Niña) conditions, which were probably interrupted by strong warm events (El Niño), which might have produced the bleaching, associated to decadal variability.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Holocene </td> <td>12000ya / Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador / Pollen content of marine core </td> <td>Pollen records show changes in precipitation, possibly related to variability of the position of the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">ITCZ</a>, as well as the latitudinal maxima of the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a>, which both depend on ENSO frequency and amplitude variability. Three different regimes of ENSO influence are found in the marine core.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Holocene </td> <td>12000ya / Pallcacocha Lake, Ecuador / Sediment core </td> <td>Core shows warm events with periodicities of 2–8 years, which become more frequent over the Holocene until about 1,200 years ago, and then decline, on top of which there are periods of low and high ENSO-related events, possibly due to changes in insolation.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">LGM</a> </td> <td>45000ya / Australia / Peat core </td> <td>Moisture variability in the Australian core shows dry periods related to frequent warm events (El Niño), correlated to <a href="/wiki/Dansgaard%E2%80%93Oeschger_event" title="Dansgaard–Oeschger event">DO</a> events. Although no strong correlation was found with the Atlantic Ocean, it is suggested that the insolation influence probably affected both oceans, although the Pacific Ocean seems to have the most influence on teleconnection in annual, millennial and semi-precessional timescales.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> </td> <td>240 Kya / Indian and Pacific oceans / <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a> in 9 deep sea cores </td> <td>9 deep cores in the equatorial Indian and Pacific show variations in primary productivity, related to glacial-interglacial variability and <a href="/wiki/Precession_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession (astronomy)">precessional</a> periods (23 ky) related to changes in the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a>. There is also indication that the equatorial areas can be early responders to insolation forcing.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> </td> <td>2.8 Mya / Spain / Lacustrine laminated sediments core </td> <td>The basin core shows light and dark layers, related to summer/autumn transition where more/less productivity is expected. The core shows thicker or thinner layers, with periodicities of 12, 6–7 and 2–3 years, related to ENSO, North Atlantic Oscillation (<a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">NAO</a>) and Quasi-biennial Oscillation (QBO), and possibly also insolation variability (<a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspots</a>).<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> </td> <td>5.3 Mya / Equatorial Pacific / <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a> in deep sea cores </td> <td>Deep sea cores at <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Drilling_Program" title="Ocean Drilling Program">ODP</a> site 847 and 806 show that the Pliocene warm period presented permanent El Niño-like conditions, possibly related to changes in the mean state of extratropical regions<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> or changes in ocean heat transport resulting from <a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_Ni%C3%B1o" title="Cyclonic Niño">increased tropical cyclone activity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> </td> <td>5.92-5.32 Mya / Italy / <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">Evaporite</a> varve thickness </td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Varve" title="Varve">varve</a> close to the Mediterranean shows 2–7 year variability, closely related to ENSO periodicity. Model simulations show that there is more correlation with ENSO than NAO, and that there is a strong teleconnection with the Mediterranean due to lower gradients of temperature.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="During_human_history">During human history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: During human history">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif/200px-Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif/301px-Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif/400px-Mean_sst_equatorial_pacific.gif 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Average equatorial Pacific temperatures, published in 2009.</figcaption></figure> ENSO conditions have occurred at two- to seven-year intervals for at least the past 300 years, but most of them have been weak.<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> El Niño may have led to the demise of the Moche and other pre-Columbian <a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Peruvian cultures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> A recent study suggests a strong El Niño effect between 1789 and 1793 caused poor crop yields in Europe, which in turn helped touch off the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grove1998-251">[251]</a> The extreme weather produced by El Niño in 1876–77 gave rise to the most deadly <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famines</a> of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%9379" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79">1876 famine</a> alone in northern China killed up to 13 million people.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> The phenomenon had long been of interest because of its effects on the <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> industry and other enterprises that depend on biological productivity of the sea. It is recorded that as early as 1822, cartographer Joseph Lartigue, of the French frigate La Clorinde under <a href="/wiki/Ange_Ren%C3%A9_Armand,_baron_de_Mackau" title="Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau">Baron Mackau</a>, noted the "counter-current" and its usefulness for traveling southward along the Peruvian coast.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-pezet-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Todd_(pioneer)" title="Charles Todd (pioneer)">Charles Todd</a>, in 1888, suggested droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time;<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Lockyer" title="Norman Lockyer">Norman Lockyer</a> noted the same in 1904.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> An El Niño connection with flooding was reported in 1894 by Victor Eguiguren (1852–1919) and in 1895 by Federico Alfonso Pezet (1859–1929).<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-pezet-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> In 1924, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Walker_(physicist)" title="Gilbert Walker (physicist)">Gilbert Walker</a> (for whom the <a href="/wiki/Walker_circulation" title="Walker circulation">Walker circulation</a> is named) coined the term "Southern Oscillation".