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href="#Military_officers_and_secondary_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Military officers and secondary appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_officers_and_secondary_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ineligibility_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ineligibility_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ineligibility Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ineligibility_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_and_appointment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_and_appointment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Creation and appointment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_and_appointment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regarding_the_president_of_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regarding_the_president_of_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Regarding the president of the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regarding_the_president_of_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customs_and_courtesies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customs_and_courtesies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Customs and courtesies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Customs_and_courtesies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Customs and courtesies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Customs_and_courtesies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commission_certificate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commission_certificate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Commission certificate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commission_certificate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorific_title" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorific_title"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Honorific title</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorific_title-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United States term of classification</div> <p>An <b>officer of the United States</b> is a functionary of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a> or <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">judicial</a> branches of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government of the United States</a> to whom is delegated some part of the country's <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign power</a>. The term <i>officer of the United States</i> is not a title, but a term of classification for a certain type of official. </p><p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>, the principal officers of the U.S., such as federal judges, ambassadors, and "public Ministers" (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Cabinet">Cabinet</a> members) are appointed by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate of the United States">Senate</a>, but <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> may vest the appointment of inferior officers to the president, courts, or <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">federal department</a> heads. Civilian officers of the U.S. are entitled to preface their names with the honorific style "the Honorable" for life, but this rarely occurs. Officers of the U.S. should not be confused with employees of the U.S.; the latter are more numerous and lack the special legal authority of the former. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_definition">Origin and definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The U.S. Supreme Court wrote in <a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Fitzgerald" title="Nixon v. Fitzgerald">Nixon v. Fitzgerald</a>, 457 U.S. 731 (1982): “Article II, § 1, of the Constitution provides that "[t]he executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States. . . ." This grant of authority establishes the President as the chief constitutional officer of the Executive Branch, entrusted with supervisory and policy responsibilities of utmost discretion and sensitivity. (457 U.S. 749-750).” </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II</a>, section 2, clause 2), empowers the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> to appoint "Officers of the United States" with the "<a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a>. The same clause also allows lower-level officials to be appointed without the advice and consent process.<sup id="cite_ref-pitt_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pitt-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitol-Senate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Capitol-Senate.JPG/220px-Capitol-Senate.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Capitol-Senate.JPG/330px-Capitol-Senate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Capitol-Senate.JPG/440px-Capitol-Senate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption>The Appointments Clause of the U.S. Constitution gives the U.S. Senate the right to confirm or reject the nomination of any officer of the United States.</figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p>... he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.</p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Framers of the U.S. Constitution</a> understood the role of high officers specially imbued with certain authority to act on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> within the context of their earlier experience with <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">the British Crown</a>. Day-to-day administration of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British Government</a> was based on persons "holding sovereign authority delegated from the King that enabled them in conducting the affairs of government to affect the people." This was an extension of the general <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common-law</a> rule that "where one man hath to do with another's affairs against his will, and without his leave, that this is an office, and he who is in it, is an officer."<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2020, The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in K&D LLC v. Trump Old Post Office, LLC, 951 F. 3d 503, concluded, at <a href="/wiki/President_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="President Trump">President Trump</a>'s request, that the U.S. president is a federal officer, when they wrote: “President Trump removed the suit to federal court under the federal officer removal statute, 28 U.S.C. § 1442(a)(1).” </p><p>According to an April 2007 memorandum opinion by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a>, addressed to the general counsels of the executive branch, defined "officer of the United States" as:<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>a position to which is delegated by legal authority a portion of the sovereign power of the federal government and that is 'continuing' in a federal office subject to the Constitution's Appointment Clause. A person who would hold such a position must be properly made an 'officer of the United States' by being appointed pursuant to the procedures specified in the Appointments Clause.