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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_traditions_and_al-Zabba'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Queen_of_Palmyra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Queen_of_Palmyra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Queen of Palmyra </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Queen_of_Palmyra-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Queen of Palmyra subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Queen_of_Palmyra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consort" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consort"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Consort </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consort-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_role_in_Odaenathus'_assassination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_role_in_Odaenathus'_assassination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_role_in_Odaenathus'_assassination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Regent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Consolidation of power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_reign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_reign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Early reign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_reign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syria_and_the_invasion_of_Arabia_Petraea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria_and_the_invasion_of_Arabia_Petraea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3.1 Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria_and_the_invasion_of_Arabia_Petraea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annexation_of_Egypt_and_the_campaigns_in_Asia_Minor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annexation_of_Egypt_and_the_campaigns_in_Asia_Minor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3.2 Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annexation_of_Egypt_and_the_campaigns_in_Asia_Minor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Governance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4.1 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4.2.1 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4.3 Administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agreement_with_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agreement_with_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4.3.1 Agreement with Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agreement_with_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empress_and_open_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empress_and_open_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 Empress and open rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empress_and_open_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Downfall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Downfall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.6 Downfall </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Downfall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Captivity_and_fate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Captivity_and_fate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Captivity and fate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Captivity_and_fate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Titles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Descendants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evaluation_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaluation_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Evaluation and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaluation_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myth,_romanticism_and_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myth,_romanticism_and_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Myth, romanticism and popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Myth,_romanticism_and_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Myth, romanticism and popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Myth,_romanticism_and_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_cultural_depictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_cultural_depictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Selected cultural depictions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_cultural_depictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 General and cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Zenobia</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" > 56 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="زنوبيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زنوبيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobiya" title="Zenobiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Zenobiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="زنوبیا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="زنوبیا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Септымія Зенобія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Септымія Зенобія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Зенобия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Зенобия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimia_Zenobia" title="Septimia Zenobia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Septimia Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen%C3%B2bia" title="Zenòbia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Zenòbia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobie" title="Zenobie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zenobie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia_(Brenhines_Palmyra)" title="Zenobia (Brenhines Palmyra) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Zenobia (Brenhines Palmyra)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ζηνοβία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζηνοβία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="زنوبیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنوبیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimia_Bathzabbai_Z%C3%A9nobie" title="Septimia Bathzabbai Zénobie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Septimia Bathzabbai Zénobie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia_de_Palmira" title="Zenobia de Palmira – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Zenobia de Palmira" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EB%85%B8%EB%B9%84%EC%95%84" title="제노비아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제노비아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="जेनोबिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जेनोबिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobija" title="Zenobija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zenobija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%94" title="זנוביה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זנוביה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90)" title="ზენობია (პალმირა) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზენობია (პალმირა)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A9nobia_palm%C3%BCrai_kir%C3%A1lyn%C5%91" title="Zénobia palmürai királynő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zénobia palmürai királynő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90)" title="ზენობია (პალმირა) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ზენობია (პალმირა)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="زنوبيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="زنوبيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BC%E3%83%8E%E3%83%93%E3%82%A2" title="ゼノビア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゼノビア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%81_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ملکہ زینوبیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ملکہ زینوبیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septymia_Zenobia" title="Septymia Zenobia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Septymia Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen%C3%B3bia" title="Zenóbia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Zenóbia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Зенобия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зенобия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="සෙනෝබියා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සෙනෝබියා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobija" title="Zenobija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zenobija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Зенобија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Зенобија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobija" title="Zenobija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zenobija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zenobia" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Зенобія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Зенобія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="زینوبیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زینوبیا" 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color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Zenobia <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009384507">.mw-parser-output .script-Palm{font-family:"Noto Sans Palmyrene"}</style>𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩‎ <a href="/wiki/File:Btzby2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Btzby2.png/65px-Btzby2.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Btzby2.png/98px-Btzby2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Btzby2.png/130px-Btzby2.png 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="75" /></a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Augusta_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta (honorific)">Augusta</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_(obverse).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png/220px-Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png/330px-Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="406" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Zenobia as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">empress</a> on the obverse of an <a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a> (AD 272)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Empress of Palmyra</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">AD 272</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Co-monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Queen of Egypt</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">270–272</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Queen mother (regent) of Palmyra</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Regency</th><td class="infobox-data">267–272</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Queen consort of Palmyra</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tenure</th><td class="infobox-data">260–267</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">Septimia Btzby (Bat-Zabbai) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 240 <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">After 274</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hairan_II" title="Hairan II">Hairan II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Septimius Antiochus</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Septimia Zenobia (Bat-Zabbai)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">Regnal name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Septimia Zenobia Augusta</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs#House_of_Odaenathus" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">House of Odaenathus</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Septimia Zenobia (<a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1009384507" />𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩‎, Bat-Zabbai; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 240 – c. 274) was a third-century queen of the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner, and she married the ruler of the city, <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a>. Her husband became king in 260, elevating <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> to supreme power in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> by defeating the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> of Persia and stabilizing the Roman East. After Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became the <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> of her son <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> and held de facto power throughout his reign. In 270, Zenobia launched an invasion that brought most of the Roman East under her sway and culminated with the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>. By mid-271 her realm extended from <a href="/wiki/Ancyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancyra">Ancyra</a>, central <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, although she remained nominally subordinate to Rome. However, in reaction to the campaign of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> in 272, Zenobia declared her son emperor and assumed the title of empress, thus declaring Palmyra's secession from Rome. The Romans were victorious after heavy fighting; the empress was besieged in her capital and captured by Aurelian, who exiled her to Rome, where she spent the remainder of her life. Zenobia was a cultured monarch and fostered an intellectual environment in her court, which was open to scholars and philosophers. She was tolerant toward her subjects and protected religious minorities. The empress maintained a stable administration, which governed a multicultural, multiethnic empire. Zenobia died after 274, and many tales have been recorded about her fate. Her rise and fall have inspired historians, artists and novelists, and she is a patriotic symbol in Syria. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name,_appearance_and_sources">Name, appearance and sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name, appearance and sources">edit</a>]</div> Zenobia was born c. 240–241,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA3_3],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA173_173]-1">[1]</a> and bore the <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Nomen" title="Roman naming conventions">gentilicium</a> (surname) Septimia.<a href="#cite_note-4">[note 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9y7nTpFcN3ACpgPA551_551]-5">[4]</a> Her native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA230_230]-6">[5]</a> an <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a> name meaning "daughter of Zabbai".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA2_2]-7">[6]</a> Such compound names for women were common in Palmyra, where the element "bt" means daughter, but the personal name that follows does not necessarily denote the immediate father, rather referring to the ancestor of the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStark197180-8">[7]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>—Palmyra's <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">diplomatic</a> and second language, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeldon2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5fPHAAAAQBAJpgPA106_106]-9">[8]</a> In Palmyra, when written in Greek, names such as Zabeida, Zabdila, Zabbai or Zabda were often transformed into "Zenobios" (masculine) and "Zenobia" (feminine).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]-10">[9]</a> The element "Zabbai" from Zenobia's native name means "gift of N.N. [god]",<a href="#cite_note-13">[note 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStark197186-14">[12]</a> and the name Zenobia translates to "one whose life derives from <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeldon2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5fPHAAAAQBAJpgPA106_106]-9">[8]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Victor_Duruy" title="Victor Duruy">Victor Duruy</a> believed that the queen used the Greek name as a translation of her native name, in deference to her Greek subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuruy1883[httpsarchiveorgstreamp2historyofromeo07durupagen7mode2up_295]-15">[13]</a> The philologist <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dittenberger" title="Wilhelm Dittenberger">Wilhelm Dittenberger</a> argued that the name Bat-Zabbai underwent a detortum (twist), thus resulting in the name Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]-16">[14]</a> The ninth-century historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, in his highly fictionalized account,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">[15]</a> wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA148_148]-18">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaean</a> sources, reporting the visit of the apostle Addai to the region during the time of Odaenathus, called Zenobia "Queen Tadi", wife of kysr (caesar).<a href="#cite_note-20">[note 3]</a> The name given to Zenobia in those Manichaean writings seems to derive from Tadmor, Palmyra's native name, and this is supported by the Coptic Acts Codex, where Zenobia is named Queen Thadmor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZG_CDwAAQBAJpgPA56_56]-21">[18]</a> No contemporary statues of Zenobia have been found in Palmyra or elsewhere, only inscriptions on statues bases survive, indicating that a statue of the queen once stood in the place; most known representations of Zenobia are the idealized portraits of her found on her coins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA3_3]-22">[19]</a> Sculptures of Palmyrene style were normally impersonal, unlike Greek and Roman ones: a statue of Zenobia in this style would have given an idea of her general style in dress and jewelry but would not have revealed her true appearance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA3_3]-22">[19]</a> The non-contemporary historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> has described her as being “of a dark complexion” and considered “most lovely,” and that she “equalled in beauty her [claimed] ancestor Cleopatra.”<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1776[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaLcWAAAAQAAJpg307_307]-23">[20]</a> British scholar <a href="/wiki/William_Wright_(orientalist)" title="William Wright (orientalist)">William Wright</a> visited Palmyra toward the end of the nineteenth century in a vain search for a sculpture of the queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA16_16]-24">[21]</a> In addition to archaeological evidence, Zenobia's life was recorded in different ancient sources but many are flawed or fabricated; the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a>, a late-Roman collection of biographies, is the most notable (albeit unreliable) source for the era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]-25">[22]</a> The author (or authors) of the Historia Augusta invented many events and letters attributed to Zenobia in the absence of contemporary sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]-25">[22]</a> Some Historia Augusta accounts are corroborated from other sources, and are more credible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]-25">[22]</a> The Byzantine chronicler <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Joannes Zonaras</a> is considered an important source for the life of Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]-25">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin,_family_and_early_life">Origin, family and early life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin, family and early life">edit</a>]</div> Palmyrene society was an amalgam of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Semitic-speaking peoples</a>, mostly <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>, and Zenobia cannot be identified with any one group; as a Palmyrene, she may have had both Arab and Aramean ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> Information about Zenobia's ancestry and immediate family connections is scarce and contradictory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]-27">[24]</a> Nothing is known about her mother, and her father's identity is debated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">[25]</a> Manichaean sources mention a "Nafsha", sister of the "queen of Palmyra",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">[25]</a> but those sources are confused and "Nafsha" may refer to Zenobia herself:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA121_121]-29">[26]</a> it is doubtful that Zenobia had a sister.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA2_2]-30">[27]</a> Apparently not a commoner,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">[28]</a> Zenobia would have received an education appropriate for a noble Palmyrene girl.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA113_113]-32">[29]</a> The Historia Augusta contains details of her early life, although their veracity is dubious; according to the Historia Augusta, the queen's hobby as a child was hunting<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">[28]</a> and, in addition to her Palmyrene Aramaic mother tongue, she was fluent in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> and Greek and spoke <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-33">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]-34">[31]</a> When she was about fourteen years old (ca. 255), Zenobia became the second wife of <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rais" title="Rais">ras</a> ("lord") of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">[25]</a> Noble families in Palmyra often intermarried, and it is probable that Zenobia and Odaenathus shared some ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]-16">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_epigraphical_evidence">Contemporary epigraphical evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contemporary epigraphical evidence">edit</a>]</div> Basing their suppositions upon archaeological evidence, various historians have suggested several men as Zenobia's father: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/250px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/330px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg/500px-Palmyra_Julius_Aurelius_Zenobius_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="1618" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Inscription at <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> honoring Julius Aurelius Zenobius, believed by some to be Zenobia's father</div></div></div></div></div> Julius Aurelius Zenobius appears on a Palmyrene inscription as a <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> of Palmyra in 231–232; based on the similarity of the names,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">[25]</a> Zenobius was suggested as Zenobia's father by the <a href="/wiki/Numismatist_(specialist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Numismatist (specialist)">numismatist</a> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_von_Sallet" class="extiw" title="de:Alfred von Sallet">Alfred von Sallet</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA117_117]-35">[32]</a> The archaeologist <a href="/wiki/William_Waddington" title="William Waddington">William Waddington</a> argued in favor of Zenobius' identification as the father, assuming that his statue stood opposite to where the statue of the queen stood in <a href="/wiki/Great_Colonnade_at_Palmyra" title="Great Colonnade at Palmyra">Great Colonnade</a>. However, the linguist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Chabot" title="Jean-Baptiste Chabot">Jean-Baptiste Chabot</a> pointed out that Zenobius' statue stood opposite to that of Odaenathus not Zenobia and rejected Waddington's hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]-16">[14]</a> The only gentilicium, a hereditary name borne by people that was originally the name of one's gens (family or clan) by patrilineal descent, appearing on Zenobia's inscriptions was "Septimia" (not "Julia Aurelia", which she would have borne if her father's gentilicium was Aurelius),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9y7nTpFcN3ACpgPA551_551]-5">[4]</a> and it cannot be proven that the queen changed her gentilicium to Septimia after her marriage.<a href="#cite_note-37">[note 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA117_117]-35">[32]</a> One of Zenobia's inscriptions recorded her as "Septimia Bat-Zabbai, daughter of Antiochus".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA371_371]-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]-39">[35]</a> Antiochus' identity is not definitively known:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]-27">[24]</a> his ancestry is not recorded in Palmyrene inscriptions, and the name was not common in Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]-40">[36]</a> This, combined with the meaning of Zenobia's Palmyrene name (daughter of Zabbai), led scholars such as <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Ingholt" class="extiw" title="de:Harald Ingholt">Harald Ingholt</a> to speculate that Antiochus might have been a distant ancestor: the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Seleucid_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Seleucid rulers">Seleucid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a>, whose wife was the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Thea" title="Cleopatra Thea">Cleopatra Thea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA371_371]-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]-40">[36]</a> In the historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stoneman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Stoneman (page does not exist)">Richard Stoneman</a>'s view, Zenobia would not have created an obscure ancestry to connect herself with the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> rulers: if a fabricated ancestry were needed, a more direct connection would have been invented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">[28]</a> According to Stoneman, Zenobia "had reason to believe [her Seleucid ancestry] to be true".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">[28]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Pat_Southern" title="Pat Southern">Patricia Southern</a>, noting that Antiochus was mentioned without a royal title or a hint of great lineage, believes that he was a direct ancestor or a relative rather than a Seleucid king who lived three centuries before Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]-40">[36]</a> On the basis of Zenobia's Palmyrene name, Bat Zabbai, her father may have been called Zabbai; alternatively, Zabbai may have been the name of a more distant ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]-27">[24]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Trevor_R._Bryce" title="Trevor R. Bryce">Trevor Bryce</a> suggests that she was related to <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Zabbai" title="Septimius Zabbai">Septimius Zabbai</a>, Palmyra's garrison leader, and he may even have been her father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]-27">[24]</a> The archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Simon_Clermont-Ganneau" title="Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau">Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau</a>, attempting to reconcile the meaning of the name "Bat Zabbai" with the inscription mentioning the queen as daughter of Antiochus, suggested that two brothers, Zabbai and Antiochus, existed, with a childless Zabbai dying and leaving his widow to marry his brother Antiochus. Thus, since Zenobia was born out of a <a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">levirate marriage</a>, she was theoretically the daughter of Zabbai, hence the name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq151_127]-41">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient sources">edit</a>]</div> In the Historia Augusta, Zenobia is said to have been a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> and claimed descent from the Ptolemies.<a href="#cite_note-42">[note 5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]-10">[9]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Souda</a>, a 10th-century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> encyclopedia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA206_206]-43">[38]</a> after the Palmyrene conquest of Egypt,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]-44">[39]</a> the sophist <a href="/wiki/Callinicus_(Sophist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Callinicus (Sophist)">Callinicus of Petra</a> wrote a ten-volume history of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> dedicated to Cleopatra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA263_263]-45">[40]</a> According to modern scholars, by Cleopatra Callinicus meant Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-47">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA263_263]-45">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">[42]</a> Apart from legends, there is no direct evidence in Egyptian coinage or <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Egyptian papyri">papyri</a> of a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Conflation" title="Conflation">conflation</a> of Zenobia with Cleopatra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-49">[43]</a> The connection may have been invented by Zenobia's enemies to discredit her,<a href="#cite_note-51">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]-52">[45]</a> but circumstantial evidence indicates that Zenobia herself made the claim; an imperial declaration once ascribed to Emperor <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a> (died 235) was probably made by Zenobia in the name of her son <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a>, where the king named Alexandria "my ancestral city", which indicates a claim to Ptolemaic ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2003317-53">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParsons1967378-54">[47]</a> Zenobia's alleged claim of a connection to Cleopatra seems to have been politically motivated,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> since it would have given her a connection with Egypt and made her a legitimate successor to the Ptolemies' throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA93_93]-55">[48]</a> A relationship between Zenobia and the Ptolemies is unlikely,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid41-MAgAAQBAJpgRA1-PR25_298]-56">[49]</a> and attempts by classical sources to trace the queen's ancestry to the Ptolemies through the Seleucids are <a href="/wiki/Apocrypha" title="Apocrypha">apocryphal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-57">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab_traditions_and_al-Zabba'">Arab traditions and al-Zabba'</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Arab traditions and al-Zabba'">edit</a>]</div> Although some Arab historians linked Zenobia to the <a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba" title="Queen of Sheba">Queen of Sheba</a>, their accounts are apocryphal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-57">[50]</a> Medieval Arabic traditions identify a queen of Palmyra named al-Zabba',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERihan2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1iGpAwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]-58">[51]</a> and her most romantic account comes from al-Tabari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA295_295]-59">[52]</a> According to al-Tabari, she was an <a href="/wiki/Amalek#Arabs_as_Amalekites" title="Amalek">Amalekite</a>; her father was 'Amr ibn Zarib, an 'Amālīq <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikh</a> who was killed by the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-57">[50]</a> Al-Tabari identifies a sister of al-Zabba' as "Zabibah".