<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> He and others (including Norwegian-American meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a>) are generally credited with identifying the El Niño effect.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> The major 1982–83 El Niño led to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community. The period 1990–95 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Trenberth19962-265">[265]</a> An especially intense El Niño event in 1998 caused an estimated 16% of the world's reef systems to die. The event temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 °C, compared to the usual increase of 0.25 °C associated with El Niño events.<a href="#cite_note-Trenberth-266">[266]</a> Since then, mass <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> has become common worldwide, with all regions having suffered "severe bleaching".<a href="#cite_note-Marshall2006-267">[267]</a> Around 1525, when <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a> made landfall in Peru, he noted rainfall in the deserts, the first written record of the impacts of El Niño.<a href="#cite_note-Weather_Underground-238">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_patterns">Related patterns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Related patterns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madden–Julian_oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Madden–Julian oscillation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation" title="Madden–Julian oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png/310px-MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png/465px-MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png/620px-MJO_5-day_running_mean_through_1_Oct_2006.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Hovm%C3%B6ller_diagram" title="Hovmöller diagram">Hovmöller diagram</a> of the 5-day running mean of <a href="/wiki/Outgoing_longwave_radiation" title="Outgoing longwave radiation">outgoing longwave radiation</a> showing the MJO. Time increases from top to bottom in the figure, so contours that are oriented from upper-left to lower-right represent movement from west to east.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Madden%E2%80%93Julian_oscillation" title="Madden–Julian oscillation">Madden–Julian oscillation</a> (MJO) is the largest element of the intraseasonal (30- to 90-day) variability in the tropical atmosphere. It was discovered in 1971 by <a href="/wiki/Roland_Madden" title="Roland Madden">Roland Madden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Julian_(meteorologist)" title="Paul Julian (meteorologist)">Paul Julian</a> of the American <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR).<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> It is a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">deep atmospheric convection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Madden–Julian_oscillation_agu1-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-Madden–Julian_oscillation_UEA1-270">[270]</a> Unlike a standing pattern like the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation is a traveling pattern that propagates eastward, at approximately 4 to 8 m/s (14 to 29 km/h; 9 to 18 mph), through the atmosphere above the warm parts of the Indian and Pacific oceans. This overall circulation pattern manifests itself most clearly as <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_anomaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric anomaly">anomalous</a> rainfall.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Link_to_the_El_Niño-Southern_oscillation">Link to the El Niño-Southern oscillation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Link to the El Niño-Southern oscillation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"> There is strong year-to-year (interannual) variability in Madden–Julian oscillation activity, with long periods of strong activity followed by periods in which the oscillation is weak or absent. This interannual variability of the MJO is partly linked to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. In the Pacific, strong MJO activity is often observed 6 to 12 months prior to the onset of an <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> episode, but is virtually absent during the maxima of some El Niño episodes, while MJO activity is typically greater during a <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a> episode. Strong events in the Madden–Julian oscillation over a series of months in the western Pacific can speed the development of an El Niño or La Niña but usually do not in themselves lead to the onset of a warm or cold ENSO event.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> However, observations suggest that the 1982-1983 El Niño developed rapidly during July 1982 in direct response to a <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a> triggered by an MJO event during late May.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> Further, changes in the structure of the MJO with the seasonal cycle and ENSO might facilitate more substantial impacts of the MJO on ENSO. For example, the surface westerly winds associated with active MJO convection are stronger during advancement toward El Niño and the surface easterly winds associated with the suppressed convective phase are stronger during advancement toward La Niña.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> Globally, the interannual variability of the MJO is most determined by atmospheric internal dynamics, rather than surface conditions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_decadal_oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Pacific decadal oscillation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_decadal_oscillation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PDO_Pattern.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/PDO_Pattern.png/300px-PDO_Pattern.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/PDO_Pattern.png/450px-PDO_Pattern.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/PDO_Pattern.png/600px-PDO_Pattern.png 2x" data-file-width="2814" data-file-height="1370" /></a><figcaption>PDO positive phase global pattern</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a> (PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin. The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N. Over the past century, the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales (meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades). There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity (meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region) of the oscillation occurring around 1925, 1947, and 1977; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in <a href="/wiki/Salmon_production_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmon production regime">salmon production regimes</a> in the North <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This paragraph is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation#Mechanisms" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation § Mechanisms</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_decadal_oscillation&action=edit#Mechanisms">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> ENSO