</p></blockquote> <p>Several officers of the U.S. are included in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">presidential line of succession</a> and are empowered to become <a href="/wiki/Acting_president_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Acting president of the United States">acting president</a> in situations where neither the president nor the vice president is able to discharge their functions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 6</a> of the Constitution authorizes Congress to enact such a statute.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg/220px-Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg/330px-Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg/440px-Obama_signing_Kagan%27s_commission.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2731" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> signs the commission document investing <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a> as an officer of the United States in 2010, specifically as a justice of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The difference between an <i>officer of the United States</i> and an <i>Employee of the United States</i>, therefore, ultimately rests on whether the office held has been explicitly delegated part of the "sovereign power of the United States". Delegation of "sovereign power" means possession of the authority to commit the federal government of the U.S. to some legal obligation, such as by signing a contract, executing a treaty, interpreting a law, or issuing military orders. A <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge">federal judge</a>, for instance, has been delegated part of the "sovereign power" of the U.S. to exercise; while a <a href="/wiki/Letter_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter carrier">letter carrier</a> for the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Postal_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Postal Service">U.S. Postal Service</a> has not. Some very prominent title-holders, including the <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">White House Chief of Staff</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_House_Press_Secretary" title="White House Press Secretary">White House Press Secretary</a> and most other high-profile presidential staff assistants, are only employees of the U.S. as they have no authority to exercise the sovereign power of the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pitt_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pitt-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_officers_and_secondary_appointments">Military officers and secondary appointments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Military officers and secondary appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to civilian officers of the U.S., persons who hold military commissions are also considered officers of the U.S. While not explicitly defined as such in the Constitution, this fact is implicit in its structure. According to a 1996 opinion by then-<a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">Assistant Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_E._Dellinger_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter E. Dellinger III">Walter Dellinger</a> of the Justice Department's <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a>, "even the lowest ranking military or naval officer is a potential commander of <a href="/wiki/U.S._armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. armed forces">U.S. armed forces</a> in combat—and, indeed, is in theory a commander of large military or naval units by presidential direction or in the event of catastrophic casualties among his or her superiors."<sup id="cite_ref-doj2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The officer's authority to command the forces of the U.S. draws its legitimacy from the president himself as "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States"; the president cannot reasonably be expected to command every soldier, or any soldier, in the field and so delegates his authority to command to officers he commissions.<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Commissioned officers of the eight <a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">uniformed services of the U.S.</a>—the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) <a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">Corps</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</a>—are all officers of the U.S. Under current law, the Senate does not require the commissions of all military officers to be confirmed; however, anyone being first promoted to <a href="/wiki/Major_(rank)" title="Major (rank)">major</a> in the Regular Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, or Space Force, or <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_commander" title="Lieutenant commander">lieutenant commander</a> in the Regular Navy, does require such confirmation. Additionally, military officers promoted in the Reserves to colonel (or captain in the Navy) also require Senate confirmation. This results in hundreds of promotions that annually must be confirmed by the Senate, though these are typically confirmed en masse without individual hearings.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg/220px-James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg/330px-James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg/440px-James_Stockdale_Formal_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1976" /></a><figcaption>Military officers, like Vice Admiral <a href="/wiki/James_Stockdale" title="James Stockdale">James Stockdale</a>, are considered officers of the United States.</figcaption></figure> <p>Finally, some persons not appointed by the president but, instead, appointed by persons or bodies who are, themselves, appointed by the president may be officers of the United States if defined as such under the law. Examples include <a href="/wiki/United_States_magistrate_judge" title="United States magistrate judge">U.S. magistrate judges</a>, who are appointed by <a href="/wiki/U.S._district_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. district courts">U.S. district courts</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">U.S. postmaster general</a>, who is appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Governors_of_the_United_States_Postal_Service" title="Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service">Board of Governors of the U.S. Postal Service</a>, which, in turn, is appointed by the president.<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ineligibility_Clause">Ineligibility Clause</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ineligibility Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility Clause</a></div> <p>Members of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a>—the legislative branch of the U.S. government—are not "officers of the United States" and cannot simultaneously serve in Congress and as an officer of the U.S. under the "Ineligibility Clause" (also called the "Incompatibility Clause") of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2). This provision states:<sup id="cite_ref-doj_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doj-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.