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-57">[50]</a> Jadhimah ibn Malik, the Tanukhid king who killed the queen's father, was killed by al-Zabba'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA295_295]-59">[52]</a> According to al-Tabari, al-Zabba' had a fortress along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and ruled Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">[15]</a> Al-Tabari's account does not mention the Romans, Odaenathus, Vaballathus or the Sassanians;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">[15]</a> focusing on the tribes and their relations, it is immersed in legends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]-60">[53]</a> Although the account is certainly based on the story of Zenobia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">[15]</a> it is probably conflated with the story of a semi-legendary nomadic Arab queen (or queens).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA296_296]-61">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]-60">[53]</a> Al-Zabba''s fortress was probably <a href="/wiki/Halabiye" title="Halabiye">Halabiye</a>, which was restored by the historic Palmyrene queen and named Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Queen_of_Palmyra">Queen of Palmyra</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Queen of Palmyra">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consort">Consort</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consort">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of Odaenathus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg/250px-Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg/330px-Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg/500px-Odenaethus_Glyptoteket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3136" data-file-height="4704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a>, a bust dated to the 250s</figcaption></figure> During the early centuries AD, Palmyra was a city subordinate to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a> and part of the province of <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)" title="Phoenice (Roman province)">Syria Phoenice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]-62">[55]</a> In 260 the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> marched against the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Persia">Sassanid Persian</a> monarch <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, who had invaded the empire's eastern regions; Valerian was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">defeated and captured</a> near <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA167_167]-63">[56]</a> Odaenathus, <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus#Relation_with_Rome" title="Odaenathus">formally loyal to Rome</a> and its emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (Valerian's son),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA58_58]-64">[57]</a> was declared king of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]-65">[58]</a> Launching successful campaigns against Persia, he was crowned <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a> of the East in 263.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]-66">[59]</a> Odaenathus crowned his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Hairan_I" title="Hairan I">Herodianus</a>, as co-ruler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]-67">[60]</a> In addition to the royal titles, Odaenathus received many <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus#Ruler_of_the_East" title="Odaenathus">Roman titles</a>, most importantly <a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">corrector</a> totius orientis (governor of the entire East), and ruled the Roman territories from the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]-68">[61]</a> In 267, when Zenobia was in her late twenties or early thirties, Odaenathus and his eldest son were assassinated while returning from a campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]-67">[60]</a> The first inscription mentioning Zenobia as queen is dated two or three years after Odaenathus' death, so exactly when Zenobia assumed the title "queen of Palmyra" is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA73_73]-69">[62]</a> However, she was probably designated as queen when her husband became king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA73_73]-69">[62]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">queen consort</a>, Zenobia remained in the background and was not mentioned in the historical record.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA72_72]-70">[63]</a> According to later accounts, including one by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, she accompanied her husband on his campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXLPEa28ncjsCpgPA60_60]-71">[64]</a> If the accounts of her accompanying her husband are true, according to Southern, Zenobia would have boosted the morale of the soldiers and gained political influence, which she needed in her later career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA72_72]-70">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possible_role_in_Odaenathus'_assassination">Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination">edit</a>]</div> According to the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus was assassinated by a cousin named <a href="/wiki/Maeonius" title="Maeonius">Maeonius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-72">[65]</a> In the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus' son from his first wife was named Herodes and was crowned co-ruler by his father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfVwtnOBCiCwCpgPA276_276]-73">[66]</a> The Historia Augusta claims that Zenobia conspired with Maeonius for a time because she did not accept her stepson as his father's heir (ahead of her own children).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-72">[65]</a> The Historia Augusta does not suggest that Zenobia was involved in the events leading to her husband's murder,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]-74">[67]</a> and the crime is attributed to Maeonius' moral degeneration and jealousy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-72">[65]</a> This account, according to the historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alaric_Watson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alaric Watson (page does not exist)">Alaric Watson</a>, can be dismissed as fictional.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA58_58]-75">[68]</a> Although some modern scholarship suggests that Zenobia was involved in the assassination due to political ambition and opposition to her husband's pro-Roman policy, she continued Odaenathus' policies during her first years on the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]-76">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regent">Regent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Regent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_(obverse).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Old coin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_%28obverse%29.jpg/220px-Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_%28obverse%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_%28obverse%29.jpg/330px-Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_%28obverse%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Antoninian_Vaballathus_Augustus_%28obverse%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a>, Zenobia's son and successor of his father Odaenathus (on the obverse of an antoninianus, AD 272)</figcaption></figure> In the Historia Augusta , Maeonius was emperor briefly before he was killed by his soldiers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]-74">[67]</a> however, no inscriptions or evidence exist for his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]-77">[70]</a> At the time of Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia might have been with her husband; according to chronicler <a href="/wiki/George_Syncellus" title="George Syncellus">George Syncellus</a>, he was killed near <a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea Pontica</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]-78">[71]</a> The transfer of power seems to have been smooth, since Syncellus reports that the time from the assassination to the army handing the crown to Zenobia was one day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]-78">[71]</a> Zenobia may have been in Palmyra, but this would have reduced the likelihood of a smooth transition; the soldiers might have chosen one of their officers, so the first scenario of her being with her husband is more likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]-78">[71]</a> The historical records are unanimous that Zenobia did not fight for supremacy and there is no evidence of delay in the transfer of the throne to Odaenathus and Zenobia's son, the ten-year-old <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA84_84]-79">[72]</a> Although she never claimed to rule in her own right and acted as a regent for her son,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA92_92]-80">[73]</a> Zenobia held the reins of power in the kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]-81">[74]</a> and Vaballathus was kept in his mother's shadow, never exercising real power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-82">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consolidation_of_power">Consolidation of power</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consolidation of power">edit</a>]</div> The Palmyrene monarchy was new; allegiance was based on loyalty to Odaenathus, making the transfer of power to a successor more difficult than it would have been in an established monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA59_59]-83">[76]</a> Odaenathus tried to ensure the dynasty's future by crowning his eldest son co-king, but both were assassinated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-84">[77]</a> Zenobia, left to secure the Palmyrene succession and retain the loyalty of its subjects, emphasized the continuity between her late husband and his successor (her son).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-84">[77]</a> Vaballathus (with Zenobia orchestrating the process) assumed his father's royal titles immediately, and his earliest known inscription records him as King of Kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-84">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA84_84]-79">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Odaenathus_Kingdom.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color-coded map of the ancient Near East" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Odaenathus_Kingdom.png/250px-Odaenathus_Kingdom.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Odaenathus_Kingdom.png/330px-Odaenathus_Kingdom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Odaenathus_Kingdom.png/500px-Odaenathus_Kingdom.png 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="964" /></a><figcaption>Roman regions under Odaenathus (yellow) and the Palmyrene kingdom (green)</figcaption></figure> Odaenathus controlled a large area of the Roman East,<a href="#cite_note-86">[note 8]</a> and held the highest political and military authority in the region, superseding that of the Roman provincial governors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]-87">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]-67">[60]</a> His self-created status was formalized by Emperor Gallienus,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnG-S-X_uI6ECpgPA137_137]-88">[80]</a> who had little choice but to acquiesce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-89">[81]</a> Odaenathus's power relative to that of the emperor and the central authority was unprecedented and elastic, but relations remained smooth until his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]-90">[82]</a> His assassination meant that the Palmyrene rulers' authority and position had to be clarified, which led to a conflict over their interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]-90">[82]</a> The Roman court viewed Odaenathus as an appointed Roman official who derived his power from the emperor, but the Palmyrene court saw his position as hereditary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]-90">[82]</a> This conflict was the first step on the road to war between Rome and Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]-90">[82]</a> Odaenathus' Roman titles, such as <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">dux</a> Romanorum, corrector totius orientis and <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> totius orientis differed from his royal eastern ones because the Roman ranks were not hereditary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXZokDAAAQBAJpgPT158_158]-91">[83]</a> Vaballathus had a legitimate claim to his royal titles, but had no right to the Roman ones—especially corrector (denoting a senior military and provincial commander in the Roman system), which Zenobia used for her son in his earliest known inscriptions with "King of Kings".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-84">[77]</a> Although the Roman emperors accepted the royal succession, the assumption of Roman military rank antagonized the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4ROhAQAAQBAJpgPT423_333]-92">[84]</a> Emperor Gallienus may have decided to intervene in an attempt to regain central authority;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]-39">[35]</a> according to the Historia Augusta, <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> <a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Heraclianus" title="Aurelius Heraclianus">Aurelius Heraclianus</a> was dispatched to assert imperial authority over the east and was repelled by the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene army">Palmyrene army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA262_262]-93">[85]</a> The account is doubtful, however, since Heraclianus participated in Gallienus' assassination in 268.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA150_150]-94">[86]</a> Odaenathus was assassinated shortly before the emperor, and Heraclianus would have been unable to be sent to the East, fight the Palmyrenes and return to the West in time to become involved in the conspiracy against the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-95">[note 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA150_150]-94">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_reign">Early reign</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Early reign">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Halabiya,N-wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ruins of a sandstone fortress" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg/220px-Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg/330px-Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg/440px-Halabiya%2CN-wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1286" /></a><figcaption>The citadel of <a href="/wiki/Halabiye" title="Halabiye">Halabiye</a>, renamed "Zenobia" after its renovation by the queen</figcaption></figure> The extent of Zenobia's territorial control during her early reign is debated; according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Fergus_Millar" title="Fergus Millar">Fergus Millar</a>, her authority was confined to Palmyra and <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a> until 270.<a href="#cite_note-97">[note 10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0fIq9wd3Z3oCpgPA205_9]-98">[88]</a> If this was the case, the events of 270 (which saw Zenobia's conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>) are extraordinary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> It is more likely that the queen ruled the territories controlled by her late husband,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> a view supported by Southern and the historian <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udo_Hartmann" class="extiw" title="de:Udo Hartmann">Udo Hartmann</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA186_186]-99">[89]</a> and backed by ancient sources (such as the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>, who wrote that the queen inherited her husband's power).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> The Historia Augusta also mentioned that Zenobia took control of the East during Gallienus' reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA186_186]-99">[89]</a> Further evidence of extended territorial control was a statement by the Byzantine historian <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, who wrote that the queen had a residence in <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[note 11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> There is no recorded unrest against the queen accompanying her ascendance in ancient sources hostile to her, indicating no serious opposition to the new regime.<a href="#cite_note-103">[note 12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-102">[91]</a> The most obvious candidates for opposition were the Roman provincial governors, but the sources do not say that Zenobia marched on any of them or that they tried to remove her from the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA89_89]-104">[92]</a> According to Hartmann, the governors and military leaders of the eastern provinces apparently acknowledged and supported Vaballathus as the successor of Odaenathus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA89_89]-104">[92]</a> During Zenobia's early regency, she focused on safeguarding the borders with Persia and pacifying the <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-105">[93]</a> To protect the Persian borders, the queen fortified many settlements on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> (including the citadels of <a href="/wiki/Halabiye" title="Halabiye">Halabiye</a>—later called Zenobia—and <a href="/wiki/Zalabiye" title="Zalabiye">Zalabiye</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]-106">[94]</a> Circumstantial evidence exists for confrontations with the Sassanid Persians; probably in 269, Vaballathus assumed the <a href="/wiki/Victory_title" title="Victory title">victory title</a> of Persicus Maximus (the great victor in Persia); this may be connected to an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to control northern Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-108">[note 13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]-107">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]-109">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion">Expansion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Expansion">edit</a>]</div> In 269, while <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a> (Gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing her authority; Roman officials in the East were caught between loyalty to the emperor and Zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> The timing and rationale of the queen's decision to use military force to strengthen her authority in the East is unclear;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gary_K._Young&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gary K. Young (page does not exist)">Gary K. Young</a> suggested that Roman officials refused to recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain Palmyrene dominance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA163_163]-111">[98]</a> Another factor may have been the weakness of Roman central authority and its corresponding inability to protect the provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that the only way to maintain stability in the East was to control the region directly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA163_163]-111">[98]</a> The historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Schwartz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques Schwartz (page does not exist)">Jacques Schwartz</a> tied Zenobia's actions to her desire to protect Palmyra's economic interests, which were threatened by Rome's failure to protect the provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA162_162]-112">[99]</a> Also, according to Schwartz, the economic interests conflicted; <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bostra</a> and Egypt received trade which would have otherwise passed through Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-113">[100]</a> The Tanukhids near Bostra and the merchants of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> probably attempted to rid themselves of Palmyrene domination, triggering a military response from Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-113">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Syria_and_the_invasion_of_Arabia_Petraea">Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bosra-Ruins.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Extensive ruins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bosra-Ruins.jpg/220px-Bosra-Ruins.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bosra-Ruins.jpg/330px-Bosra-Ruins.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bosra-Ruins.jpg/440px-Bosra-Ruins.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bostra">Bostra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Bostra" title="Sack of Bostra">sacked</a> by Palmyra in 270</figcaption></figure> In the spring of 270, while Claudius was fighting the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> in the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, Zenobia sent her general <a href="/wiki/Zabdas" title="Zabdas">Septimius Zabdas</a> to Bosra (capital of the province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> the queen's timing seems intentional.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">[101]</a> In Arabia the Roman governor (dux), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trassus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trassus (page does not exist)">Trassus</a> (commanding the <a href="/wiki/Legio_III_Cyrenaica" title="Legio III Cyrenaica">Legio III Cyrenaica</a>),<a href="#cite_note-116">[note 14]</a> confronted the Palmyrenes and was routed and killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> Zabdas <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Bostra" title="Sack of Bostra">sacked the city</a>, and destroyed the temple of <a href="/wiki/Amun#Greece" title="Amun">Zeus Hammon</a>, the legion's revered shrine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> A Latin inscription after the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA108_108]-117">[103]</a> "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which ... rebuilt, with a silver statue and iron doors (?)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-118">[104]</a> The city of <a href="/wiki/Umm_el-Jimal" title="Umm el-Jimal">Umm el-Jimal</a> may have also been destroyed by the Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA108_108]-117">[103]</a> After his victory, Zabdas marched south along the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Rift_Valley" title="Jordan Rift Valley">Jordan Valley</a> and apparently met little opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">[97]</a> There is evidence that <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> was attacked by a small contingent which penetrated the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> Arabia and <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> were eventually subdued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> Palmyrene dominance of Arabia is confirmed by many milestones bearing Vaballathus' name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]-115">[102]</a> Syrian subjugation required less effort because Zenobia had substantial support there, particularly in Antioch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]-120">[106]</a> Syria's traditional capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]-100">[90]</a> The invasion of Arabia coincided with the cessation of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">mint</a>, indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her grip on Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]-120">[106]</a> By November 270, the mint began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA106_106]-121">[107]</a> The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king as a Roman governor and commander, referring to him as <a href="/wiki/Vir_clarissimus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vir clarissimus">vir clarissimus</a> <a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a> <a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">consul</a> imperator dux Romanorum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]-115">[102]</a> The assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, not yet a usurpation of the imperial title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]-122">[108]</a> Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative of the emperor (who was securing the eastern lands of the empire) while the Roman monarch was preoccupied with struggles in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryceBirkett-Rees2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgDAFDAAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-123">[109]</a> Although Vaballathus' use of the titles amounted to a claim to the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask of subordination to Rome;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXZokDAAAQBAJpgPT158_158]-91">[83]</a> an "imperator" was a commander of troops, not the equal of an emperor ("imperator caesar").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]-122">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Annexation_of_Egypt_and_the_campaigns_in_Asia_Minor">Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Palmyrene invasion of Egypt</a></div> The invasion of Egypt is sometimes explained by Zenobia's desire to secure an alternative trade route to the Euphrates, which was cut because of the war with Persia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA178_178]-124">[110]</a> This theory ignores the fact that the Euphrates route was only partially disrupted, and overlooks Zenobia's ambition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> The date of the campaign is uncertain; Zosimus placed it after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">Battle of Naissus</a> and before Claudius' death, which sets it in the summer of 270.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA113_113]-125">[111]</a> Watson, emphasizing the works of Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, places the invasion in October 270 (after Claudius' death).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-126">[112]</a> According to Watson, the occupation of Egypt was an opportunistic move by Zenobia (who was encouraged by the news of Claudius' death in August).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA204_204]-127">[113]</a> Zenobia was declared Queen of Egypt after <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Palmyrene invasion of Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]-128">[114]</a> The appearance of the Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern frontier would have contributed to unrest in the province, whose society was fractured; Zenobia had supporters and opponents among local Egyptians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyrene_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color-coded map of Palmyra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/250px-Palmyrene_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/330px-Palmyrene_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Palmyrene_Empire.png/500px-Palmyrene_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="1661" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra at its zenith in 271</figcaption></figure> The Roman position was worsened by the absence of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">prefect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tenagino_Probus" title="Tenagino Probus">Tenagino Probus</a>, who was battling pirates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA113_113]-125">[111]</a> According to Zosimus, the Palmyrenes were helped by an Egyptian general named Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Egypt with 70,000 soldiers, defeating an army of 50,000 Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA204_204]-127">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">[101]</a> After their victory, the Palmyrenes withdrew their main force and left a 5,000-soldier garrison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">[101]</a> By early November,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> Tenagino Probus returned and assembled an army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Alexandria, prompting Zabdas to return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">[101]</a> The Palmyrene general aimed a thrust at Alexandria, where he seems to have had local support; the city fell into Zabdas' hands, and the Roman prefect fled south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">[105]</a> The last battle was at the <a href="/wiki/Babylon_Fortress" title="Babylon Fortress">Babylon Fortress</a>, where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Romans had the upper hand, since they chose their camp carefully.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]-120">[106]</a> Timagenes, with his knowledge of the land, ambushed the Roman rear; Tenagino Probus committed suicide, and Egypt became part of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]-120">[106]</a> In the Historia Augusta the <a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a> were among Zenobia's allies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]-129">[115]</a> and Gary K. Young cites the Blemmyes attack and occupation of <a href="/wiki/Qift" title="Qift">Coptos</a> in 268 as evidence of a Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-130">[116]</a> Only Zosimus mentioned two invasions, contrasting with many scholars who argue in favor of an initial invasion and no retreat (followed by a reinforcement, which took Alexandria by the end of 270).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">[101]</a> During the Egyptian campaign, Rome was entangled in a succession crisis between Claudius' brother <a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a> and the general <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>. Egyptian <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Egyptian papyri">papyri</a> and coinage confirm Palmyrene rule in Egypt; the papyri stopped using the <a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal years</a> of the emperors from September to November 270, due to the succession crisis. By December regnal dating was resumed, with the papyri using the regnal years of the prevailing emperor Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus. Egyptian coinage was issued in the names of Aurelian and the Palmyrene king by November 270.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA106_106]-121">[107]</a> There is no evidence that Zenobia ever visited Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA205_205]-131">[117]</a> Although the operation may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the invasion of Asia Minor did not fully begin until Zabdas' arrival in the spring of 271.