can influence the global circulation pattern thousands of kilometers away from the equatorial Pacific through the "atmospheric bridge". During <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> events, <a href="/wiki/Deep_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep convection">deep convection</a> and heat transfer to the troposphere is enhanced over the anomalously warm <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a>, this ENSO-related tropical forcing generates <a href="/wiki/Rossby_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossby waves">Rossby waves</a> that propagate poleward and eastward and are subsequently refracted back from the pole to the tropics. The <a href="/wiki/Rossby_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossby waves">planetary waves</a> form at preferred locations both in the North and South Pacific Ocean, and the teleconnection pattern is established within 2–6 weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Pacific_decadal_oscillation_Liu_2007-274">[274]</a> ENSO driven patterns modify surface temperature, humidity, wind, and the distribution of clouds over the North Pacific that alter surface heat, momentum, and freshwater fluxes and thus induce sea surface temperature, salinity, and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixed layer</a> depth (MLD) anomalies.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_Meridional_Mode">Pacific Meridional Mode</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Pacific Meridional Mode">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Meridional_Mode" title="Pacific Meridional Mode">Pacific Meridional Mode</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Meridional_Mode&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png/440px-Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png/660px-Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Pacific_Meridional_Mode.png 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>The SST and wind anomalies of the PMM positive phase</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Meridional_Mode" title="Pacific Meridional Mode">Pacific Meridional Mode</a> (PMM) is a <a href="/wiki/Climate_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate mode">climate mode</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="North Pacific">North Pacific</a>. In its positive state, it is characterized by the coupling of weaker <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> in the northeast Pacific Ocean between <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> with decreased <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> over the ocean, thus increasing <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> (SST); and the reverse during its negative state. This coupling develops during the winter months and spreads southwestward towards the equator and the central and western Pacific during spring, until it reaches the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ), which tends to shift north in response to a positive PMM. The PMM is not the same thing as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but there is evidence that PMM events can trigger ENSO events, especially <a href="/wiki/Modoki" class="mw-redirect" title="Modoki">Central Pacific El Niño</a> events. The PMM state can also modulate <a href="/wiki/Pacific_hurricane" title="Pacific hurricane">hurricane activity in the East Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoon activity in the West Pacific</a> oceans and alter precipitation on the continents surrounding the Pacific Ocean. The <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="South Pacific Ocean">South Pacific Ocean</a> has a PMM-like mode known as the "South Pacific Meridional Mode" (SPMM) that also influences the ENSO cycle. In the early 21st century, the intensity of the <a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%9316_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" class="mw-redirect" title="2014–16 El Niño event">2014–16 El Niño event</a> and the highly active <a href="/wiki/2018_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="2018 Pacific hurricane season">2018 Pacific hurricane</a> and <a href="/wiki/2018_Pacific_typhoon_season" title="2018 Pacific typhoon season">typhoon seasons</a> have been attributed to positive PMM events. With <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic global warming">anthropogenic global warming</a>, PMM activity is likely to increase, and some scientists have proposed that a loss of <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_sea_ice" title="Antarctic sea ice">Antarctic</a> and especially <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic</a> sea ice will induce future positive PMM events.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a> – Physical mechanism affecting sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recharge_oscillator" title="Recharge oscillator">Recharge oscillator</a> – Theory to explain the periodical variation of the sea surface temperature and thermocline depth</li></ul> For La Niña: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Mozambique_flood" title="2000 Mozambique flood">2000 Mozambique flood</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Pakistan_floods" title="2010 Pakistan floods">2010 Pakistan floods</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Queensland_floods" title="2010–2011 Queensland floods">2010–2011 Queensland floods</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932012_La_Ni%C3%B1a_event" title="2010–2012 La Niña event">2010–2012 La Niña event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Southern_Africa_floods" title="2010–2011 Southern Africa floods">2010–2011 Southern Africa floods</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932013_Southern_United_States_and_Mexico_drought" title="2010–2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought">2010–2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 East Africa drought</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Atlantic_hurricane_season" title="2020 Atlantic hurricane season">2020 Atlantic hurricane season</a> (unprecedented severity fueled by La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_eastern_Australia_floods" title="2021 eastern Australia floods">2021 eastern Australia floods</a> (severity fueled by La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Suriname_floods" title="2022 Suriname floods">2022 Suriname floods</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Auckland_Anniversary_Weekend_floods" title="2023 Auckland Anniversary Weekend floods">2023 Auckland Anniversary Weekend floods</a> (attributed to La Niña)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_La_Ni%C3%B1a_event" title="2020–2023 La Niña event">2020–2023 La Niña event</a></li></ul> For El Niño: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="1982–83 El Niño event">1982–83 El Niño event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="1997 Pacific hurricane season">1997 Pacific hurricane season</a> (severity fueled by El Niño)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="1997–98 