</p></blockquote> <p>The question of whether the Ineligibility Clause bars member of Congress or civil officers of the U.S. from simultaneously serving in the military (especially the <a href="/wiki/Reserve_components_of_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces">military reserves</a>) has never been definitively resolved. A case involving the issue was litigated to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Schlesinger_v._Reservists_Committee_to_Stop_the_War" title="Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War">Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War</a></i>, but the Supreme Court decided the case on procedural grounds and did not address the Ineligibility Clause issue.<sup id="cite_ref-Brougher_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brougher-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress has enacted legislation provided that "a Reserve of the armed forces who is not on active duty or who is on active duty for training is deemed not an employee or an individual holding an office of trust or profit or discharging an official function under or in connection with the U.S. because of his appointment, oath, or status, or any duties or functions performed or pay or allowances received in that capacity." A 2009 <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> report noted that "Because Congress has the power to determine the qualifications of its own Members, the limitations that it has imposed on what constitutes an employee holding an office of the United States may be significant to courts considering the constitutional limitations."<sup id="cite_ref-Brougher_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brougher-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_and_appointment">Creation and appointment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Creation and appointment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the exception of military officers and certain court- and <a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">board</a>-appointed officers, the method for creating an officer of the U.S. generally follows a set procedure. First, the Constitution must describe the office, or the U.S. Congress must create the office through a statute (though the president may independently create offices when exercising his exclusive jurisdiction in the exercise of foreign affairs, generally meaning ambassadorships). Second, the president nominates a person to fill the office and then commissions that person at which time the appointee comes to occupy the office and is an officer of the U.S. However, if the office is that of <a href="/wiki/Ambassador" title="Ambassador">ambassador</a>, "public minister" (member of the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet of the U.S.">Cabinet of the U.S.</a>), judge of the U.S. Supreme Court, or if the office has not been specifically vested for filling "in the President alone" by the authorizing legislation, then an intermediate step is required before the commission can be issued, namely, the U.S. Senate must give its "advise and consent" which, in practice, means approval by vote of a simple majority.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An officer of the U.S. assumes his office's full authority upon the issuance of the commission. However, officers must take an <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office" title="Oath of office">oath of office</a> before they can be paid.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistics">Statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg/220px-Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg/330px-Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg/440px-Federal_Communications_Commission_1937_10_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> pictured in 1937. Each of the commissioners is an officer of the United States by virtue of their authority to discharge part of the sovereign power of the U.S., specifically, regulation of <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to a 2012 study by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, there are between 1,200 and 1,400 civilian officers of the U.S. which are subject to the "advice and consent" of the Senate prior to commissioning. A further 100,000 civilian officers of the U.S. have been exempted from this requirement by the U.S. Congress under the "inferior officer" exemption allowed by the Appointments Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-BPlumer_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BPlumer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among military officers there were, as of 2012, 127,966 officers in the <a href="/wiki/Selected_Reserve" title="Selected Reserve">Selected Reserve</a> and 365,483 officers in the U.S. Armed Forces. The NOAA Corps and U.S. Public Health Service had smaller numbers of officers.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_positions_filled_by_presidential_appointment_with_Senate_confirmation" title="List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation">List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation</a></div> <p>Officers of the U.S. in the executive branch are numerous, but some examples include the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">secretary of defense</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">attorney general</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency">administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Director_of_national_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Director of national intelligence">director of national intelligence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Director_of_the_Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation">director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_the_National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration">administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a>, and members of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regarding_the_president_of_the_United_States">Regarding the president of the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regarding the president of the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In December 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_Supreme_Court" title="Colorado Supreme Court">Colorado Supreme Court</a> ruled that the U.S. president is an officer of the United States as pertains to <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_3:_Disqualification_from_office_for_insurrection_or_rebellion" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 3 of the 14th Amendment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reversing a November 2023 contrary ruling by a <a href="/wiki/Colorado_district_courts" title="Colorado district courts">Colorado district court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Riccardi_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riccardi-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Section 3 regards the disqualification from public office of any officers of the United States who have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the United States. It was used by the Colorado Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/Anderson_v._Griswold" class="mw-redirect" title="Anderson v. Griswold">Anderson v. Griswold</a></i>, to <a href="/wiki/Presidential_eligibility_of_Donald_Trump" title="Presidential eligibility of Donald Trump">disqualify Donald Trump from the ballot</a> for the <a href="/wiki/2024_Colorado_Republican_presidential_primary" title="2024 Colorado Republican presidential primary">2024 Colorado Republican primary</a>, pending an appeal to the US Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This has raised the question of whether the president is an officer of the United States. There are two approaches to an answer: Textualists interpret the meaning of the text, and originalists interpret the public opinion at the time the text was written.