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]-132">[118]</a> The Palmyrenes annexed <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> and, according to Zosimus, reached <a href="/wiki/Ancyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancyra">Ancyra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]-52">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a> mint remained beyond Zenobia's control, and her attempts to subdue <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]-132">[118]</a> The Asia Minor campaign is poorly documented, but the western part of the region did not become part of the queen's authority;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]-52">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA117_117]-133">[119]</a> no coins with Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Asia Minor, and no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have been found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA117_117]-133">[119]</a> By August 271 Zabdas was back in Palmyra, with the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene empire</a> at its zenith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]-132">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Governance">Governance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Governance">edit</a>]</div> Zenobia ruled an empire of different peoples; as a Palmyrene, she was accustomed to dealing with multilingual and multicultural diversity since she hailed from a city which embraced many cults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">[120]</a> The queen's realm was culturally divided into eastern-Semitic and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> zones; Zenobia tried to appease both, and seems to have successfully appealed to the region's ethnic, cultural and political groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA66_66]-135">[121]</a> The queen projected an image of a Syrian monarch, a Hellenistic queen and a Roman empress, which gained broad support for her cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_135]-136">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Culture">Culture</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two huge statues of seated figures" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG/250px-Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG/330px-Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG/500px-Colossi_of_Memnon_May_2015_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The right <a href="/wiki/Colossi_of_Memnon" title="Colossi of Memnon">colossus of Memnon</a> was probably restored by Zenobia.</figcaption></figure> Zenobia turned her court into a center of learning, with many intellectuals and sophists reported in Palmyra during her reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]-137">[123]</a> As academics migrated to the city, it replaced classical learning centers such as Athens for Syrians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]-137">[123]</a> The best-known court philosopher was <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA95_95]-138">[124]</a> who arrived during Odaenathus' reign and became Zenobia's tutor in <a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">paideia</a> (aristocratic education).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]-139">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]-137">[123]</a> Many historians, including Zosimus, accused Longinus of influencing the queen to oppose Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider199319-140">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]-139">[125]</a> This view presents the queen as malleable,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]-139">[125]</a> but, according to Southern, Zenobia's actions "cannot be laid entirely at Longinus' door".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]-44">[39]</a> Other intellectuals associated with the court included <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicostratus_of_Trapezus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicostratus of Trapezus (page does not exist)">Nicostratus of Trapezus</a> and Callinicus of Petra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]-141">[127]</a> From the second to the fourth centuries, Syrian intellectuals argued that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Culture" title="Ancient Greece">Greek culture</a> did not evolve in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> but was adapted from the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]-141">[127]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, the great Greek philosophers reused Near Eastern and Egyptian ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA337_337]-142">[128]</a> The Palmyrene court was probably dominated by this school of thought, with an intellectual narrative presenting Palmyra's dynasty as a Roman imperial one succeeding the Persian, Seleucid and Ptolemaic rulers who controlled the region in which Hellenistic culture allegedly originated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA337_337]-142">[128]</a> Nicostratus wrote a history of the Roman Empire from <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> to Odaenathus, presenting the latter as a legitimate imperial successor and contrasting his successes with the disastrous reigns of the emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]-141">[127]</a> Zenobia embarked on several restoration projects in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]-143">[129]</a> One of the <a href="/wiki/Colossi_of_Memnon" title="Colossi of Memnon">Colossi of Memnon</a> was reputed in antiquity to sing; the sound was probably due to cracks in the statue, with solar rays interacting with dew in the cracks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ig4uQC20_ICpgPA195_195]-144">[130]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Glen_Bowersock" title="Glen Bowersock">Glen Bowersock</a> proposed that the queen restored the colossus ("silencing" it), which would explain third-century accounts of the singing and their disappearance in the fourth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock198431,_32-145">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Religion">Religion</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bas-relief of four human-looking gods" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg/220px-Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg/330px-Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg/440px-Relief_Bel_Baalshamin_Yarhibol_Aglibol_MBA_Lyon_1992-13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2692" data-file-height="2340" /></a><figcaption>Palmyra's most important deities: (right to left) <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a></figcaption></figure> Zenobia followed the Palmyrene paganism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq147_123]-146">[132]</a> where a number of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic gods</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a> at the head of the pantheon, were worshipped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-147">[133]</a> Zenobia accommodated <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">Jews</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">[120]</a> and ancient sources made many claims about the queen's beliefs;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaean</a> sources alleged that Zenobia was one of their own;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA489_489]-148">[134]</a> a manuscript dated to 272 mentions that the Queen of Palmyra supported the Manichaeans in establishing a community in Abidar, which was under the rule of a king named Amarō, who could be the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_Adi" title="Amr ibn Adi">Amr ibn Adi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA98_98]-149">[135]</a> It is more likely, however, that Zenobia tolerated all cults in an effort to attract support from groups marginalized by Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">[42]</a> Bishop <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a> wrote that Zenobia did not "hand over churches to the Jews to make them into synagogues";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]-150">[136]</a> although the queen was not a Christian, she understood the power of bishops in Christian communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]-151">[137]</a> In Antioch—considered representative of political control of the East and containing a large Christian community—Zenobia apparently maintained authority over the church by bringing influential clerics, probably including <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Samosata" title="Paul of Samosata">Paul of Samosata</a>, under her auspices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]-151">[137]</a> She may have bestowed on Paul the rank of <a href="/wiki/Ducenarius" title="Ducenarius">ducenarius</a> (minor judge); he apparently enjoyed the queen's protection, which helped him keep the <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocesan</a> church after he was removed from his office as <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">bishop of Antioch</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synod</a> of bishops in 268.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA244_1]-152">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hughes_(historian)" title="Philip Hughes (historian)">Hughes</a> suggested that Paul's position while Zenobia ruled was in the state treasury.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1949[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofchurch0001philpage134mode2upviewtheater_134]-153">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[note 15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Judaism">Judaism</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> Less than a hundred years after Zenobia's reign, Athanasius of Alexandria called her a "Jewess" in his History of the Arians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]-150">[136]</a> In 391, archbishop <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a> wrote that Zenobia was Jewish; so did a <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a> chronicler around 664 and bishop <a href="/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus" title="Bar Hebraeus">Bar Hebraeus</a> in the thirteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]-150">[136]</a> According to French scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Javier_Teixidor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Javier Teixidor (page does not exist)">Javier Teixidor</a>, Zenobia was probably a <a href="/wiki/Proselyte" title="Proselyte">proselyte</a>; this explained her strained relationship with the rabbis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]-158">[143]</a> Teixidor believed that Zenobia became interested in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> when Longinus spoke about the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> and his interest in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]-158">[143]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic</a> sources were hostile to Palmyra because of Odaenathus' suppression of the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]-159">[144]</a> Zenobia apparently had the support of some Jewish communities (particularly in Alexandria).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]-132">[118]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]-160">[145]</a> a plaque originally bearing an inscription confirming a grant of immunity to a Jewish synagogue in the last quarter of the first millennium BC by King Ptolemy Euergetes (<a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">I</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">II</a>) was found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]-160">[145]</a> At a much later date, the plaque was re-inscribed to commemorate the restoration of immunity "on the orders of the queen and king" and the precedence of the queen in the ordering of the two titles is remarkable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]-143">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]-160">[145]</a> Although it is undated, the letters of the inscription date to long after Cleopatra and Anthony's era; Zenobia and her nominal co-monarch Vaballathus, who controlled Egypt in 270–272, are the only candidates for a king and a queen ruling Egypt after the Ptolemies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]-143">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA518_518]-161">[146]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/E._Mary_Smallwood" title="E. Mary Smallwood">E. Mary Smallwood</a> wrote that good relations with the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora#Under_the_Roman_Empire" title="Jewish diaspora">diaspora</a> community did not mean that the Jews of Palestine were content with Zenobia's reign, and her rule was apparently opposed in that region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]-159">[144]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Masekhet" title="Masekhet">Tractate</a> <a href="/wiki/Terumot" title="Terumot">Terumot</a> tells the story of the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">amoraim</a> Rabbi "Ammi" and Rabbi "Samuel bar Nahmani", who visited Zenobia's court and asked for the release of a Jew ("Zeir bar Hinena") detained on her orders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA330_330]-162">[147]</a> The queen refused, saying: "Why have you come to save him? He teaches that your creator performs miracles for you. Why not let God save him?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOClDBJfW79QCpgPA125_125]-163">[148]</a> During Aurelian's destruction of Palmyra, Palestinian conscripts with "clubs and cudgels" (who may have been Jews) played a vital role in Zenobia's defeat and the destruction of her city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA533_533]-164">[149]</a> There is no evidence of Zenobia's birth as a Jew; the names of her and her husband's families belonged to the Aramaic <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/onomasticon" class="extiw" title="wikt:onomasticon">onomasticon</a> (collection of names).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]-158">[143]</a> The queen's alleged patronage of Paul of Samosata (who was accused of "Judaizing"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]-159">[144]</a> may have given rise to the idea that she was a proselyte.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">[42]</a> Only Christian accounts note Zenobia's Jewishness; no Jewish source mentions it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraetz2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpnMtoAjig7wCpgPA529_529]-165">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Administration">Administration</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> The queen probably spent most of her reign in Antioch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA205_205]-131">[117]</a> Syria's administrative capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]-100">[90]</a> Before the monarchy, Palmyra had the institutions of a Greek city (<a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a>) and was ruled by a senate which was responsible for most civil affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-166">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-167">[152]</a> Odaenathus maintained Palmyra's institutions, as did Zenobia;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]-168">[153]</a> a Palmyrene inscription after her fall records the name of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Haddudan" title="Septimius Haddudan">Septimius Haddudan</a>, a Palmyrene senator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA384_384]-169">[154]</a> However, the queen apparently ruled <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratically</a>; <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Worod" title="Septimius Worod">Septimius Worod</a>, Odaenathus' viceroy and one of Palmyra's most important officials, disappeared from the record after Zenobia's ascent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA117_117]-170">[155]</a> The queen opened the doors of her government to Eastern nobility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">[120]</a> Zenobia's most important courtiers and advisers were her generals, Septemius Zabdas and Septimius Zabbai;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA95_95]-138">[124]</a> both of whom were generals under Odaenathus and received the <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Nomen" title="Roman naming conventions">gentilicium</a> (surname) "Septimius" from him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA257_257]-171">[156]</a> Odaenathus respected the Roman emperor's privilege of appointing provincial governors,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbpd3tBPN4v8CpgPA171_171]-172">[157]</a> and Zenobia continued this policy during her early reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA87_87],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]-173">[158]</a> Although the queen did not interfere in day-to-day administration, she probably had the power to command the governors in the organization of border security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]-174">[159]</a> During the rebellion, Zenobia maintained Roman forms of administration,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]-52">[45]</a> but appointed the governors herself (most notably in Egypt,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA115_115]-175">[160]</a> where <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Marcellinus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julius Marcellinus (page does not exist)">Julius Marcellinus</a> took office in 270 and was followed by <a href="/wiki/Statilius_Ammianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Statilius Ammianus">Statilius Ammianus</a> in 271).<a href="#cite_note-177">[note 16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]-174">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Agreement_with_Rome">Agreement with Rome</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Agreement with Rome">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Front and back of ancient coin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg/250px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg/330px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg/500px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_381-795833.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Palmyrene <a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a> minted in Antioch in AD 271, showing <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (left) as emperor and Vaballathus as king</figcaption></figure> Zenobia initially avoided provoking Rome by claiming for herself and her son the titles, inherited from Odaenathus, of subject of Rome and protector of its eastern frontier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-105">[93]</a> After expanding her territory, she seems to have tried to be recognized as an imperial partner in the eastern half of the empire and presented her son as subordinate to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryceBirkett-Rees2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgDAFDAAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-123">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">[163]</a> In late 270, Zenobia minted coinage bearing the portraits of Aurelian and Vaballathus; Aurelian was titled "emperor", and Vaballathus "king".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a> The regnal year in early samples of the coinage was only Aurelian's.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a> By March 271,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA68_68]-180">[164]</a> despite indicating Aurelian as the paramount monarch by naming him first in the dating formulae, the coinage also began bearing Vaballathus' regnal year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA210_210]-181">[165]</a> By indicating in the coinage that Vaballathus' reign began in 267 (three years before the emperor's), Vaballathus appeared to be Aurelian's senior colleague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA210_210]-181">[165]</a> The emperor's blessing of Palmyrene authority has been debated;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">[163]</a> Aurelian's acceptance of Palmyrene rule in Egypt may be inferred from the <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a> papyri, which are dated by the regnal years of the emperor and Vaballathus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA211_211]-182">[166]</a> No proof of a formal agreement exists, and the evidence is based solely on the joint coinage- and papyri-dating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">[163]</a> It is unlikely that Aurelian would have accepted such power-sharing,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a> but he was unable to act in 271 due to crises in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a> His apparent condoning of Zenobia's actions may have been a ruse to give her a false sense of security while he prepared for war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">[162]</a> Another reason for Aurelian's tolerance may have been his desire to ensure a constant <a href="/wiki/Cura_Annonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cura Annonae">supply of Egyptian grain to Rome</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]-183">[167]</a> it is not recorded that the supply was cut, and the ships sailed to Rome in 270 as usual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA115_115]-175">[160]</a> Some modern scholars, such as <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_B._Mattingly" class="extiw" title="de:Harold B. Mattingly">Harold Mattingly</a>, suggest that Claudius Gothicus had concluded a formal agreement with Zenobia which Aurelian ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-49">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Empress_and_open_rebellion">Empress and open rebellion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Empress and open rebellion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Both sides of a coin commemorating Zenobia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/220px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/330px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg/440px-ZENOBIA_-_RIC_V_2_-_80000750.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Zenobia as empress with <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a> on the reverse, AD 272</figcaption></figure> An inscription, found in Palmyra and dated to August 271, called Zenobia eusebes (the pious);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA68_68]-180">[164]</a> this title, used by Roman empresses, could be seen as a step by the queen toward an imperial title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a> Another contemporary inscription called her sebaste, the Greek equivalent of "empress" (Latin: <a href="/wiki/Augusta_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta (honorific)">Augusta</a>), but also acknowledged the Roman emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a> A late-271 Egyptian grain receipt equated Aurelian and Vaballathus, jointly calling them <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augusti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a> Finally, Palmyra officially broke with Rome;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA161_161]-185">[169]</a> the Alexandrian and Antiochian mints removed Aurelian's portrait from the coins in April 272, issuing new <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachms</a> in the names of Vaballathus and Zenobia (who were called Augustus and Augusta, respectively).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a> The assumption of imperial titles by Zenobia signaled a <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurpation</a>: independence from, and open rebellion against, Aurelian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA169_169]-186">[170]</a> The timeline of events and why Zenobia declared herself empress is vague.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]-187">[171]</a> In the second half of 271,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA266_266]-188">[172]</a> Aurelian marched to the East, but was delayed by the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> in the Balkans;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA169_169]-186">[170]</a> this may have alarmed the queen, driving her to claim the imperial title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]-187">[171]</a> Zenobia also probably understood the inevitability of open conflict with Aurelian, and decided that feigning subordination would be useless;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA121_121]-189">[173]</a> her assumption of the imperial title was used to rally soldiers to her cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA121_121]-189">[173]</a> Aurelian's campaign seems to have been the main reason for the Palmyrene imperial declaration and the removal of his portrait from its coins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA162_162]-112">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Downfall">Downfall</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Downfall">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AurelianusPalmyra272.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AurelianusPalmyra272.png/250px-AurelianusPalmyra272.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AurelianusPalmyra272.png/330px-AurelianusPalmyra272.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AurelianusPalmyra272.png/500px-AurelianusPalmyra272.png 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Route of Aurelian's campaign</figcaption></figure> The usurpation, which began in late March or early April 272, ended by August.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA359_359]-190">[174]</a> Aurelian spent the winter of 271–272 in <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA170_170]-191">[175]</a> and probably crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> to Asia Minor in April 272.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA133_133]-192">[176]</a> Galatia fell easily; the Palmyrene garrisons were apparently withdrawn, and the provincial capital of Ancyra was regained without a struggle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71]-193">[177]</a> All the cities in Asia Minor opened their doors to the Roman emperor, with only <a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tyana</a> putting up some resistance before <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyana_(272)" title="Siege of Tyana (272)">surrendering</a>; this cleared the path for Aurelian to invade Syria, the Palmyrene heartland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-194">[178]</a> A simultaneous expedition reached Egypt in May 272; by early June Alexandria was captured by the Romans, followed by the rest of Egypt by the third week of June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71]-193">[177]</a> Zenobia seems to have withdrawn most of her armies from Egypt to focus on Syria—which, if lost, would have meant the end of Palmyra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA133_133]-192">[176]</a> In May 272, Aurelian headed toward Antioch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA368_268]-195">[179]</a> About 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the city, he defeated the Palmyrene army (led by Zabdas) at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Immae" title="Battle of Immae">Battle of Immae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA368_268]-195">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]-196">[180]</a> As a result, Zenobia, who waited in Antioch during the battle, retreated with her army to Emesa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-197">[181]</a> To conceal the disaster and make her flight safer, she spread reports that Aurelian was captured; Zabdas found a man who resembled the Roman emperor and paraded him through Antioch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA137_137]-198">[182]</a> The following day, Aurelian entered the city before marching south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-197">[181]</a> After defeating a Palmyrene garrison south of Antioch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-199">[183]</a> Aurelian continued his march to meet Zenobia in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emesa" title="Battle of Emesa">Battle of Emesa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-199">[183]</a> The 70,000-strong Palmyrene army, assembled on the plain of Emesa, nearly routed the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-199">[183]</a> In an initial thrill of victory they hastened their advance, breaking their lines and enabling the Roman infantry to attack their flank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-199">[183]</a> The defeated Zenobia headed to her capital on the advice of her war council, leaving her treasury behind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-200">[184]</a> In Palmyra, the empress prepared for a siege;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA133_133]-201">[185]</a> Aurelian blockaded food-supply routes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA143_143]-202">[186]</a> and there were probably unsuccessful negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]-203">[187]</a> According to the Augustan History, Zenobia said that she would fight Aurelian with the help of her Persian allies; however, the story was probably fabricated and used by the emperor to link Zenobia to Rome's greatest enemy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]-203">[187]</a> If such an alliance existed, a much-larger frontier war would have erupted; however, no Persian army was sent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]-203">[187]</a> As the situation worsened, the queen left the city for Persia intending on seeking help from Palmyra's former enemy; according to Zosimus, she rode a "female camel, the fastest of its breed and faster than any horse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-200">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA145_145]-204">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Captivity_and_fate">Captivity and fate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Captivity and fate">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man-made pond with ducks swimming and hills in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg/250px-Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg/330px-Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg/500px-Poikile_quadriportico_Villa_Adriana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a>; Zenobia reportedly spent her last days in a villa near Hadrian's complex in <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tibur</a>.</figcaption></figure> Aurelian, learning about Zenobia's departure, sent a contingent which captured the empress before she could cross the Euphrates to Persia;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA145_145]-204">[188]</a> Palmyra capitulated soon after news of Zenobia's captivity reached the city in August 272.<a href="#cite_note-206">[note 17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-207">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA384_384]-169">[154]</a> Aurelian sent the empress and her son to Emesa for trial, followed by most of Palmyra's court elite (including Longinus).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]-208">[191]</a> According to the Augustan History and Zosimus, Zenobia blamed her actions on her advisers; however, there are no contemporary sources describing the trial, only later hostile Roman ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]-208">[191]</a> The empress's reported cowardice in defeat was probably Aurelian's propaganda; it benefited the emperor to paint Zenobia as selfish and traitorous, discouraging the Palmyrenes from hailing her as a hero.