El Niño event">1997–98 El Niño event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014%E2%80%932016_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="2014–2016 El Niño event">2014–2016 El Niño event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Pacific_hurricane_season" title="2015 Pacific hurricane season">2015 Pacific hurricane season</a> (severity fueled by El Niño)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_El_Ni%C3%B1o_event" title="2023–2024 El Niño event">2023–2024 El Niño event</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em 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[in Spanish] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183558#page/92/mode/1up">From p. 84:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231030150743/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183558#page/92/mode/1up">Archived</a> 2023-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Los marinos paiteños que navegan frecuentemente cerca de la costa y en embarcaciones pequeñas, ya al norte ó al sur de Paita, conocen esta corriente y la denomination Corriente del Niño, sin duda porque ella se hace mas visible y palpable después de la Pascua de Navidad." 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Retrieved 10 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+El+Ni%C3%B1o+and+what+might+it+mean+for+Australia%3F&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fupdates%2Farticles%2Fa008-el-nino-and-australia.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2005-47"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2005_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClimate_Prediction_Center2005" class="citation web cs1">Climate Prediction Center (19 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090827143632/http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensofaq.shtml#HOWOFTEN">"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"</a>. 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Retrieved 15 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+El+Ni%C3%B1o%2FLa+Ni%C3%B1a+episodes+%281950%E2%80%93present%29&rft.pub=United+States+Climate+Prediction+Center&rft.date=2019-02-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2Fensostuff%2Fensoyears.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoM_El_Nino-50"><a href="#cite_ref-BoM_El_Nino_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/enlist/index.shtml">"El Niño - Detailed Australian Analysis"</a>. Australian Bureau of Meteorology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210503211501/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/enlist/index.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o+-+Detailed+Australian+Analysis&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fenso%2Fenlist%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/images/El-Nino-in-Australia.pdf">"El Niño in Australia"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 1 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bom.gov.au&rft.atitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o+in+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fenso%2Fimages%2FEl-Nino-in-Australia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Donegan2019" class="citation web cs1">Brian Donegan (14 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://weather.com/news/weather/news/2019-03-14-el-nino-conditions-strengthen-could-last-through-summer">"El Niño Conditions Strengthen, Could Last Through Summer"</a>. The Weather Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190315020623/https://weather.com/news/weather/news/2019-03-14-el-nino-conditions-strengthen-could-last-through-summer">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o+Conditions+Strengthen%2C+Could+Last+Through+Summer&rft.pub=The+Weather+Company&rft.date=2019-03-14&rft.au=Brian+Donegan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweather.com%2Fnews%2Fweather%2Fnews%2F2019-03-14-el-nino-conditions-strengthen-could-last-through-summer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al.com/hurricane/2019/08/el-nino-is-over-noaa-says.html">"El Nino is over, NOAA says"</a>. 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Retrieved 2023-06-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Here+comes+El+Nino%3A+It%27s+early%2C+likely+to+be+big%2C+sloppy+and+add+even+more+heat+to+a+warming+world&rft.date=2023-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fel-nino-ap-la-nina-national-oceanic-and-atmospheric-administration-atlantic-b2353918.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenson2023" class="citation web cs1">Henson, Bob (9 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2023/06/noaa-makes-it-official-el-nino-is-here/">"NOAA makes it official: El Niño is here"</a>. 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Climate Prediction Division. <a href="/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency" title="Japan Meteorological Agency">Japan Meteorological Agency</a>. 9 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502140814/https://ds.data.jma.go.jp/tcc/tcc/products/elnino/outlook.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <q>El Niño conditions are considered to be present in the equatorial Pacific.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Prediction+Division&rft.atitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o+Outlook+%28+June+2023+-+December+2023+%29&rft.date=2023-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fds.data.jma.go.jp%2Ftcc%2Ftcc%2Fproducts%2Felnino%2Foutlook.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis20012-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Davis20012_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis, Mike</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/latevictorianhol00dav_wbr/page/271">Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World</a>. 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Lett. 40 (17): 4751–4755. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013GeoRL..40.4751K">2013GeoRL..40.4751K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgrl.50697">10.1002/grl.50697</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129885922">129885922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophys.+Res.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Second+peak+in+the+far+eastern+Pacific+sea+surface+temperature+anomaly+following+strong+El+Ni%C3%B1o+events&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4751-%3C%2Fspan%3E4755&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129885922%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgrl.50697&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013GeoRL..40.4751K&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=WonMoo&rft.au=Wenju+Cai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fgrl.50697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/enso/august-2016-enso-update-wavy-gravy">"August 2016 ENSO update;Wavy Gravy"</a>. Climate.