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the one hand, textual interpretations exist that exclude the presidency from the group of officers.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, it is clear that during the 19th century, the president of the United States was considered an officer of the United States by the public because the original public meaning of “officer” is much broader than modern doctrine assumes— encompassing any government official with responsibility for an ongoing governmental duty.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of K&D LLC v. Trump Old Post Office, LLC, 951 F. 3d 503, President Trump successfully argued that the U.S. president qualifies as an officer of the United States, citing 28 U.S.C. § 1442(a)(1). The court agreed, stating this statute permitted President Trump, in his capacity as an "officer... of the United States", to remove the state suit relating to duties of his office to federal court.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the ruling from the Colorado district court involved distinguishing the oath referred to in Section 3 of the 14th Amendment (an oath to "support" the constitution) from the presidential oath (to "preserve, protect, and defend" the constitution).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The December 2023 Colorado Supreme Court ruling rejected this argument in a section titled "The Presidential Oath Is an Oath to Support the Constitution". </p><p>The ruling from the Colorado district court also involved giving benefit of the doubt to the presidential candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Colorado Supreme Court ruling dismissed the resulting interpretation of Section 3 as being contrary to its "plain language and history".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One point of contention in the wider context of the U.S. Constitution is whether classifying the president as an officer of the United States conflicts with the Appointments Clause (<a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 2, Clause 2</a>, which in part concerns appointment by the president of Officers of the United States). Citing a report by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in the 2010 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Free_Enterprise_Fund_v._Public_Company_Accounting_Oversight_Board" title="Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board">Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board</a></i> stating that "The people do not vote for the 'Officers of the United States'",<sup id="cite_ref-FreeEnterpriseFund_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreeEnterpriseFund-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josh Blackman, a constitutional law professor and adjunct scholar at the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>, and Seth Barrett Tillman, member of the Faculty of Law at <a href="/wiki/Maynooth_University" title="Maynooth University">Maynooth University</a>, have argued that the president is not constitutionally an "officer of the United States".<sup id="cite_ref-BlackmanTillman_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackmanTillman-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BlackmanTillman2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackmanTillman2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ilya Somin, chair of Constitutional Studies at the Cato Institute, has disagreed, noting that the Appointments Clause refers to "Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein [in the constitution] otherwise provided for", and propounding that the president could have been considered to be appointed via vote of the electoral college, as evidenced by an essay<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The President of the United States would be an officer elected by the people for FOUR years; the king of Great Britain is a perpetual and HEREDITARY prince.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Papers" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed69.asp">No. 69</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Blackman and Tillman construe “whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for” as a descriptive clause that can be removed from the sentence to leave the sentence still discussing all Officers of the United States, rather than as a restrictive clause compatible with existence of Officers of the United States that are out of scope of the sentence, but have appointment "herein [in the constitution] provided for".<sup id="cite_ref-Blackman_and_Tillman,_Part_3_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackman_and_Tillman,_Part_3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A select committee report to the 39th Congress identified the “officers of the United States” with “appointment herein provided for” as “the President, Vice President, and members of Congress”,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite having considered at least part of the Incompatibility Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, an essay in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> spells out that Senators are not covered by the first part of the Appointments Clause since they are "otherwise provided for" in the Constitution, and established by it, rather than "by law".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And Blackman and Tillman admit to having been advised by <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Justice Scalia</a>, "The manner in which the President and Vice President hold their offices is 'provide[d] otherwise' by the Constitution" in explication of the following opinion of his: "Except where the Constitution or a valid federal law provides otherwise, all 'Officers of the United States' must be appointed by the President 'by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-Blackman_and_Tillman,_Part_3_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackman_and_Tillman,_Part_3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Customs_and_courtesies">Customs and courtesies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Customs and courtesies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg/220px-PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg/330px-PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg/440px-PhilipHabibMiddleEastCommission.