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]-208">[191]</a> Although Aurelian had most of his prisoners executed, he spared the empress and her son to parade her in his planned <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]-209">[192]</a> Zenobia's fate after Emesa is uncertain since ancient historians left conflicting accounts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]-210">[193]</a> Zosimus wrote that she died before crossing the Bosporus on her way to Rome; according to this account, the empress became ill or starved herself to death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]-210">[193]</a> The generally unreliable chronicler, <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumitru2016261-211">[194]</a> wrote that Aurelian humiliated Zenobia by parading her through the eastern cities on a <a href="/wiki/Dromedary" title="Dromedary">dromedary</a>; in Antioch, the emperor had her chained and seated on a dais in the <a href="/wiki/Hippodrome" title="Hippodrome">hippodrome</a> for three days before the city's populace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]-210">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79]-212">[195]</a> Malalas concluded his account by writing that Zenobia appeared in Aurelian's triumph and was then beheaded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]-213">[196]</a> Most ancient historians and modern scholars agree that Zenobia was displayed in Aurelian's 274 triumph;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]-213">[196]</a> Zosimus was the only source to say that the empress died before reaching Rome, making his account questionable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA83_83]-214">[197]</a> A public humiliation (as recounted by Malalas) is a plausible scenario, since Aurelian would probably have wanted to publicize his suppression of the Palmyrene rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]-210">[193]</a> Only Malalas, however, describes Zenobia's beheading; according to the other historians, her life was spared after Aurelian's triumph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]-213">[196]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Augustan_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustan History">Augustan History</a> recorded that Aurelian gave Zenobia a villa in <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tibur</a> near <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a>, where she lived with her children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]-215">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA317_317]-216">[199]</a> Zonaras wrote that Zenobia married a nobleman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanchichLane2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8_CBAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-217">[200]</a> and Syncellus wrote that she married a Roman senator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]-215">[198]</a> The house she reportedly occupied became a tourist attraction in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA171_171]-218">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Titles">Titles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Titles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zenobia_lead_token.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Zenobia_lead_token.png/250px-Zenobia_lead_token.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Zenobia_lead_token.png/330px-Zenobia_lead_token.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Zenobia_lead_token.png 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="193" /></a><figcaption>Lead token naming Zenobia as queen c. 268</figcaption></figure> The queen owed her elevated position to her son's minority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA121_121]-219">[202]</a> To celebrate Herodianus' coronation, a statue was erected in Palmyra in 263.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA178_178]-220">[203]</a> According to the inscription on the base of the statue, it was commissioned by Septimius Worod, then the <a href="/wiki/Duumviri" title="Duumviri">duumviri</a> (magistrate) of Palmyra, and Julius Aurelius, the Queen's <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Ancient Rome)">procurator</a> (treasurer).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-221">[204]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/David_Stone_Potter" title="David Stone Potter">David Potter</a>, Zenobia is the queen mentioned, and the inscription is an evidence for the usage of the title by her during Odaenathus' lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter1996274-222">[205]</a> An inscription on a milestone on the road between Palmyra and Emesa, dated to Zenobia's early reign,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA172_172]-223">[206]</a> identifies her as "illustrious queen, mother of the king of kings";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]-39">[35]</a> this was the first inscription giving her an official position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA118_118]-224">[207]</a> A lead token from Antioch also identifies Zenobia as queen.<a href="#cite_note-228">[note 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBland2011[httpswwwacademiaedu2525613_The_coinage_of_Vabalathus_and_Zenobia_from_Antioch_and_Alexandria_Numismatic_Chronicle_171_2011_133]-229">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECussini2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA27_27]-227">[210]</a> The earliest confirmed attestation of Zenobia as queen in Palmyra is an inscription on the base of a statue erected for her by Zabdas and Zabbai, dated to August 271 and calling her "most illustrious and pious queen".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA118_118]-224">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-230">[212]</a> On an undated milestone found near <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>, Zenobia is titled Sebaste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]-187">[171]</a> The queen was never acknowledged as sole monarch in Palmyra, although she was the de facto sovereign of the empire;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]-81">[74]</a> she was always associated with her husband or son in inscriptions, except in Egypt (where some coins were minted in Zenobia's name alone).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]-81">[74]</a> According to her coins, the queen assumed the title of Augusta (empress) in 272,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">[168]</a> and reigned under the regnal name Septimia Zenobia Augusta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]-231">[213]</a> In 272, Zenobia, no longer acting as queen-regent, but as Empress of the East, rode forth to beat back the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright1895[httpsarchiveorgdetailsaccountofpalmyra00wrigialapage145mode1up_145]-232">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descendants">Descendants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Descendants">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hairan_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Hairan_I.jpg/220px-Hairan_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Hairan_I.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>Septimius Herodianus, might have been the same person as <a href="/wiki/Hairan_II" title="Hairan II">Hairan II</a>, a probable son of Zenobia</figcaption></figure> Aside from Vaballathus, it is unclear if Zenobia had other children, and their alleged identities are subject to scholarly disagreements. The image of a child named <a href="/wiki/Hairan_II" title="Hairan II">Hairan</a> (II) appears on a seal impression with that of his brother Vaballathus; no name of a mother was engraved and the seal is undated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA111_111]-233">[215]</a> Odaenathus' son Herodianus is identified by Udo Hartmann with <a href="/wiki/Hairan_I" title="Hairan I">Hairan I</a>, a son of Odaenathus who appears in Palmyrene inscriptions as early as 251.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA9_9]-234">[216]</a> David S. Potter, on the other hand, suggested that Hairan II is the son of Zenobia and that he is Herodianus instead of Hairan I.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhGuGAgAAQBAJpgPT585_85]-235">[217]</a> Nathanael Andrade maintained that Hairan I, Herodianus, and Hairan II are the same person, rejecting the existence of a second Hairan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmLhwDwAAQBAJpgPA121_121]-236">[218]</a> A controversial Palmyrene inscription mentions the mother of the King <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Septimius Antiochus</a>; the name of the queen is missing, and Dittenberger refused to fill the gap with Zenobia's name, but many scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Grace_Macurdy" title="Grace Macurdy">Grace Macurdy</a> considered that the missing name is Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]-231">[213]</a> Septimius Antiochus may have been Vaballathus' younger brother, or was presented in this manner for political reasons; Antiochus was proclaimed emperor in 273, when Palmyra revolted against Rome for a second time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA5_5]-237">[219]</a> If Antiochus was a son of Zenobia, he was probably a young child not fathered by Odaenathus; Zosimus described him as insignificant, appropriate for a five-year-old boy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-238">[220]</a> On the other hand, Macurdy, citing the language Zosimus used when he described him, considered it more plausible that Antiochus was not a son of Zenobia, but a family relation who used her name to legitimize his claim to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]-231">[213]</a> The names of Herennianus and <a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Palmyra" title="Timolaus of Palmyra">Timolaus</a> were mentioned as children of Zenobia only in the Historia Augusta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA10_10]-239">[221]</a> Herennianus may be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus; Timolaus is probably a fabrication,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA58_58]-75">[68]</a> although the historian <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietmar_Kienast" class="extiw" title="de:Dietmar Kienast">Dietmar Kienast</a> suggested that he might have been Vaballathus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA174_174]-240">[222]</a> According to the Historia Augusta, Zenobia's descendants were Roman nobility during the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (reigned 364–375).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA187_187]-241">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> chronicled the queen's descendants in Rome during the fourth and fifth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA171_171]-218">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA317_317]-216">[199]</a> They may have been the result of a reported marriage to a Roman spouse or offspring who accompanied her from Palmyra; both theories, however, are tentative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]-242">[224]</a> Zonaras is the only historian to note that Zenobia had daughters;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]-242">[224]</a> he wrote that one married Aurelian, who married the queen's other daughters to distinguished Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanchichLane2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8_CBAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-217">[200]</a> According to Southern, the emperor's marriage to Zenobia's daughter is a fabrication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]-215">[198]</a> Another descent claim is the relation of saint <a href="/wiki/Zenobius_of_Florence" title="Zenobius of Florence">Zenobius of Florence</a> (337–417) with the queen; the Girolami banking family claimed descent from the fifth century saint,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002436-243">[225]</a> and the alleged relation was first noted in 1286.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002441-244">[226]</a> The family also extended their roots to Zenobia by claiming that the saint was a descendant of her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002440-245">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evaluation_and_legacy">Evaluation and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Evaluation and legacy">edit</a>]</div> An evaluation of Zenobia is difficult; the queen was courageous when her husband's supremacy was threatened and by seizing the throne, she protected the region from a power vacuum after Odaenathus' death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-246">[228]</a> According to Watson, she made what Odaenathus left her a "glittering show of strength".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-247">[229]</a> In the view of Watson, Zenobia should not be seen as a total powermonger, nor as a selfless hero fighting for a cause; according to the historian David Graf, "She took seriously the titles and responsibilities she assumed for her son and that her program was far more ecumenical and imaginative than that of her husband Odenathus, not just more ambitious".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-247">[229]</a> Zenobia has inspired scholars, academics, musicians and actors; her fame has lingered in the West, and is supreme in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> As a heroic queen with a tragic end, she stands alongside Cleopatra and <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> The queen's legend turned her into an idol, that can be reinterpreted to accommodate the needs of writers and historians; thus, Zenobia has been by turns a freedom fighter, a hero of the oppressed and a national symbol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA2_2]-30">[27]</a> The queen is a female role model;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlatkin2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomenartistsinhi00slat_144]-248">[230]</a> according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> liked to compare herself to Zenobia as a woman who created military might and an intellectual court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA121_121]-219">[202]</a> During the 1930s, thanks to an Egyptian-based feminist press, Zenobia became an icon for women's-magazine readers in the Arabic-speaking world as a strong, nationalistic female leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnr9Ivt-pc0ICpgPA239_239]-249">[231]</a> Her most lasting legacy is in Syria, where the queen is a national symbol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]-250">[232]</a> Zenobia became an icon for <a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalists</a>; she had a cult following among Western-educated Syrians, and an 1871 novel by journalist <a href="/wiki/Salim_Al_Bustani" title="Salim Al Bustani">Salim Al Bustani</a> was entitled Zenobia malikat Tadmor (Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA66_66]-251">[233]</a> Syrian nationalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ilyas_Matar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ilyas Matar (page does not exist)">Ilyas Matar</a>, who wrote Syria's first history in Arabic in 1874,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIggersWangMukherjee2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAXXaAAAAQBAJpgPA94_94]-252">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu-Manneh1992[httpsbooksgooglecombookshlnlid5Z66AAAAIAAJdq_22]-253">[235]</a> (al-'Uqud al-durriyya fi tarikh al-mamlaka al-Suriyya; The Pearl Necklace in the History of the Syrian Kingdom),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA226_226]-254">[236]</a> was fascinated by Zenobia and included her in his book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA51_51]-255">[237]</a> To Matar, the queen kindled hope for a new Zenobia who would restore Syria's former grandeur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA51_51]-255">[237]</a> Another history of Syria was written by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurji_Yanni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jurji Yanni (page does not exist)">Jurji Yanni</a> in 1881,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJ3PsAb1uV94CpgPA14_14]-256">[238]</a> in which Yanni called Zenobia a "daughter of the fatherland", and yearned for her "glorious past".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA57_57]-257">[239]</a> Yanni described Aurelian as a tyrant who deprived Syria of its happiness and independence by capturing its queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA57_57]-257">[239]</a> In modern Syria, Zenobia is regarded as a patriotic symbol; her image appeared on <a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">banknotes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]-250">[232]</a> and in 1997 she was the subject of the television series <a href="/wiki/Al-Ababeed" title="Al-Ababeed">Al-Ababeed</a> (The Anarchy).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> The series was watched by millions in the Arabic-speaking world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">[23]</a> It examined the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a> from a Syrian perspective, where the queen's struggle symbolized the Palestinians' struggle to gain the right of self-determination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]-250">[232]</a> Zenobia was also the subject of a biography by <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Tlass" title="Mustafa Tlass">Mustafa Tlass</a>, Syria's former minister of defense and one of the country's most prominent figures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]-250">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myth,_romanticism_and_popular_culture">Myth, romanticism and popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Myth, romanticism and popular culture">edit</a>]</div> Harold Mattingly called Zenobia "one of the most romantic figures in history".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-246">[228]</a> According to Southern, "The real Zenobia is elusive, perhaps ultimately unattainable, and novelists, playwrights and historians alike can absorb the available evidence, but still need to indulge in varied degrees of speculation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-258">[240]</a> She has been the subject of romantic and ideologically-driven biographies by ancient and modern writers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-259">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA10_10]-260">[242]</a> The Augustan History is the clearest example of an ideological account of Zenobia's life, and its author acknowledged that it was written to criticize the emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA10_10]-260">[242]</a> According to the Augustan History, Gallienus was weak because he allowed a woman to rule part of the empire and Zenobia was a more able sovereign than the emperor. The narrative changed as the Augustan History moved on to the life of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a>, a lauded and victorious emperor, with the author characterizing Zenobia's protection of the eastern frontier as a wise delegation of power by Claudius.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA11_11]-261">[243]</a> When the Augustan History reached the biography of Aurelian, the author's view of Zenobia changed dramatically; the queen is depicted as a guilty, insolent, proud coward;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA11_11]-261">[243]</a> her wisdom was discredited and her actions deemed the result of manipulation by advisers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]-60">[53]</a> Zenobia's "staunch" beauty was emphasized by the author of the Augustan History, who ascribed to her feminine timidity and inconsistency (the reasons for her alleged betrayal of her advisers to save herself). The queen's sex posed a dilemma for the Augustan History since it cast a shadow on Aurelian's victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-262">[244]</a> Its author ascribed many masculine traits to Zenobia to make Aurelian a conquering hero who suppressed a dangerous <a href="/wiki/Amazons" title="Amazons">Amazon</a> queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-262">[244]</a> According to the Augustan History, Zenobia had a clear, manly voice, dressed as an emperor (rather than an empress), rode horseback, was attended by <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Lady-in-waiting" title="Lady-in-waiting">ladies-in-waiting</a>, marched with her army, drank with her generals, was careful with money (contrary to the stereotypical spending habits of her sex) and pursued masculine hobbies such as hunting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA86_86]-263">[245]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a> wrote a fanciful 14th-century account of the queen in which she is a <a href="/wiki/Tomboy" title="Tomboy">tomboy</a> in childhood who preferred wrestling with boys, wandering in the forests and killing goats to playing like a young girl.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]-264">[246]</a> Zenobia's chastity was a theme of these romanticized accounts; according to the Augustan History, she disdained sexual intercourse and allowed Odaenathus into her bed only for conception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]-264">[246]</a> Her reputed chastity impressed some male historians; <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> wrote that Zenobia surpassed Cleopatra in chastity and valor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]-264">[246]</a> According to Boccaccio, Zenobia safeguarded her virginity when she wrestled with boys as a child.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]-264">[246]</a> Seventeenth-century visitors to Palmyra rekindled the Western world's romantic interest in Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]-60">[53]</a> This interest peaked during the mid-nineteenth century, when <a href="/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope" title="Lady Hester Stanhope">Lady Hester Stanhope</a> visited Palmyra and wrote that its people treated her like the queen; she was reportedly greeted with singing and dancing, and <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> warriors stood on the city's columns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-33">[30]</a> A procession ended with a mock coronation of Stanhope under the <a href="/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra" title="Monumental Arch of Palmyra">arch of Palmyra</a> as "queen of the desert".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-33">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Ware" title="William Ware">William Ware</a>, fascinated by Zenobia, wrote a fanciful account of her life. Twentieth-century novelists and playwrights, such as <a href="/wiki/Haley_Elizabeth_Garwood" title="Haley Elizabeth Garwood">Haley Elizabeth Garwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nick_Dear" title="Nick Dear">Nick Dear</a>, also wrote about the queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA16_16]-24">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_cultural_depictions">Selected cultural depictions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Selected cultural depictions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hosmer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of Zenobia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hosmer.jpg/200px-Hosmer.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hosmer.jpg/300px-Hosmer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Hosmer.jpg/400px-Hosmer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="900" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Hosmer" title="Harriet Hosmer">Harriet Hosmer</a>'s Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1857)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Zenobia gazing over Plamyra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg/250px-Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg/330px-Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg/500px-Herbert_Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gustave_Schmalz" title="Herbert Gustave Schmalz">Herbert Gustave Schmalz</a> (1888)</div></div></div></div></div> <ul><li>Sculptures:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1857) by <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Hosmer" title="Harriet Hosmer">Harriet Hosmer</a>, exhibited at the <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPfLzXKeVKzECpgPA8_8]-265">[247]</a></li> <li>Zenobia in Chains (1859) by Harriet Hosmer. Two copies were made, one exhibited at the <a href="/wiki/Huntington_Library" title="Huntington Library">Huntington Library</a> and the other at the <a href="/wiki/St_Louis_Art_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="St Louis Art Museum">St Louis Art Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmKLWDwAAQBAJpgPA155_155]-266">[248]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>Literature:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaucer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaucer">Chaucer</a> narrates a condensed story of Zenobia's life in one of a series of "tragedies" in "<a href="/wiki/The_Monk%27s_Tale" title="The Monk's Tale">The Monk's Tale</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodman1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidI4U4AAAAIAAJpgPA272_272]-267">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA113_113]-32">[29]</a></li> <li>La gran Cenobia (1625) by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Calder%C3%B3n_de_la_Barca" title="Pedro Calderón de la Barca">Pedro Calderón de la Barca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintero2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1u0FDAAAQBAJpgPA52_52]-268">[250]</a></li> <li>Zénobie, tragédie. Où la vérité de l'Histoire est conservée dans l'observation des plus rigoureuses règles du Poème Dramatique (1647) by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_H%C3%A9delin,_abb%C3%A9_d%27Aubignac" title="François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac">François Hédelin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA198_198]-269">[251]</a></li> <li>Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra; a Narrative, Founded on History. (1814) by <a href="/wiki/Adelaide_O%27Keeffe" title="Adelaide O'Keeffe">Adelaide O'Keeffe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuwe201230-270">[252]</a></li> <li>The Queen of the East (1956) by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baron" title="Alexander Baron">Alexander Baron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA472_472]-271">[253]</a></li> <li>Moi, Zénobie reine de Palmyre (1978) by <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Simiot" class="extiw" title="fr:Bernard Simiot">Bernard Simiot</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-272">[254]</a></li> <li>The Chronicle of Zenobia (2006) by Judith Weingarten.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-272">[254]</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Predicament" title="A Predicament">A Predicament</a>" (1838) by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>Paintings:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>Queen Zenobia Addressing her Soldiers by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo" title="Giovanni Battista Tiepolo">Giambattista Tiepolo</a>; it dates to the early eighteenth century but the exact year is not known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]-273">[255]</a> This painting (part of a series of <a href="/wiki/Tableau_vivant" title="Tableau vivant">tableaux</a> of Zenobia) was painted by Tiepolo on the walls of the Zenobio family palace in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, although they were unrelated to the queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]-273">[255]</a></li> <li>Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra (1888) by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gustave_Schmalz" title="Herbert Gustave Schmalz">Herbert Gustave Schmalz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA200_200]-274">[256]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>Operas:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zenobia_(Albinoni)" title="Zenobia (Albinoni)">Zenobia</a> (1694): <a href="/wiki/Tomaso_Albinoni" title="Tomaso Albinoni">Tomaso Albinoni</a>'s first opera.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA14_14]-275">[257]</a></li> <li>Zenobia in Palmira (1725) by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Leo" title="Leonardo Leo">Leonardo Leo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacy2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0zthpCZuAUCpgPA472_472]-276">[258]</a></li> <li>Zenobia (1761) by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse" title="Johann Adolph Hasse">Johann Adolph Hasse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansell1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidap8JAQAAMAAJq_108]-277">[259]</a></li> <li>Zenobia in Palmira (1789) by <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Anfossi" title="Pasquale Anfossi">Pasquale Anfossi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]-273">[255]</a></li> <li>Zenobia in Palmira (1790) by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paisiello" title="Giovanni Paisiello">Giovanni Paisiello</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]-273">[255]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aureliano_in_Palmira" title="Aureliano in Palmira">Aureliano in Palmira</a> (1813) by <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Gioachino Rossini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmcEiihJ5p9MCpgPA254_254]-278">[260]</a></li> <li>Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra (1882) by <a href="/wiki/Silas_G._Pratt" title="Silas G. Pratt">Silas G. Pratt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA473_473]-279">[261]</a></li> <li>Zenobia (2007) by <a href="/wiki/Mansour_Rahbani" title="Mansour Rahbani">Mansour Rahbani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT86_86]-280">[262]</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>Play: Zenobia (1995), by <a href="/wiki/Nick_Dear" title="Nick Dear">Nick Dear</a>, was first performed at the <a href="/wiki/Young_Vic" title="Young Vic">Young Vic</a> as a co-production with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company" title="Royal Shakespeare Company">Royal Shakespeare Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH1W8BQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]-281">[263]</a></li> <li>Song: "Zenobia" (1971), written by the <a href="/wiki/Rahbani_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahbani Brothers">Rahbani Brothers</a> and sang by <a href="/wiki/Fairuz" title="Fairuz">Fairuz</a> as part of the Rahbani Brothers' 1971 musical play Nas Min Waraq (people of paper).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAliksān1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnuMLAAAAIAAJq_112]-282">[264]</a></li> <li>Film: <a href="/wiki/Sheba_and_the_Gladiator" title="Sheba and the Gladiator">Nel Segno di Roma</a>, a 1959 Italian film starring <a href="/wiki/Anita_Ekberg" title="Anita Ekberg">Anita Ekberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6ReFDAAAQBAJpgPA59_59]-283">[265]</a></li> <li>Television: <a href="/wiki/Al-Ababeed" title="Al-Ababeed">Al-Ababeed</a> (1997), Syrian television series starring <a href="/wiki/Raghda" title="Raghda">Raghda</a> as Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallo20121-284">[266]</a></li> <li>Video Game: Zenobia appears as a playable Archer-class Servant in the 2015 mobile game <a href="/wiki/Fate/Grand_Order" title="Fate/Grand Order">Fate/Grand Order</a> by Lasengle and Aniplex.