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221211121517/https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/enso/august-2016-enso-update-wavy-gravy">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=August+2016+ENSO+update%3BWavy+Gravy&rft.pub=Climate.gov.uk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climate.gov%2Fnews-features%2Fblogs%2Fenso%2Faugust-2016-enso-update-wavy-gravy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cold_&_Warm_Episodes-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Cold_&_Warm_Episodes_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml">Cold and warm episodes by season</a>. Climate Prediction Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230926120733/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on September 26, 2023. Retrieved September 11, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Cold+and+warm+episodes+by+season&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2Fensostuff%2Fensoyears.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/lnlist/index.shtml">La Niña – Detailed Australian analysis</a> (Report). Australian Bureau of Meteorology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228165657/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/lnlist/index.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=La+Ni%C3%B1a+%E2%80%93+Detailed+Australian+analysis&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fenso%2Flnlist%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDruffelGriffinVetterDunbar2015" class="citation journal cs1">Druffel, Ellen R. M.; Griffin, Sheila; Vetter, Desiree; Dunbar, Robert B.; Mucciarone, David M. (16 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3xt6x5fb">"Identification of frequent La Niña events during the early 1800s in the east equatorial Pacific"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_Research_Letters" title="Geophysical Research Letters">Geophysical Research Letters</a>. 42 (5): 1512–1519. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GeoRL..42.1512D">2015GeoRL..42.1512D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2014GL062997">10.1002/2014GL062997</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129644802">129644802</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230115072041/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3xt6x5fb">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 26 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Identification+of+frequent+La+Ni%C3%B1a+events+during+the+early+1800s+in+the+east+equatorial+Pacific&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1512-%3C%2Fspan%3E1519&rft.date=2015-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129644802%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F2014GL062997&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015GeoRL..42.1512D&rft.aulast=Druffel&rft.aufirst=Ellen+R.+M.&rft.au=Griffin%2C+Sheila&rft.au=Vetter%2C+Desiree&rft.au=Dunbar%2C+Robert+B.&rft.au=Mucciarone%2C+David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3xt6x5fb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-La-Nina-declaration-announcement-authorities-65"><a href="#cite_ref-La-Nina-declaration-announcement-authorities_65-0">^</a> The following sources identified the listed "La Niña years": <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s300c.htm">"La Niña years"</a>. The NOAA News. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220164305/http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s300c.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+NOAA+News&rft.atitle=La+Ni%C3%B1a+years&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaanews.noaa.gov%2Fstories%2Fs300c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/winter/la_nina-q-a.shtml">La Niña and winter weather</a> (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140314060746/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/winter/la_nina-q-a.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=La+Ni%C3%B1a+and+winter+weather&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nws.noaa.gov%2Fom%2Fwinter%2Fla_nina-q-a.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206141055/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml">ENSO Impacts on the U.S. – Previous Events</a>. Climate Prediction Center. cpc.noaa.gov (Report). Monitoring & Data. U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. 4 November 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml">the original</a> on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=ENSO+Impacts+on+the+U.S.+%E2%80%93+Previous+Events&rft.series=Monitoring+%26+Data&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft.date=2015-11-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2Fensostuff%2Fensoyears.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140812112241/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/lanina.html">"La Niña Information"</a>. Public Affairs. U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/lanina.html">the original</a> on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+Ni%C3%B1a+Information&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicaffairs.noaa.gov%2Flanina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland2017" class="citation news cs1">Sutherland, Scott (16 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170218143231/https://www.theweathernetwork.com/us/news/articles/la-nina-calls-it-quits-is-el-nino-paying-us-a-return-visit/79424">"La Niña calls it quits. Is El Niño paying us a return visit?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Weather_Network" title="The Weather Network">The Weather Network</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theweathernetwork.com/us/news/articles/la-nina-calls-it-quits-is-el-nino-paying-us-a-return-visit/79424">the original</a> on 18 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Weather+Network&rft.atitle=La+Ni%C3%B1a+calls+it+quits.+Is+El+Ni%C3%B1o+paying+us+a+return+visit%3F&rft.date=2017-02-16&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theweathernetwork.com%2Fus%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fla-nina-calls-it-quits-is-el-nino-paying-us-a-return-visit%2F79424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.pdf">"El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) diagnostic discussion"</a> (PDF). Climate Prediction Center / NCEP / NWS and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society. 10 September 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917151935/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=El+Ni%C3%B1o%2FSouthern+Oscillation+%28ENSO%29+diagnostic+discussion&rft.pub=Climate+Prediction+Center+%2F+NCEP+%2F+NWS+and+the+International+Research+Institute+for+Climate+and+Society&rft.date=2020-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2Fenso_advisory%2Fensodisc.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-TNI-66"><a href="#cite_ref-TNI_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrenberthStepaniak2001" class="citation journal cs1">Trenberth, Kevin E.; Stepaniak, David P. (15 April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1234669">"Indices of El Niño Evolution"</a>. Journal of Climate. 14 (8): 1697–1701. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JCli...14.1697T">2001JCli...14.1697T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0442%282001%29014%3C1697%3ALIOENO%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<1697:LIOENO>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191223101002/https://zenodo.org/record/1234669">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=Indices+of+El+Ni%C3%B1o+Evolution&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1697-%3C%2Fspan%3E1701&rft.date=2001-04-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0442%282001%29014%3C1697%3ALIOENO%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JCli...14.1697T&rft.aulast=Trenberth&rft.aufirst=Kevin+E.&rft.au=Stepaniak%2C+David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1234669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedyD._C._GarenR._W._Koch2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, Adam M.; D. C. Garen; R. W. Koch (2009). "The association between climate teleconnection indices and Upper Klamath seasonal streamflow: Trans-Niño Index". Hydrol. 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Retrieved 2019-08-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Reinterpreting+the+Canonical+and+Modoki+El+Nino&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=n%2Fa&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10533%2F132105&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55675672%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011GL047364&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011GeoRL..3810704T&rft.aulast=Takahashi&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Montecinos%2C+A.&rft.au=Goubanova%2C+K.&rft.au=Dewitte%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00994266%2Ffile%2Fgrl28063.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/docs/Rev_Manuscript_CD.pdf">Different Impacts of Various El Niño Events</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230725133830/https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/docs/Rev_Manuscript_CD.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2023-07-25. 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IOP Science. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faac53f">10.1088/1748-9326/aac53f</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Monitoring+the+Pendulum&rft.pub=IOP+Science&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faac53f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.producer.com/2015/09/el-ninos-bark-is-worse-than-its-bite">"El Nino's Bark is Worse than its Bite"</a>. The Western Producer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190114102132/https://www.producer.com/2015/09/el-ninos-bark-is-worse-than-its-bite/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2019. 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Chinese Science Bulletin. 58 (3): 406–415. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ChSBu..58..406Y">2013ChSBu..58..406Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11434-012-5423-5">10.1007/s11434-012-5423-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Science+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Different+types+of+La+Ni%C3%B1a+events+and+different+responses+of+the+tropical+atmosphere&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E406-%3C%2Fspan%3E415&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11434-012-5423-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013ChSBu..58..406Y&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Yuan&rft.au=Yan%2C+HongMing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11434-012-5423-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ENSO_SA-85"><a href="#cite_ref-ENSO_SA_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedeschiCavalcanti2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tedeschi, Renata G.; Cavalcanti, Iracema F. A. (23 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023061148/http://cbmet2010.web437.uni5.net/anais/artigos/354_23512.pdf">"Influência dos ENOS Canônico e Modoki na precipitação da América do Sul"</a> (PDF) (in Portuguese). Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais/Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cbmet2010.web437.uni5.net/anais/artigos/354_23512.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Influ%C3%AAncia+dos+ENOS+Can%C3%B4nico+e+Modoki+na+precipita%C3%A7%C3%A3o+da+Am%C3%A9rica+do+Sul&rft.pub=Instituto+Nacional+de+Pesquisas+Espaciais%2FCentro+de+Previs%C3%A3o+de+Tempo+e+Estudos+Clim%C3%A1ticos&rft.date=2014-04-23&rft.aulast=Tedeschi&rft.aufirst=Renata+G.&rft.au=Cavalcanti%2C+Iracema+F.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcbmet2010.web437.uni5.net%2Fanais%2Fartigos%2F354_23512.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Modoki-authorities-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Modoki-authorities_86-0">^</a> For evidence of La Niña Modoki, and identification of La Niña Modoki year: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlatonovSemenovSokolikhina2014" class="citation web cs1">Platonov, V.; Semenov, E.; Sokolikhina, E. 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Retrieved 15 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Extreme+La+Ni%C3%B1a+2010%2F11+and+the+vigorous+flood+at+the+north-east+of+Australia&rft.pub=EGU+General+Assembly+%2F+Geophysical+Research&rft.date=2014-02-13&rft.aulast=Platonov&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Semenov%2C+E.&rft.au=Sokolikhina%2C+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmeetingorganizer.copernicus.org%2FEGU2012%2FEGU2012-313-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShinodaHurlburtMetzger2011" class="citation journal cs1">Shinoda, Toshiaki; Hurlburt, Harley E.; Metzger, E. Joseph (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011JC007304">"Anomalous tropical ocean circulation associated with La Niña Modoki"</a>. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 116 (12): C12001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JGRC..11612001S">2011JGRC..11612001S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011JC007304">10.1029/2011JC007304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%3A+Oceans&rft.atitle=Anomalous+tropical+ocean+circulation+associated+with+La+Ni%C3%B1a+Modoki&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=C12001&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011JC007304&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JGRC..11612001S&rft.aulast=Shinoda&rft.aufirst=Toshiaki&rft.au=Hurlburt%2C+Harley+E.&rft.au=Metzger%2C+E.+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2011JC007304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsh2016" class="citation magazine cs1">Welsh, Jon (Spring 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crdc.com.au/sites/default/files/pdf/SpotSpring16_sc2.pdf">"Introducing La Niña Modoki: She's 'similar but different' ..."</a> (PDF). Spotlight Magazine. Australian Government Cotton Research and Development Corporation. pp. 34–35. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170219130102/http://www.crdc.com.au/sites/default/files/pdf/SpotSpring16_sc2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spotlight+Magazine&rft.atitle=Introducing+La+Ni%C3%B1a+Modoki%3A+She%27s+%27similar+but+different%27+...