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2275" data-file-height="1884" /></a><figcaption>Commission for <a href="/wiki/Philip_Habib" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Habib">Philip Habib</a> for his trip as <i>Special Representative of the President of the United States for the Middle East</i> in 1982, signed by President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/George_P._Shultz" class="mw-redirect" title="George P. Shultz">George P. Shultz</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commissionussfo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Commissionussfo.jpg/220px-Commissionussfo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Commissionussfo.jpg/330px-Commissionussfo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Commissionussfo.jpg/440px-Commissionussfo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The commission issued to a U.S. vice consul in 2012.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commission_certificate">Commission certificate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Commission certificate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most civilian officers of the U.S. are issued written <a href="/wiki/Commission_(document)" title="Commission (document)">commissions</a>. Those who do not require confirmation of the Senate are provided semi-engraved commission certificates (partially printed with hand inscription of name, date, and title by a <a href="/wiki/Graphics_and_Calligraphy_Office" title="Graphics and Calligraphy Office">White House calligrapher</a>) on letter-sized parchment. To this is set the signatures of the president and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Secretary of State">U.S. Secretary of State</a> applied by <a href="/wiki/Autopen" title="Autopen">autopen</a>. The document is sealed with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States" title="Great Seal of the United States">Great Seal of the U.S.</a> Those who require confirmation of the Senate are issued fully engraved certificates (certificates completely hand-written by a calligrapher) on <a href="/wiki/Foolscap_folio" title="Foolscap folio">foolscap folio</a> sized parchment. The president and secretary of state usually hand-sign these certificates and, like others, they are sealed with the Great Seal. </p><p>The commissions of military officers are signed under the line "for the President" by the appropriate service secretary (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army" title="United States Secretary of the Army">secretary of the Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">secretary of the Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force" title="United States Secretary of the Air Force">secretary of the Air Force</a>, or for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Secretary of Homeland Security">secretary of homeland security</a>), instead of the secretary of state, and are sealed with their respective departmental seal (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Seal_and_emblem_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army" title="Seal and emblem of the United States Department of the Army">Army seal</a>) instead of the Great Seal. </p><p>The presentation of commissions for civilian officers generally follows the following style, or some variation thereof: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To all who shall see these presents, greeting: Know Ye that, reposing special trust in the integrity, ability, and fidelity of John Dow, I have nominated and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, do appoint John Dow as <a href="/wiki/Librarian_of_Congress" title="Librarian of Congress">Librarian of Congress</a>, and do authorize and empower him to execute and fulfill the duties of that office according to law, and to have and to hold said office, with all the powers, privileges, and emoluments to the same of right appertaining unto him, the said Librarian of Congress, for the term of ten years, unless the President of the United States, for the time being, should be pleased sooner to revoke this commission. In testimony whereof, I have caused these letters to be made patent and the seal of the United States hereunto affixed.<br /> Given under my hand, at the city of Washington, the twenty-ninth day of April, in the year of our Lord two thousand and sixteen, and of the independence of the United States of America the two-hundred and fortieth. BY THE PRESIDENT.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honorific_title">Honorific title</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Honorific title"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Civilian officers of the U.S. are permitted to be titled "<a href="/wiki/The_Honorable" class="mw-redirect" title="The Honorable">the Honorable</a>" for life, even after they cease being an officer of the U.S. In practice, however, this custom is rarely observed except in the case of judges. When it is invoked for non-judicial officers it is only done in written address or platform introductions and never by the official to whom it is applied in reference to him or herself.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-french_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-french-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Schedule" title="Executive Schedule">Executive Schedule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_court" title="Officer of the court">Officer of the court</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Officer_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pitt-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pitt_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pitt_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPlecnik2014" class="citation journal cs1">Plecnik, John (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1783&context=fac_articles">"Officers Under the Appointments Clause"</a>. <i>Pittsburgh Tax Review</i>. <b>11</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2FTAXREVIEW.2014.26">10.5195/TAXREVIEW.2014.26</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pittsburgh+Tax+Review&rft.atitle=Officers+Under+the+Appointments+Clause&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2FTAXREVIEW.2014.26&rft.aulast=Plecnik&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fengagedscholarship.csuohio.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1783%26context%3Dfac_articles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOfficer+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreger2015" class="citation book cs1">Breger, Marshall (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EbblBgAAQBAJ"><i>Independent Agencies in the United States: Law, Structure, and Politics</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 160–166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199812127" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199812127"><bdi>978-0199812127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Independent+Agencies+in+the+United+States%3A+Law%2C+Structure%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=160-166&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0199812127&rft.aulast=Breger&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEbblBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOfficer+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doj-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doj_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="doj" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_G._Bradbury" title="Steven G. 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