<a href="#cite_note-285">[267]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mavia_(queen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mavia (queen)">Mavia (queen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenobia_of_Armenia" title="Zenobia of Armenia">Zenobia of Armenia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> "Septimius" was also Odaenathus' family's <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Nomen" title="Roman naming conventions">gentilicium</a> (surname) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA296_296]-2">[2]</a> whose emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> granted the family <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> in the late second century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszakBerry2008244-3">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> N.N. is a grammatical abbreviation denoting "no name", indicating hypocoristica, where a compound name is abbreviated by dropping its theophoric (deity name) element.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidleQtcmpcQ-ECpgPA509_509]-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoogan1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfAD1DwAAQBAJpgPA111_111]-12">[11]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Mainly texts written in <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turfan Oasis</a>; they were included in the series named Berliner Turfantexte launched in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYl2DteLY8jcCpgPA37_37]-19">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Both Dittenberger and von Sallet believed that Zenobia bore the gentilicium Julia Aurelia during her marriage and took the gentilicium Septimia after Odaenathus' death; von Sallet argued that the coins minted by Vaballathus in Alexandria bore the initials of the names "Julius", "Aurelius" and "Septimius", before his own name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq149_125]-36">[33]</a> Therefore, it is apparent that Vaballathus took his maternal family's name beside his paternal one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]-16">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> The writer of the Historia Augusta might have based his account on the work of <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, who wrote about the habits of men in "vaulted baths" and how they extol women "with such disgraceful flattery as the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> do <a href="/wiki/Semiramis" title="Semiramis">Semiramis</a>, the Egyptians their Cleopatras, the <a href="/wiki/Carians" title="Carians">Carians</a> [do] <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_II_of_Caria" title="Artemisia II of Caria">Artemisia</a>, or the people of Palmyra [do] Zenobia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]-10">[9]</a> If the Historia Augusta writer did indeed use the words of Ammianus, then the remark about Zenobia's supposed descent loses its merit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]-10">[9]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> The conclusion that Callinicus meant Zenobia is based on the fact that the work was written following Palmyra's invasion of Egypt, combined with what is known about Zenobia's alleged claims of descent from Cleopatra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]-44">[39]</a> The first scholar to suggest that, by Cleopatra, Callinicus meant Zenobia was <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Aurel Stein</a>, in 1923, and his view was accepted by many other historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA188_188]-46">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> The Roman view of Cleopatra was negative; she was portrayed as a traitorous manipulative woman who used her beauty and sex to achieve her goals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurstein2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKSonyiReFY8CpgPA68_68]-50">[44]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> The Roman East traditionally included all the Roman lands in Asia east of the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA6_6]-85">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> A plausible scenario, according to the historian <a href="/wiki/David_Stone_Potter" title="David Stone Potter">David Potter</a>, would be that a campaign was sent in 270 by <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a>, Gallienus' successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA262_262]-93">[85]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> An often-cited argument for limited territorial control is that the <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antiochean</a> <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">Mint</a> did not issue coins in the name of the queen or her son before 270.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> However, in the opinion of Southern, this can be explained by the existence of Claudius Gothicus on the imperial throne, which made it unnecessary for the queen to issue coins in the name of her son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> After Claudius' death in 270, the imperial throne was contested by his brother <a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a> and the army candidate <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>, but the Antiochean mint, probably under orders from Zenobia (who apparently did not recognize Quintillus) did not issue coins for both pretenders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> When Aurelian prevailed, Zenobia might have found it an opportunity to declare for him; the new coins bore the picture of Aurelian but also, for the first time, Vaballathus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> The palace was probably established by Odaenathus who crowned his son in Antioch,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">[87]</a> Syria's historical capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]-100">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> According to the Historia Augusta the emperor Aurelian sent a letter to the Senate saying that the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> were so afraid of Zenobia that they did not dare revolt; however, the author does not say that the <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrians</a> were afraid of the queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-102">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Ancient sources accused Zenobia of sympathizing with the Persians, claiming that she was worshiped like the Persian leaders and drank wine with their generals;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]-107">[95]</a> however, the accusations are unfounded since Zenobia fortified the frontier with Persia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]-106">[94]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Although his name is only mentioned by <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>, archaeological evidence supports the Arabian campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]-115">[102]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Paul of Samosata is considered a <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretic</a> by mainstream Christianity, accused of denying the preexistence of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Christ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacquarrie2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsstubborntheologi0000macqpage149_149]-154">[140]</a> The earliest reference to the relationship between Zenobia and Paul of Samosata comes from Athanasius of Alexandria's fourth-century History of the Arians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA312_312]-155">[141]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>, Paul preferred to be called "ducenarius" instead of bishop;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA149_149],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA151_151]-156">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]-151">[137]</a> There is evidence that he held this rank in the service of Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA244_1]-152">[138]</a> There is no evidence that Paul was invited to the Palmyrene court, and his relationship with Zenobia was exaggerated by later sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">[42]</a> The queen may have supported him as bishop to promote religious tolerance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">[120]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> One of Statilius' inscriptions is firmly dated to spring 272, so he could have been appointed by the Romans who regained Egypt at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA169_169]-176">[161]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Many ancient writers, including <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avienius" title="Avienius">Rufius Festus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, George Syncellus and <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, mistakenly wrote that Zenobia was captured at Immae.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA267_267]-205">[189]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Dated to 268,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECussini2012161-225">[208]</a> its code in Delbert R. Hillers and Eleonora Cussini's work, titled "Palmyrene Aramaic Texts" (PAT),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnaniMior2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddiolDwAAQBAJpgPA106_106]-226">[209]</a> is PAT 2827, and the inscription read: queen Zenobia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECussini2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA27_27]-227">[210]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA3_3],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA173_173]-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA3_3],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA173_173]_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173">173</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA296_296]-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahîd1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBEvEV9OVzacCpgPA296_296]_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShahîd1995">Shahîd 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEvEV9OVzacC&pg=PA296">296</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatyszakBerry2008244-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatyszakBerry2008244_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatyszakBerry2008">Matyszak & Berry 2008</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9y7nTpFcN3ACpgPA551_551]-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9y7nTpFcN3ACpgPA551_551]_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9y7nTpFcN3ACpgPA551_551]_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartre2005">Sartre 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9y7nTpFcN3AC&pg=PA551">551</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA230_230]-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA230_230]_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2007">Edwell 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA230">230</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA2_2]-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA2_2]_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA2">2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStark197180-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStark197180_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStark1971">Stark 1971</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeldon2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5fPHAAAAQBAJpgPA106_106]-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeldon2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5fPHAAAAQBAJpgPA106_106]_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeldon2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5fPHAAAAQBAJpgPA106_106]_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeldon2008">Weldon 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5fPHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106">106</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA201_201]_10-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA201">201</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidleQtcmpcQ-ECpgPA509_509]-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidleQtcmpcQ-ECpgPA509_509]_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJackson1983">Jackson 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=leQtcmpcQ-EC&pg=PA509">509</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoogan1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfAD1DwAAQBAJpgPA111_111]-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoogan1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfAD1DwAAQBAJpgPA111_111]_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoogan1976">Coogan 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fAD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111">111</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStark197186-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStark197186_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStark1971">Stark 1971</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuruy1883[httpsarchiveorgstreamp2historyofromeo07durupagen7mode2up_295]-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuruy1883[httpsarchiveorgstreamp2historyofromeo07durupagen7mode2up_295]_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuruy1883">Duruy 1883</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/p2historyofromeo07duru#page/n7/mode/2up">295</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq150_126]_16-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacurdy1937">Macurdy 1937</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015019188914;view=1up;seq=150">126</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA433_433]_17-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1993">Millar 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA433">433</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA148_148]-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA148_148]_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2010">Powers 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7joBeDsajcC&pg=PA148">148</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYl2DteLY8jcCpgPA37_37]-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieu1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYl2DteLY8jcCpgPA37_37]_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLieu1998">Lieu 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yl2DteLY8jcC&pg=PA37">37</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZG_CDwAAQBAJpgPA56_56]-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZG_CDwAAQBAJpgPA56_56]_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGardner2020">Gardner 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG_CDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56">56</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA3_3]-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA3_3]_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA3_3]_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA3">3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1776[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaLcWAAAAQAAJpg307_307]-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon1776[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaLcWAAAAQAAJpg307_307]_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibbon1776">Gibbon 1776</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aLcWAAAAQAAJ&pg=307">307</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA16_16]-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA16_16]_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA16_16]_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA16">16</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA10_10]_25-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA10">10</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA1_1]_26-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA297_297]_27-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA297">297</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA4_4]_28-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA4">4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA121_121]-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA121_121]_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2016">Ball 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hblTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121">121</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA2_2]-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA2_2]_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA2_2]_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA112_112]_31-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA112">112</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA113_113]-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA113_113]_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA113_113]_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA113">113</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_33-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2016">Ball 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hblTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">73</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA117_117]-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA117_117]_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA117_117]_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA117">117</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq149_125]-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq149_125]_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacurdy1937">Macurdy 1937</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015019188914;view=1up;seq=149">125</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA371_371]-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA371_371]_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA371_371]_38-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tgCKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA371">371</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA209_209]_39-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fTcCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA209">209</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA5_5]_40-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA5">5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq151_127]-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq151_127]_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacurdy1937">Macurdy 1937</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015019188914;view=1up;seq=151">127</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA206_206]-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA206_206]_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA206">206</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA97_97]_44-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA97">97</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA263_263]-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA263_263]_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA263_263]_45-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7HKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA263">263</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA188_188]-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA188_188]_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA188">188</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]_48-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA65_65]_48-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">65</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190">190</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurstein2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKSonyiReFY8CpgPA68_68]-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurstein2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKSonyiReFY8CpgPA68_68]_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurstein2007">Burstein 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KSonyiReFY8C&pg=PA68">68</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]_52-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA116_116]_52-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA116">116</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2003317-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2003317_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett2003">Bennett 2003</a>, p. 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParsons1967378-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParsons1967378_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParsons1967">Parsons 1967</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA93_93]-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA93_93]_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">93</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid41-MAgAAQBAJpgRA1-PR25_298]-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid41-MAgAAQBAJpgRA1-PR25_298]_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=41-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR25">298</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqQKIAgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]_57-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78">78</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERihan2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1iGpAwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERihan2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1iGpAwAAQBAJpgPA28_28]_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRihan2014">Rihan 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1iGpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28">28</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA295_295]-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA295_295]_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA295_295]_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA295">295</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA12_12]_60-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA12">12</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA296_296]-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA296_296]_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296">296</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwell2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDQgmOZlsEWcCpgPA27_27]_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdwell2007">Edwell 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA27">27</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA167_167]-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA167_167]_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fTcCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA167">167</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA58_58]-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA58_58]_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA58">58</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA159_159]_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDignasWinter2007">Dignas & Winter 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA60_60]_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]_67-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmuVoB0O_XXMCpgPT61_61]_67-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2009">Goldsworthy 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muVoB0O_XXMC&pg=PT61">61</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA160_160]_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDignasWinter2007">Dignas & Winter 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA160">160</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA73_73]-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA73_73]_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA73_73]_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA73">73</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA72_72]-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA72_72]_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA72_72]_70-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXLPEa28ncjsCpgPA60_60]-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXLPEa28ncjsCpgPA60_60]_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranklin2006">Franklin 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XLPEa28ncjsC&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtgCKAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_72-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tgCKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">81</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBray1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfVwtnOBCiCwCpgPA276_276]-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBray1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfVwtnOBCiCwCpgPA276_276]_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBray1997">Bray 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fVwtnOBCiCwC&pg=PA276">276</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA292_292]_74-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA292">292</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA58_58]-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA58_58]_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA58_58]_75-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58">58</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA78_78]_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA78">78</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrauer1975[httpsarchiveorgdetailsageofsoldierem00brau_163]_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrauer1975">Brauer 1975</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofsoldierem00brau">163</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA81_81]_78-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA81">81</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA84_84]-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA84_84]_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA84_84]_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA84">84</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA92_92]-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA92_92]_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA92">92</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA119_119]_81-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA119">119</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299">299</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA59_59]-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA59_59]_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59">59</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_84-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA6_6]-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid73-JAgAAQBAJpgPA6_6]_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2002">Ball 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA215_215]_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA215">215</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnG-S-X_uI6ECpgPA137_137]-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnG-S-X_uI6ECpgPA137_137]_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVervaet2007">Vervaet 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nG-S-X_uI6EC&pg=PA137">137</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA214_214]-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA214_214]_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214">214</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2fTcCQAAQBAJpgPA172_172]_90-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fTcCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA172">172</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulikowski2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXZokDAAAQBAJpgPT158_158]-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulikowski2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXZokDAAAQBAJpgPT158_158]_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulikowski2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXZokDAAAQBAJpgPT158_158]_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKulikowski2016">Kulikowski 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XZokDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT158">158</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4ROhAQAAQBAJpgPT423_333]-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4ROhAQAAQBAJpgPT423_333]_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT423">333</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA262_262]-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA262_262]_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA262_262]_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7HKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA262">262</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA150_150]-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA150_150]_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA150_150]_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2p9hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150">150</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_96-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87">87</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0fIq9wd3Z3oCpgPA205_9]-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0fIq9wd3Z3oCpgPA205_9]_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1971">Millar 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0fIq9wd3Z3oC&pg=PA205">9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA186_186]-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA186_186]_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA186_186]_99-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186">186</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_141]_100-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNakamura1993">Nakamura 