&rft.ssn=spring&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Welsh&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crdc.com.au%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpdf%2FSpotSpring16_sc2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsh2016" class="citation web cs1">Welsh, Jon (6 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.graincentral.com/weather/are-we-heading-for-a-la-nina-modoki/">"Are we heading for a La Niña Modoki?"</a>. Grain Central. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170219095752/http://www.graincentral.com/weather/are-we-heading-for-a-la-nina-modoki/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2017. 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Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (6): 407–418. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NRvEE...4..407C">2023NRvEE...4..407C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43017-023-00427-8">10.1038/s43017-023-00427-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258793531">258793531</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230717075336/https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-023-00427-8.epdf?sharing_token=xOI9atsuOvGT9TmJei7L0dRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Pte_xqACNGqtGKpHCToNiPgSeUDJPls2PSAP6Pcf5JGQ1pdQKtWF7BvtG6Gcl82ASZ3YPNjGKikkxEkzLO8YzpIXT_q2adEox-V40kvMawQ1xNtDVQwjquYdaOlw6E-MVsgs1GvL8eHxbdN7zo03AUZmhj-GRQGbg_RUrw--1Y8g3iD9kpof0c06A9WEr5G-y8ORdWo6odtUlbF5X2Juy2hAbvxcaJaiMP50Ei49oROnn7IEJuPAOBMS1C7eQO2QXcxd7GRq-8lZ21CiPUiC6H&tracking_referrer=www.abc.net.au">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2023. 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160112061115/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html">"Ch. 1: The Third Horseman"</a>. Famine: A Short History. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691147970" title="Special:BookSources/9780691147970"><bdi>9780691147970</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html">the original</a> on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1%3A+The+Third+Horseman&rft.btitle=Famine%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780691147970&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs8857.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/U8480E/U8480E05.htm">"Dimensions of need - People and populations at risk"</a>. Fao.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151615/http://www.fao.org/docrep/U8480E/U8480E05.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dimensions+of+need+-+People+and+populations+at+risk&rft.pub=Fao.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2FU8480E%2FU8480E05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLartigue1827" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lartigue (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=us33ALotzJcC&pg=PA22">Description de la Côte Du Pérou, Entre 19° et 16° 20' de Latitude Sud, ...</a> [Description of the Coast of Peru, Between 19° and 16° 20' South Latitude, ...] (in French). Paris, France: L'Imprimerie Royale. pp. 22–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240120022004/https://books.google.com/books?id=us33ALotzJcC&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2024-01-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Description+de+la+C%C3%B4te+Du+P%C3%A9rou%2C+Entre+19%C2%B0+et+16%C2%B0+20%27+de+Latitude+Sud%2C+...&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=L%27Imprimerie+Royale&rft.date=1827&rft.au=Lartigue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dus33ALotzJcC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> From pp. 22–23: "Il est néanmoins nécessaire, au sujet de cette règle générale, de faire part d'une exception ... dépassé le port de sa destination de plus de 2 ou 3 lieues; ... " (It is nevertheless necessary, with regard to this general rule, to announce an exception which, in some circumstances, might shorten the sailing. One said above that the breeze was sometimes quite fresh [i.e., strong], and that then the counter-current, which bore southward along the land, stretched some miles in length; it is obvious that one will have to tack in this counter-current, whenever the wind's force will permit it and whenever one will not have gone past the port of one's destination by more than 2 or 3 leagues; ...) </li> <li id="cite_note-pezet-255">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pezet_255-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pezet_255-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPezet1896" class="citation cs2">Pezet, Federico Alfonso (1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/reportsixthinte00unkngoog#page/n651/mode/2up">"The Counter-Current "El Niño," on the Coast of Northern Peru"</a>, Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress: Held in London, 1895, Volume 6, pp. 603–606</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Counter-Current+%22El+Ni%C3%B1o%2C%22+on+the+Coast+of+Northern+Peru&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Sixth+International+Geographical+Congress%3A+Held+in+London%2C+1895%2C+Volume+6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E603-%3C%2Fspan%3E606&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Pezet&rft.aufirst=Federico+Alfonso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Freportsixthinte00unkngoog%23page%2Fn651%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlay1851" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, Alexander G. (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adirectoryforna03findgoog">A Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean -- Part II. The Islands, Etc., of the Pacific Ocean</a>. London: R. H. Laurie. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adirectoryforna03findgoog/page/n621">1233</a>. <q>M. Lartigue is among the first who noticed a counter or southerly current.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Directory+for+the+Navigation+of+the+Pacific+Ocean+--+Part+II.+The+Islands%2C+Etc.%2C+of+the+Pacific+Ocean&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1233&rft.pub=R.+H.+Laurie&rft.date=1851&rft.aulast=Findlay&rft.aufirst=Alexander+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadirectoryforna03findgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> "Droughts in Australia: Their causes, duration, and effect: The views of three government astronomers [R.L.J. Ellery, H.C. Russell, and C. Todd]," The Australasian (Melbourne, Victoria), 29 December 1888, pp. 1455–1456. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/15068512">From p. 1456:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170916052707/http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/15068512">Archived</a> 16 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Australian and Indian Weather" : "Comparing our records with those of India, I find a close correspondence or similarity of seasons with regard to the prevalence of drought, and there can be little or no doubt that severe droughts occur as a rule simultaneously over the two countries." </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> Lockyer, N. and Lockyer, W.J.S. (1904) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x002014109;view=1up;seq=525">"The behavior of the short-period atmospheric pressure variation over the Earth's surface,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230403174054/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x002014109;view=1up;seq=525">Archived</a> 2023-04-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 73 : 457–470. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Eguiguren, D. Victor (1894) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183713#page/263/mode/1up">"Las lluvias de Piura"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231030150744/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183713#page/263/mode/1up">Archived</a> 2023-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (The rains of Piura), Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima, 4 : 241–258. [in Spanish] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183713#page/279/mode/1up">From p. 257:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231030150744/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183713#page/279/mode/1up">Archived</a> 2023-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Finalmente, la época en que se presenta la corriente de Niño, es la misma de las lluvias en aquella región." (Finally, the period in which the El Niño current is present is the same as that of the rains in that region [i.e., the city of Piura, Peru].) </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Pezet, Federico Alfonso (1896) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183555#page/491/mode/1up">"La contra-corriente "El Niño", en la costa norte de Perú"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231030150743/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/183555#page/491/mode/1up">Archived</a> 2023-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (The counter-current "El Niño", on the northern coast of Peru), Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima, 5 : 457-461. [in Spanish] </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Walker, G. T. (1924) "Correlation in seasonal variations of weather. IX. A further study of world weather," Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department, 24 : 275–332. From p. 283: "There is also a slight tendency two quarters later towards an increase of pressure in S. America and of Peninsula [i.e., Indian] rainfall, and a decrease of pressure in Australia : this is part of the main oscillation described in the previous paper* which will in future be called the 'southern' oscillation." Available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rmets.org/sites/default/files/classicindia2.pdf">Royal Meteorological Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170318173334/https://www.rmets.org/sites/default/files/classicindia2.pdf">Archived</a> 18 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushman" class="citation web cs1">Cushman, Gregory T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151201002510/https://ams.confex.com/ams/annual2003/techprogram/paper_58909.htm">"Who Discovered the El Niño-Southern Oscillation?"</a>. Presidential Symposium on the History of the Atmospheric Sciences: People, Discoveries, and Technologies. American Meteorological Society (AMS). 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Retrieved 18 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Symposium+on+the+History+of+the+Atmospheric+Sciences%3A+People%2C+Discoveries%2C+and+Technologies&rft.atitle=Who+Discovered+the+El+Ni%C3%B1o-Southern+Oscillation%3F&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=Gregory+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fams.confex.com%2Fams%2Fannual2003%2Ftechprogram%2Fpaper_58909.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wildsingapore.com/news/20060910/060918-6.htm">"The El Niño Phenomenon Returns"</a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earth.nullschool.net&rft.atitle=Current+map+of+sea+surface+temperature+anomalies+in+the+Pacific+Ocean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearth.nullschool.net%2F%23current%2Focean%2Fsurface%2Fcurrents%2Foverlay%3Dsea_surface_temp_anomaly%2Forthographic%3D-140.00%2C00.001%2Floc%3D-140.000%2C00.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/">"Southern Oscillation diagnostic discussion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Climate_Prediction_Center" title="Climate Prediction Center">Climate Prediction Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Southern+Oscillation+diagnostic+discussion&rft.pub=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov%2Fproducts%2Fanalysis_monitoring%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/outlook/">"ENSO Outlook – An alert system for the El Niño–Southern Oscillation"</a>. Australian <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Meteorology" title="Bureau of Meteorology">Bureau of Meteorology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ENSO+Outlook+%E2%80%93+An+alert+system+for+the+El+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Meteorology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fclimate%2Fenso%2Foutlook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEl+Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern+Oscillation" class="Z3988"> Provides current phase of ENSO according to the Australian interpretation.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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Circumpolar Wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_oscillation" title="Antarctic oscillation">Antarctic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_dipole_anomaly" title="Arctic dipole anomaly">Arctic dipole anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_oscillation" title="Arctic oscillation">Arctic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Equatorial_mode" title="Atlantic Equatorial mode">Atlantic Equatorial mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation" title="Atlantic multidecadal oscillation">Atlantic multidecadal oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt#Earth" title="Axial tilt">Earth's axial tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bond_event" title="Bond event">Bond event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dansgaard%E2%80%93Oeschger_event" title="Dansgaard–Oeschger event">Dansgaard–Oeschger event</a></li> <li><a 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oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Oscillation" title="North Pacific Oscillation">North Pacific Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Meridional_Mode" title="Pacific Meridional Mode">Pacific Meridional Mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93North_American_teleconnection_pattern" title="Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern">Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-biennial_oscillation" title="Quasi-biennial oscillation">Quasi-biennial oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_lag" title="Seasonal lag">Seasonal lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar variability</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draupner_wave" title="Draupner wave">Draupner wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite 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