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431">141</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA88_88]_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA88_88]_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88">88</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA89_89]-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA89_89]_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA89_89]_104-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">89</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA299_299]_105-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299">299</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA91_91]_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91">91</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA92_92]_107-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92">92</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA267_267]_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA267">267</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA61_61]_110-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">61</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA163_163]-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA163_163]_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA163_163]_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163">163</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA162_162]-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA162_162]_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA162_162]_112-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA164_164]-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA164_164]_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA164_164]_113-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164">164</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]_114-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]_114-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA114_114]_114-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114">114</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA109_109]_115-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">109</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA108_108]-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA108_108]_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA108_108]_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108">108</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">75</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]_119-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">62</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]_120-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA63_63]_120-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63">63</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA106_106]-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA106_106]_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA106_106]_121-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA106">106</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110">110</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryceBirkett-Rees2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgDAFDAAAQBAJpgPA282_282]-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryceBirkett-Rees2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgDAFDAAAQBAJpgPA282_282]_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryceBirkett-Rees2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgDAFDAAAQBAJpgPA282_282]_123-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryceBirkett-Rees2016">Bryce & Birkett-Rees 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDAFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282">282</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA178_178]-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA178_178]_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA178">178</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA113_113]-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA113_113]_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA113_113]_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113">113</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA190_190]_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190">190</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA204_204]-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA204_204]_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA204_204]_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA204">204</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXno9AgAAQBAJpgPA304_304]_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA304">304</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA122_122]_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA122">122</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE5yCAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2003">Young 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA205_205]-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA205_205]_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA205_205]_131-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA205">205</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]_132-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]_132-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA64_64]_132-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA117_117]-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA117_117]_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA117_117]_133-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA117">117</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]_134-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]_134-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]_134-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA86_86]_134-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA86">86</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA66_66]-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA66_66]_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">66</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_135]-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1993[httpgrbslibrarydukeeduarticleview3431_135]_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNakamura1993">Nakamura 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431">135</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]_137-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA335_335]_137-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA335">335</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA95_95]-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA95_95]_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA95_95]_138-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA95">95</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA96_96]_139-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA96">96</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneider199319-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneider199319_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchneider1993">Schneider 1993</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]_141-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA336_336]_141-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA336">336</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA337_337]-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA337_337]_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidy6IaBQAAQBAJpgPA337_337]_142-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA337">337</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowersock1984[httpquodlibumichedubbasp05997960021001384pagerootsize100viewimage_32]_143-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowersock1984">Bowersock 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/b/basp/0599796.0021.001/38:4?page=root;size=100;view=image">32</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ig4uQC20_ICpgPA195_195]-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnall2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5ig4uQC20_ICpgPA195_195]_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagnall2004">Bagnall 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ig4uQC20_IC&pg=PA195">195</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock198431,_32-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowersock198431,_32_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowersock1984">Bowersock 1984</a>, pp. 31, 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq147_123]-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq147_123]_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacurdy1937">Macurdy 1937</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015019188914;view=1up;seq=147">123</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButcher2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYJPn3-rRjC0CpgPA345_345]_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFButcher2003">Butcher 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA345">345</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA489_489]-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhblTDAAAQBAJpgPA489_489]_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall2016">Ball 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hblTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA489">489</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA98_98]-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIntagliata2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidl6RTDwAAQBAJpgPA98_98]_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIntagliata2018">Intagliata 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l6RTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">98</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]_150-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]_150-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA217_217]_150-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA217">217</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA220_220]_151-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA220">220</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA244_1]-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA244_1]_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDFLqCQAAQBAJpgPA244_1]_152-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1971">Millar 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DFLqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244">1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1949[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofchurch0001philpage134mode2upviewtheater_134]-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1949[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofchurch0001philpage134mode2upviewtheater_134]_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHughes1949">Hughes 1949</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchurch0001phil/page/134/mode/2up?view=theater">134</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacquarrie2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsstubborntheologi0000macqpage149_149]-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacquarrie2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsstubborntheologi0000macqpage149_149]_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacquarrie2003">Macquarrie 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stubborntheologi0000macq/page/149">149</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA312_312]-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA312_312]_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowney2015">Downey 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA312">312</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA149_149],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA151_151]-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA149_149],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA151_151]_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA149">149</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA151">151</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]_158-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeixidor2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA218_218]_158-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeixidor2005">Teixidor 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA218">218</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]_159-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA532_532]_159-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmallwood1976">Smallwood 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FdQUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA532">532</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA517_517]_160-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmallwood1976">Smallwood 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&pg=PA517">517</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA518_518]-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjSYbpitEjggCpgPA518_518]_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmallwood1976">Smallwood 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&pg=PA518">518</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA330_330]-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA330_330]_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA330">330</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOClDBJfW79QCpgPA125_125]-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusner2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOClDBJfW79QCpgPA125_125]_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusner2010">Neusner 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OClDBJfW79QC&pg=PA125">125</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA533_533]-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmallwood1976[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidFdQUAAAAIAAJpgPA533_533]_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmallwood1976">Smallwood 1976</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FdQUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA533">533</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraetz2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpnMtoAjig7wCpgPA529_529]-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraetz2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpnMtoAjig7wCpgPA529_529]_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGraetz2009">Graetz 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnMtoAjig7wC&pg=PA529">529</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA122_122]_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA122">122</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith_II2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidh5cMho6zFckCpgPA127_127]_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith_II2013">Smith II 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA127">127</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESivertsev2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidOfWUkVoHP7YCpgPA72_72]_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSivertsev2002">Sivertsev 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OfWUkVoHP7YC&pg=PA72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA384_384]-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA384_384]_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA384_384]_169-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA384">384</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA117_117]-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA117_117]_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA117">117</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA257_257]-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA257_257]_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7HKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA257">257</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbpd3tBPN4v8CpgPA171_171]-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbpd3tBPN4v8CpgPA171_171]_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bpd3tBPN4v8C&pg=PA171">171</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA87_87],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA87_87],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA87">87</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA88">88</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA88_88]_174-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA88">88</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA115_115]-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA115_115]_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA115_115]_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA115">115</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA169_169]-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA169_169]_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA169">169</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_178-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_179-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_179-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_179-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA118_118]_179-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA118">118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA68_68]-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA68_68]_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA68_68]_180-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">68</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA210_210]-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA210_210]_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA210_210]_181-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G9qqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA210">210</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA211_211]-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidG9qqBgAAQBAJpgPA211_211]_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndo2012">Ando 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G9qqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA211">211</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrinkwater2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMNSyT_PuYVMCpgPA52_52]_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrinkwater2005">Drinkwater 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA52">52</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA69_69]_184-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">69</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA161_161]-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDignasWinter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMG2hqcRDvJgCpgPA161_161]_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDignasWinter2007">Dignas & Winter 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA161">161</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA169_169]-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA169_169]_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA169_169]_186-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2p9hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA169">169</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA120_120]_187-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA120">120</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA266_266]-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7HKFAgAAQBAJpgPA266_266]_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7HKFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266">266</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA121_121]-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA121_121]_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA121_121]_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA121">121</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA359_359]-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA359_359]_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA359">359</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA170_170]-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA170_170]_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2p9hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170">170</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA133_133]-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA133_133]_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA133_133]_192-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133">133</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71]-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71]_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71]_193-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71">71</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA72_72]-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA71_71],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA72_72]_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71">71</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA368_268]-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA368_268]_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA368_268]_195-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA368">268</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA73_73]_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">73</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA74_74]_197-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">74</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA137_137]-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA137_137]_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA137">137</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_199-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_199-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA75_75]_199-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">75</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_200-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA133_133]-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowers2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidA7joBeDsajcCpgPA133_133]_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPowers2010">Powers 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7joBeDsajcC&pg=PA133">133</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA143_143]-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA143_143]_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA143">143</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]_203-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA144_144]_203-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA144">144</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA145_145]-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA145_145]_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA145_145]_204-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145">145</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA267_267]-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowney2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgTTWCgAAQBAJpgPA267_267]_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDowney2015">Downey 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA267">267</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]_208-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA146_146]_208-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146">146</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79">79</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84">84</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]_210-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]_210-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA156_156]_210-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA156">156</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumitru2016261-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumitru2016261_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDumitru2016">Dumitru 2016</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79]-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA79_79]_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79">79</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]_213-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA159_159]_213-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA83_83]-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA83_83]_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">83</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]_215-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA160_160]_215-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA160">160</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA317_317]-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA317_317]_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidq8Z7AgAAQBAJpgPA317_317]_216-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBryce2014">Bryce 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA317">317</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanchichLane2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8_CBAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanchichLane2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8_CBAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanchichLane2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8_CBAgAAQBAJpgPA60_60]_217-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBanchichLane2009">Banchich & Lane 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8_CBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA171_171]-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA171_171]_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2p9hCQAAQBAJpgPA171_171]_218-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2015">Southern 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2p9hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA171">171</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA121_121]-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA121_121]_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA121_121]_219-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA121">121</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA178_178]-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA178_178]_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA178">178</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA67_67]_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter1996274-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter1996274_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter1996">Potter 1996</a>, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA172_172]-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar1993[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIA-YlZqHv90CpgPA172_172]_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar1993">Millar 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA172">172</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA118_118]-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA118_118]_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA118_118]_224-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA118">118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECussini2012161-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECussini2012161_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCussini2012">Cussini 2012</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnaniMior2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddiolDwAAQBAJpgPA106_106]-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagnaniMior2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddiolDwAAQBAJpgPA106_106]_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagnaniMior2017">Magnani & Mior 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=diolDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106">106</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECussini2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA27_27]-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECussini2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA27_27]_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECussini2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidoZcr7SzzVYYCpgPA27_27]_227-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCussini2005">Cussini 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA27">27</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBland2011[httpswwwacademiaedu2525613_The_coinage_of_Vabalathus_and_Zenobia_from_Antioch_and_Alexandria_Numismatic_Chronicle_171_2011_133]-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBland2011[httpswwwacademiaedu2525613_The_coinage_of_Vabalathus_and_Zenobia_from_Antioch_and_Alexandria_Numismatic_Chronicle_171_2011_133]_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBland2011">Bland 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2525613/_The_coinage_of_Vabalathus_and_Zenobia_from_Antioch_and_Alexandria_Numismatic_Chronicle_171_2011">133</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDodgeonLieu2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3gGKAgAAQBAJpgPA77_77]_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002">Dodgeon & Lieu 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77">77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]_231-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacurdy1937[httpsbabelhathitrustorgcgiptidmdp39015019188914view1upseq137_113]_231-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacurdy1937">Macurdy 1937</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015019188914;view=1up;seq=137">113</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright1895[httpsarchiveorgdetailsaccountofpalmyra00wrigialapage145mode1up_145]-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright1895[httpsarchiveorgdetailsaccountofpalmyra00wrigialapage145mode1up_145]_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright1895">Wright 1895</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/accountofpalmyra00wrigiala/page/145/mode/1up">145</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA111_111]-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA111_111]_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA111">111</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA9_9]-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA9_9]_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhGuGAgAAQBAJpgPT585_85]-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhGuGAgAAQBAJpgPT585_85]_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2014">Potter 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hGuGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT585">85</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmLhwDwAAQBAJpgPA121_121]-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmLhwDwAAQBAJpgPA121_121]_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrade2018">Andrade 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mLhwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121">121</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA5_5]-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA5_5]_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA81_81]_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">81</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA10_10]-239"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA10_10]_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10">10</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA174_174]-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA174_174]_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA174">174</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA187_187]-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA187_187]_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA187">187</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA84_84]_242-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84">84</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002436-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornelison2002436_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCornelison2002">Cornelison 2002</a>, p. 436. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002441-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornelison2002441_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCornelison2002">Cornelison 2002</a>, p. 441. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECornelison2002440-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECornelison2002440_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCornelison2002">Cornelison 2002</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA87_87]-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA87_87]_246-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA87">87</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA88_88]-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA88_88]_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA88_88]_247-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88">88</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESlatkin2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomenartistsinhi00slat_144]-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlatkin2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailswomenartistsinhi00slat_144]_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSlatkin2001">Slatkin 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womenartistsinhi00slat">144</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnr9Ivt-pc0ICpgPA239_239]-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBooth2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnr9Ivt-pc0ICpgPA239_239]_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBooth2011">Booth 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nr9Ivt-pc0IC&pg=PA239">239</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]_250-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]_250-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahner2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddBIoBgAAQBAJpgPT153_134]_250-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSahner2014">Sahner 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dBIoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153">134</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA66_66]-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA66_66]_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2013">Choueiri 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zUJFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">66</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIggersWangMukherjee2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAXXaAAAAQBAJpgPA94_94]-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIggersWangMukherjee2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAXXaAAAAQBAJpgPA94_94]_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIggersWangMukherjee2013">Iggers, Wang & Mukherjee 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AXXaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94">94</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu-Manneh1992[httpsbooksgooglecombookshlnlid5Z66AAAAIAAJdq_22]-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbu-Manneh1992[httpsbooksgooglecombookshlnlid5Z66AAAAIAAJdq_22]_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbu-Manneh1992">Abu-Manneh 1992</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=nl&id=5Z66AAAAIAAJ&dq">22</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA226_226]-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA226_226]_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2013">Choueiri 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aUJFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA226">226</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA51_51]-255">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA51_51]_255-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA51_51]_255-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2013">Choueiri 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zUJFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51">51</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJ3PsAb1uV94CpgPA14_14]-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJ3PsAb1uV94CpgPA14_14]_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPipes1992">Pipes 1992</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J3PsAb1uV94C&pg=PA14">14</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA57_57]-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA57_57]_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzUJFAQAAQBAJpgPA57_57]_257-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2013">Choueiri 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zUJFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">57</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">16</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartre2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartre2005">Sartre 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">16</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA10_10]-260">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA10_10]_260-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA10_10]_260-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA10">10</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA11_11]-261">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA11_11]_261-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDqMrR29Cc7MCpgPA11_11]_261-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA11">11</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA85_85]_262-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA86_86]-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkJ2JAgAAQBAJpgPA86_86]_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2004">Watson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">86</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]_264-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]_264-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT79_79]_264-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser2011">Fraser 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iW5VS9G6unUC&pg=PT79">79</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPfLzXKeVKzECpgPA8_8]-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidPfLzXKeVKzECpgPA8_8]_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly2004">Kelly 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PfLzXKeVKzEC&pg=PA8">8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmKLWDwAAQBAJpgPA155_155]-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmKLWDwAAQBAJpgPA155_155]_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2020">Palmer 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mKLWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155">155</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodman1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidI4U4AAAAIAAJpgPA272_272]-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodman1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidI4U4AAAAIAAJpgPA272_272]_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGodman1985">Godman 1985</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I4U4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA272">272</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintero2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1u0FDAAAQBAJpgPA52_52]-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuintero2016[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1u0FDAAAQBAJpgPA52_52]_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuintero2016">Quintero 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1u0FDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">52</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA198_198]-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA198_198]_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA198">198</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuwe201230-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuwe201230_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRuwe2012">Ruwe 2012</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA472_472]-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA472_472]_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA472">472</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidecfiAAAAQBAJpgPA16_16]_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">16</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]-273">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]_273-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]_273-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]_273-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA15_15]_273-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">15</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA200_200]-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneman2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8kLFfE1qPhICpgPA200_200]_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStoneman2003">Stoneman 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA200">200</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA14_14]-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouthern2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwnTOBAAAQBAJpgPA14_14]_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouthern2008">Southern 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">14</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacy2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0zthpCZuAUCpgPA472_472]-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacy2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidN0zthpCZuAUCpgPA472_472]_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacy2008">Macy 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N0zthpCZuAUC&pg=PA472">472</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansell1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidap8JAQAAMAAJq_108]-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansell1968[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidap8JAQAAMAAJq_108]_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHansell1968">Hansell 1968</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8JAQAAMAAJ&q">108</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmcEiihJ5p9MCpgPA254_254]-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallo2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmcEiihJ5p9MCpgPA254_254]_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGallo2012">Gallo 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcEiihJ5p9MC&pg=PA254">254</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA473_473]-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmann2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBdcHK8Ll1jMCpgPA473_473]_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartmann2001">Hartmann 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdcHK8Ll1jMC&pg=PA473">473</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT86_86]-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidiW5VS9G6unUCpgPT86_86]_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser2011">Fraser 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iW5VS9G6unUC&pg=PT86">86</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH1W8BQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDear2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH1W8BQAAQBAJpgPT118_118]_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDear2014">Dear 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1W8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PT118">118</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAliksān1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnuMLAAAAIAAJq_112]-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAliksān1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnuMLAAAAIAAJq_112]_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAliksān1989">Aliksān 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nuMLAAAAIAAJ&q">112</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6ReFDAAAQBAJpgPA59_59]-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6ReFDAAAQBAJpgPA59_59]_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2006">Wood 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ReFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59">59</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallo20121-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallo20121_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGallo2012">Gallo 2012</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px 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.cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAniplex_USA2023" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Aniplex USA (2023-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2toWE7UL7u8">Fate/Grand Order - Zenobia Servant Introduction</a>. Retrieved 2024-09-26 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fate%2FGrand+Order+-+Zenobia+Servant+Introduction&rft.date=2023-10-12&rft.au=Aniplex+USA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D2toWE7UL7u8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: General and cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbu-Manneh1992" class="citation book cs1">Abu-Manneh, Butrus (1992). "The Establishment and dismantling of the province of Syria, 1865–1888". In Spagnolo, John P. (ed.). Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective: essays in honour of Albert Hourani. Ithaca Press (for the Middle East Centre, St. Antony's College Oxford). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86372-164-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86372-164-9"><bdi>978-0-86372-164-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Establishment+and+dismantling+of+the+province+of+Syria%2C+1865%E2%80%931888&rft.btitle=Problems+of+the+modern+Middle+East+in+historical+perspective%3A+essays+in+honour+of+Albert+Hourani&rft.pub=Ithaca+Press+%28for+the+Middle+East+Centre%2C+St.+Antony%27s+College+Oxford%29&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-86372-164-9&rft.aulast=Abu-Manneh&rft.aufirst=Butrus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAliksān1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Aliksān, Jān (1989). التشخيص والمنصة: دراسات في المسرح العربي المعاصر [Platform Diagnosis: Studies in Contemporary Arab Theater] (in Arabic). اتحاد الكتاب العرب (Arab Writers Union). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4771160319">4771160319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B5+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%A9%3A+%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1&rft.pub=%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8+%28Arab+Writers+Union%29&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4771160319&rft.aulast=Aliks%C4%81n&rft.aufirst=J%C4%81n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndo2012" class="citation book cs1">Ando, Clifford (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-5534-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-5534-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-5534-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Rome+AD+193+to+284%3A+The+Critical+Century&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-5534-2&rft.aulast=Ando&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2013" class="citation book cs1">Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01205-9"><bdi>978-1-107-01205-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syrian+Identity+in+the+Greco-Roman+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01205-9&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Nathanael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2018" class="citation book cs1">Andrade, Nathanael J. (2018). Zenobia: Shooting Star of Palmyra. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-190-63881-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-190-63881-8"><bdi>978-0-190-63881-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zenobia%3A+Shooting+Star+of+Palmyra&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-190-63881-8&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Nathanael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBagnall2004" class="citation book cs1">Bagnall, Roger S. (2004). Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Getty Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-796-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-796-2"><bdi>978-0-89236-796-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+from+Alexander+to+the+Early+Christians%3A+An+Archaeological+and+Historical+Guide&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-89236-796-2&rft.aulast=Bagnall&rft.aufirst=Roger+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBall2002" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-82387-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-82387-1"><bdi>978-1-134-82387-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+East%3A+The+Transformation+of+an+Empire&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-82387-1&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBall2016" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Warwick (2016). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire (2 ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29635-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29635-5"><bdi>978-1-317-29635-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+East%3A+The+Transformation+of+an+Empire&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-29635-5&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBanchichLane2009" class="citation book cs1">Banchich, Thomas; Lane, Eugene (2009). The History of Zonaras: From Alexander Severus to the Death of Theodosius the Great. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-42473-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-42473-3"><bdi>978-1-134-42473-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Zonaras%3A+From+Alexander+Severus+to+the+Death+of+Theodosius+the+Great&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-134-42473-3&rft.aulast=Banchich&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Lane%2C+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBennett2003" class="citation journal cs1">Bennett, Chris (2003). "Drusilla Regina". The Classical Quarterly. (New Series). 53 (1). Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association: 315–319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcq%2F53.1.315">10.1093/cq/53.1.315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-8388">0009-8388</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Drusilla+Regina&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E319&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcq%2F53.1.315&rft.issn=0009-8388&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBland2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bland, Roger (2011). "The Coinage of Vabalathus and Zenobia from Antioch and Alexandria". The Numismatic Chronicle. 171. The Royal Numismatic Society. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2054-9202">2054-9202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Numismatic+Chronicle&rft.atitle=The+Coinage+of+Vabalathus+and+Zenobia+from+Antioch+and+Alexandria&rft.volume=171&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=2054-9202&rft.aulast=Bland&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBooth2011" class="citation book cs1">Booth, Marilyn (2011). "Constructions of Syrian identity in the Women's press in Egypt". In Beshara, Adel (ed.). The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers and Identity. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-61504-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-61504-4"><bdi>978-0-415-61504-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constructions+of+Syrian+identity+in+the+Women%27s+press+in+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Syrian+Nationhood%3A+Histories%2C+Pioneers+and+Identity&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-61504-4&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowersock1984" class="citation journal cs1">Bowersock, Glen Warren (1984). "The Miracle of Memnon". Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists. 21. The American Society of Papyrologists. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1186">0003-1186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Society+of+Papyrologists&rft.atitle=The+Miracle+of+Memnon&rft.volume=21&rft.date=1984&rft.issn=0003-1186&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=Glen+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrauer1975" class="citation book cs1">Brauer, George C. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofsoldierem00brau">The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284</a>. Noyes Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8155-5036-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8155-5036-5"><bdi>978-0-8155-5036-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Soldier+Emperors%3A+Imperial+Rome%2C+A.D.+244%E2%80%93284&rft.pub=Noyes+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-8155-5036-5&rft.aulast=Brauer&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofsoldierem00brau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBray1997" class="citation book cs1">Bray, John Jefferson (1997). Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics. Wakefield Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86254-337-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86254-337-9"><bdi>978-1-86254-337-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gallienus%3A+A+Study+in+Reformist+and+Sexual+Politics&rft.pub=Wakefield+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-86254-337-9&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=John+Jefferson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBryce2014" class="citation book cs1">Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2"><bdi>978-0-19-100292-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Syria%3A+A+Three+Thousand+Year+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100292-2&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBryceBirkett-Rees2016" class="citation book cs1">Bryce, Trevor; Birkett-Rees, Jessie (2016). Atlas of the Ancient Near East: From Prehistoric Times to the Roman Imperial Period. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-56210-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-56210-8"><bdi>978-1-317-56210-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+From+Prehistoric+Times+to+the+Roman+Imperial+Period&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-56210-8&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft.au=Birkett-Rees%2C+Jessie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Burstein, Stanley Mayer (2007) [2004]. The Reign of Cleopatra. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3871-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3871-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-3871-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reign+of+Cleopatra&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3871-8&rft.aulast=Burstein&rft.aufirst=Stanley+Mayer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButcher2003" class="citation book cs1">Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-715-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-715-3"><bdi>978-0-89236-715-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Syria+and+the+Near+East&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-89236-715-3&rft.aulast=Butcher&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChoueiri2013" class="citation book cs1">Choueiri, Youssef (2013) [1989]. Modern Arab Historiography: Historical Discourse and the Nation-State (revised ed.). 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Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00438-778-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00438-778-2"><bdi>978-9-00438-778-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=West+Semitic+Personal+Names+in+the+Mura%C5%A1%C3%BB+Documents&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-9-00438-778-2&rft.aulast=Coogan&rft.aufirst=Michael+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCornelison2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cornelison, Sally J. 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Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06659-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06659-4"><bdi>978-3-447-06659-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2193-4436">2193-4436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Women+Say+and+Do+%28in+Aramaic+Documents%29&rft.btitle=Leggo%21+Studies+Presented+to+Frederick+Mario+Fales+on+the+Occasion+of+His+65th+Birthday&rft.series=Leipziger+Altorientalistische+Studien&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=2193-4436&rft.isbn=978-3-447-06659-4&rft.aulast=Cussini&rft.aufirst=Eleonora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F21959354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDear2014" class="citation book cs1">Dear, Nick (2014). 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The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300003">10.2307/300003</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300003">300003</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/58727367">58727367</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154833601">154833601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Paul+of+Samosata%2C+Zenobia+and+Aurelian%3A+the+Church%2C+Local+Culture+and+Political+Allegiance+in+Third-Century+Syria&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E17&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F58727367&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154833601%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300003%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300003&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Firgus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillar1993" class="citation book cs1">Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-77886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-77886-3"><bdi>978-0-674-77886-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Near+East%2C+31+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+337&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-674-77886-3&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNakamura1993" class="citation journal cs1">Nakamura, Byron (1993). "Palmyra and the Roman East". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 34. Duke University, Department of Classical Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-3916">0017-3916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greek%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=Palmyra+and+the+Roman+East&rft.volume=34&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0017-3916&rft.aulast=Nakamura&rft.aufirst=Byron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2010" class="citation book cs1">Neusner, Jacob (2010). Narrative and Document in the Rabbinic Canon: The Two Talmuds. Vol. 2. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5211-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5211-7"><bdi>978-0-7618-5211-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+and+Document+in+the+Rabbinic+Canon%3A+The+Two+Talmuds&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-5211-7&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2020" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Allison Lee (2020) [2011]. Historical Dictionary of Neoclassical Art and Architecture (2 ed.). 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Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536304-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536304-3"><bdi>978-0-19-536304-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+Syria%3A+The+History+of+an+Ambition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-536304-3&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPotter1996" class="citation journal cs1">Potter, David S. (1996). "Palmyra and Rome: Odaenathus' Titulature and the Use of the Imperium Maius". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 113. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-69477-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-69477-8"><bdi>978-1-134-69477-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+at+Bay%2C+AD+180%E2%80%93395&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-69477-8&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPowers2010" class="citation book cs1">Powers, David S. (2010). "Demonizing Zenobia: The legend of al-Zabbā in Islamic Sources". In Roxani, Eleni Margariti; Sabra, Adam; Sijpesteijn, Petra (eds.). Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch. 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I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-564-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-564-8"><bdi>978-1-78076-564-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+and+Culture+of+an+Umayyad+Tribe%3A+Conflict+and+Factionalism+in+the+Early+Islamic+Period&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78076-564-8&rft.aulast=Rihan&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRuwe2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ruwe, Donelle (2012). "Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra: Adelaide O'Keeffe, the Jewish Conversion Novel, and the Limits of Rational Education". Eighteenth-Century Life. 36 (1). 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Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-214-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-214-5"><bdi>978-0-88402-214-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Arabs+in+the+Sixth+Century+%28Part1%3A+Political+and+Military+History%29&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-214-5&rft.aulast=Shah%C3%AEd&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSivertsev2002" class="citation book cs1">Sivertsev, Alexei (2002). Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism. Vol. 90. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-147780-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-147780-5"><bdi>978-3-16-147780-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Private+Households+and+Public+Politics+in+3rd%E2%80%935th+Century+Jewish+Palestine&rft.series=Texts+and+Studies+in+Ancient+Judaism&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-16-147780-5&rft.aulast=Sivertsev&rft.aufirst=Alexei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSlatkin2001" class="citation book cs1">Slatkin, Wendy (2001) [1985]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womenartistsinhi00slat">Women Artists in History: From Antiquity to the Present</a> (4 ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-027319-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-027319-2"><bdi>978-0-13-027319-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+Artists+in+History%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-13-027319-2&rft.aulast=Slatkin&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomenartistsinhi00slat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmallwood1976" class="citation book cs1">Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04491-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-04491-3"><bdi>978-90-04-04491-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+Under+Roman+Rule%3A+From+Pompey+to+Diocletian&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-90-04-04491-3&rft.aulast=Smallwood&rft.aufirst=E.+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith_II2013" class="citation book cs1">Smith II, Andrew M. (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-986110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-986110-1"><bdi>978-0-19-986110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Palmyra%3A+Identity%2C+Community%2C+and+State+Formation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-986110-1&rft.aulast=Smith+II&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2008" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Patricia (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4248-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4248-1"><bdi>978-1-4411-4248-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empress+Zenobia%3A+Palmyra%27s+Rebel+Queen&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4248-1&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2015" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Patricia (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49694-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49694-6"><bdi>978-1-317-49694-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+from+Severus+to+Constantine&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-49694-6&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStark1971" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Jürgen Kurt (1971). Personal Names in Palmyrene Inscriptions. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-15443-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-15443-3"><bdi>978-0-198-15443-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Names+in+Palmyrene+Inscriptions&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-198-15443-3&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen+Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStoneman2003" class="citation book cs1">Stoneman, Richard (2003) [1992]. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08315-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08315-2"><bdi>978-0-472-08315-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyra+and+Its+Empire%3A+Zenobia%27s+Revolt+Against+Rome&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08315-2&rft.aulast=Stoneman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeixidor2005" class="citation book cs1">Teixidor, Javier (2005). "Palmyra in the third century". In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12418-9"><bdi>978-90-04-12418-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palmyra+in+the+third+century&rft.btitle=A+Journey+to+Palmyra%3A+Collected+Essays+to+Remember+Delbert+R.+Hillers&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12418-9&rft.aulast=Teixidor&rft.aufirst=Javier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVervaet2007" class="citation book cs1">Vervaet, Frederik J. (2007). "The Reappearance of the Supra-Provincial Commands in the Late Second and Early Third Centuries C.E.: Constitutional and Historical Considerations". In Hekster, Olivier; De Kleijn, Gerda; Slootjes, Daniëlle (eds.). Crises and the Roman Empire: Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire, Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006. Vol. 7. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16050-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16050-7"><bdi>978-90-04-16050-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Reappearance+of+the+Supra-Provincial+Commands+in+the+Late+Second+and+Early+Third+Centuries+C.E.%3A+Constitutional+and+Historical+Considerations&rft.btitle=Crises+and+the+Roman+Empire%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Seventh+Workshop+of+the+International+Network+Impact+of+Empire%2C+Nijmegen%2C+June+20%E2%80%9324%2C+2006&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16050-7&rft.aulast=Vervaet&rft.aufirst=Frederik+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2004" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Alaric (2004) [1999]. Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90815-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90815-8"><bdi>978-1-134-90815-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aurelian+and+the+Third+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-134-90815-8&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Alaric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeldon2008" class="citation book cs1">Weldon, Roberta (2008). Hawthorne, Gender, and Death: Christianity and Its Discontents. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61208-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61208-2"><bdi>978-0-230-61208-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hawthorne%2C+Gender%2C+and+Death%3A+Christianity+and+Its+Discontents&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61208-2&rft.aulast=Weldon&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2006" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Mary P. (2006). "From Bust to Boom: Women and Representations of Prosperity in Italian Cinema of the Late 1940s and 1950s". In Morris, Penelope (ed.). Women in Italy, 1945–1960: An Interdisciplinary Study. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60143-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60143-7"><bdi>978-0-230-60143-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Bust+to+Boom%3A+Women+and+Representations+of+Prosperity+in+Italian+Cinema+of+the+Late+1940s+and+1950s&rft.btitle=Women+in+Italy%2C+1945%E2%80%931960%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Study&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-230-60143-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Mary+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoung2003" class="citation book cs1">Young, Gary K. (2003). Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54793-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-54793-7"><bdi>978-1-134-54793-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+Eastern+Trade%3A+International+Commerce+and+Imperial+Policy+31+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+305&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-134-54793-7&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Gary+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWright1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Wright_(missionary)" title="William Wright (missionary)">Wright, William</a> (1895). An account of Palmyra and Zenobia, with travels and adventures in Bashan and the desert. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nelson_and_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Nelson and Sons">Thomas Nelson and Sons</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+account+of+Palmyra+and+Zenobia%2C+with+travels+and+adventures+in+Bashan+and+the+desert&rft.pub=Thomas+Nelson+and+Sons&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurgersdijk2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Burgersdijk, Diederik, ed. (2008). Zenobia van Palmyra. Vorstin Tussen Europese en Arabische Traditie. Armada: Tijdschrift voor Wereldliteratuur (in Dutch). Vol. 53. Uitgeverij Wereldbibliotheek. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-028-42256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-028-42256-8"><bdi>978-9-028-42256-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zenobia+van+Palmyra.+Vorstin+Tussen+Europese+en+Arabische+Traditie&rft.series=Armada%3A+Tijdschrift+voor+Wereldliteratuur&rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Wereldbibliotheek&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9-028-42256-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoltering2014" class="citation journal cs1">Woltering, Robbert A.F.L (2014). "Zenobia or al-Zabbāʾ: The Modern Arab Literary Reception of the Palmyran Protagonist". Middle Eastern Literatures. 17 (1). Routledge: 25–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1475262X.2014.903047">10.1080/1475262X.2014.903047</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-262X">1475-262X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162487602">162487602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Literatures&rft.atitle=Zenobia+or+al-Zabb%C4%81%CA%BE%3A+The+Modern+Arab+Literary+Reception+of+the+Palmyran+Protagonist&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162487602%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1475-262X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1475262X.2014.903047&rft.aulast=Woltering&rft.aufirst=Robbert+A.F.L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Zenobia at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ζηνοβία">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" class="extiw" title="c:Zenobia">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Zenobia" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Zenobia">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/zenobia.htm">Vaballathus and Zenobia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/paa-pam/palmyra/zenobia.html">Zenobia: empress of Palmyra (267–272)</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014174446/http://www.livius.org/paa-pam/palmyra/zenobia.html">Archived</a> 2012-10-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_ancient_Near_East125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/ dates <a href="#cite_note-286">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[5]</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/60px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/120px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/120px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/250px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a> (<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a> (Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/40px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/60px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/120px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a> (Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>) Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a> Animal <a href="/wiki/Stork_(pharaoh)" title="Stork (pharaoh)">Stork</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canide_(pharaoh)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canide (pharaoh) (page does not exist)">Canide</a> <a href="/wiki/Taurus_(ruler)" title="Taurus (ruler)">Bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a> <a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(pharaoh)" title="Horus Bird (pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_(period)" title="Proto-Elamite (period)">Proto-Elamite period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>) (3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(pharaoh)" title="Nebra (pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a> <a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a> <a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/40px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>, <a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a> <a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a> <a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Meshkiangasher" title="Meshkiangasher">Meshkiangasher</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>") </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a> <a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<a href="#cite_note-SKL-291">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/40px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/60px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a> (2700–1500 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Indo-Mesopotamia_relations" title="Indo-Mesopotamia relations">Indo-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a> (First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty (5 kings) <a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a> <a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal- shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a> <a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/40px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>) <a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesh-he" title="Mesh-he">Mesh-he</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-ana" title="Melem-ana">Melem-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/60px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/120px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a> "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500–539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a> <a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/40px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3">Kish III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha- kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/40px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a> <a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a> <a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a> <a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions (3 kings)<a href="#cite_note-SKL-291">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun-Tarana</a> <a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napi-Ilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/40px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a> (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a> <a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a> <a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a> <a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a> <a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a> <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a> <a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a> <a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty Nanni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kikku-Siwe-Temti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-Anne-Mundu" title="Lugal-Anne-Mundu">Lugal-Anne-Mundu</a> "King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<a href="#cite_note-SKL-291">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugal-zage-si</a> (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Akkadian Governors: <a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a> (vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6">Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a> dynasty) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a> (vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"> <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years) <a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-ratep" title="Hishep-ratep">Hishep-ratep</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_(9th_dynasty)" title="Neferkare (9th dynasty)">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/40px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/60px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a> (21 kings) <a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a> <a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a> (vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merikare</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty <a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a> (vassals of Ur III)<a href="#cite_note-292">[7]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a> "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025–1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions <a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a> Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/40px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a> (...) Lim Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Ishtar" title="Lipit-Ishtar">Lipit-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a> Dynasty of Larsa: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a> Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>) <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>) (Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a> 1700–722 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> ("Old Babylonian Period") (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Muballit" title="Sin-Muballit">Sin-Muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-Eshuh" title="Abi-Eshuh">Abi-Eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-Ditana" title="Ammi-Ditana">Ammi-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-Saduqa" title="Ammi-Saduqa">Ammi-Saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Second Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>") <a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">mDIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a> <a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos Dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>") <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a> <a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi" title="Apepi">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (1600–1260 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Baratarna" title="Baratarna">Baratarna</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Agum_II" title="Agum II">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_I" title="Kadashman-Harbe I">Kadashman-Harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burna-Buriash_II" title="Burna-Buriash II">Burna-Buriash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_IV" title="Kashtiliash IV">Kashtiliash IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> (1500–1100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Kidinuid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Igehalkid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> (1450–1180 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Suppiluliuma_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppiluliuma I">Suppiluliuma I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mursili_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mursili II">Mursili II</a> <a href="/wiki/Muwatalli_II" title="Muwatalli II">Muwatalli II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mursili_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Mursili III">Mursili III</a> <a href="/wiki/Hattusili_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattusili III">Hattusili III</a> <a href="/wiki/Tudhaliya_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudhaliya IV">Tudhaliya IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Suppiluliuma_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppiluliuma II">Suppiluliuma II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> (vassal of Hittites) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Tausret" title="Tausret">Tausret</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a> <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> <a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tabal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>") <a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") <a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Eight Babylonian Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Elamite_kings" title="List of Elamite kings">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a> <a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_I" title="Tammaritu I">Tammaritu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>") <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>) <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>† <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" title="Arses of Persia">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Ceraunus" title="Ptolemy Ceraunus">Ptolemy Ceraunus</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II of Egypt">Berenice II Euergetis</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III of Egypt">Arsinoe III Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II" title="Cleopatra II">Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III" title="Cleopatra III">Cleopatra III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV" title="Cleopatra IV">Cleopatra IV</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III" title="Berenice III">Berenice III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI" title="Cleopatra VI">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV" title="Berenice IV">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIV Philopator">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11">Hellenistic Period <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II" title="Gotarzes II">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/120px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zenobia</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahralanyozan" title="Shahralanyozan">Shahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/40px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_ancient_Central_Asia" title="Template:Rulers of ancient Central Asia">Rulers of ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, William W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, William Kelly</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientneareasth0000hall/page/48/mode/2up">The Ancient Near East: A History</a>. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-502755-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-502755-8"><bdi>978-0-15-502755-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-15-502755-8&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+William+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientneareasth0000hall%2Fpage%2F48%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CDLI%3Awiki&rft.atitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a>, eds. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</a>. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=The+J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534">Ancient Iraq</a>. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.place=London&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-291">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_291-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_291-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_291-2">c</a> Per the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</a>. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZenobia" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Syria&#124;link=Syria_Palmyra190" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Palmyra" title="Template:Palmyra"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Palmyra" title="Template talk:Palmyra"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Palmyra" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Palmyra"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Syria&#124;link=Syria_Palmyra190" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel" title="Temple of Bel">Temple of Bel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Baalshamin" title="Temple of Baalshamin">Temple of Baalshamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Al-Lat" title="Temple of Al-Lat">Temple of Al-Lat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Colonnade_at_Palmyra" title="Great Colonnade at Palmyra">Great Colonnade at Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Palmyra" title="Roman Theatre at Palmyra">Roman Theatre at Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Tombs" title="Valley of the Tombs">Valley of the Tombs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Elahbel" title="Tower of Elahbel">Tower of Elahbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_of_Diocletian" title="Camp of Diocletian">Camp of Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canalizations_of_Zenobia" title="Canalizations of Zenobia">Canalizations of Zenobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra_Castle" title="Palmyra Castle">Palmyra Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_Arch_of_Palmyra" title="Monumental Arch of Palmyra">Monumental Arch of Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbaqa_Dam" title="Harbaqa Dam">Harbaqa Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Palmyra" title="Walls of Palmyra">Walls of Palmyra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zenobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairan_I" title="Hairan I">Hairan I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Septimius Antiochus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Komare" title="Bene Komare">Bene Komare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Ma%27zin" title="Bene Ma'zin">Bene Ma'zin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maeonius" title="Maeonius">Maeonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairan_II" title="Hairan II">Hairan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Worod" title="Septimius Worod">Septimius Worod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabdas" title="Zabdas">Zabdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Zabbai" title="Septimius Zabbai">Septimius Zabbai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Haddudan" title="Septimius Haddudan">Septimius Haddudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_funerary_reliefs" title="Palmyrene funerary reliefs">Palmyrene funerary reliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Al-l%C4%81t" title="Lion of Al-lāt">Lion of Al-lāt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum_of_Yarhai" title="Hypogeum of Yarhai">Hypogeum of Yarhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Odaenathus" title="Portraits of Odaenathus">Portraits of Odaenathus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene dialect">Palmyrene dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_(Unicode_block)" title="Palmyrene (Unicode block)">Palmyrene (Unicode block)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malakbel" title="Malakbel">Malakbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aglibol" title="Aglibol">Aglibol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarhibol" title="Yarhibol">Yarhibol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Fadl" title="Al Fadl">Al Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">List of Palmyrene monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Palmyrene invasion of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Bostra" title="Sack of Bostra">Sack of Bostra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyra" title="Category:Palmyra">Category:Palmyra</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189705#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1589" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122797805">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/3270563">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/103197/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11896030X">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82163157">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2002110064&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90766131">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=141973">Greece</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/272643">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007311928005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/11896030X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11896030X">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1282389085">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1282389085</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zenobia" title="Category:Zenobia">Zenobia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:240s_births" title="Category:240s births">240s births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:270s_deaths" title="Category:270s deaths">270s deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-century_Roman_women" title="Category:3rd-century Roman women">3rd-century Roman women</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-century_people" title="Category:3rd-century people">3rd-century people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-century_regents" title="Category:3rd-century regents">3rd-century regents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:3rd-century_women_monarchs" title="Category:3rd-century women monarchs">3rd-century women monarchs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Augustae" title="Category:Augustae">Augustae</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Category:Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_queens_regnant" title="Category:Egyptian queens regnant">Egyptian queens regnant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Empresses_regnant_in_Asia" title="Category:Empresses regnant in Asia">Empresses regnant in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Imperial_Roman_rebels" title="Category:Imperial Roman rebels">Imperial Roman rebels</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Monarchs_taken_prisoner_in_wartime" title="Category:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime">Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyrene_Empire" title="Category:Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Palmyrene_monarchs" title="Category:Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene monarchs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Queens_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Queens of ancient Egypt">Queens of ancient Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Septimii" title="Category:Septimii">Septimii</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Thirty_Tyrants_(Roman)" title="Category:Thirty Tyrants (Roman)">Thirty Tyrants (Roman)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Women_in_3rd-century_warfare" title="Category:Women in 3rd-century warfare">Women in 3rd-century warfare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Women_in_ancient_Near_Eastern_warfare" title="Category:Women in ancient Near Eastern warfare">Women in ancient Near Eastern warfare</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short 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class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7ccc697c5f-6htvr","wgBackendResponseTime":376,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.852","walltime":"3.182","ppvisitednodes":{"value":38442,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":363281,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":39062,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":5,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":568063,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2524.379 1 -total"," 45.66% 1152.755 496 Template:Sfn"," 14.40% 363.621 82 Template:Cite_book"," 9.12% 230.132 3 Template:Reflist"," 6.25% 157.831 1 Template:Transl"," 5.46% 137.879 507 Template:Main_other"," 4.60% 116.011 1 Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East"," 3.74% 94.442 2 Template:Infobox"," 3.68% 92.781 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.60% 90.864 1 Template:Cite_AV_media"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.654","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19514036,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbu-Manneh1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAliksān1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrade2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrade2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAniplex_USA2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBagnall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBanchichLane2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBland2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBooth2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowersock1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrauer1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBray1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryceBirkett-Rees2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgersdijk2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButcher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoueiri2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoogan1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornelison2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCussini2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCussini2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDear2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDignasWinter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowney2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrinkwater2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDumitru2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuruy1883\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1776\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraetz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansell1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIggersWangMukherjee2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIntagliata2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulikowski2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieu1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacquarrie2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacurdy1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagnaniMior2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatyszakBerry2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakamura1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParsons1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowers2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintero2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRihan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuwe2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSartre2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahîd1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSivertsev2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlatkin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmallwood1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith_II2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeixidor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVervaet2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeldon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoltering2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2003\"] = 1,\n [\"Cultural_depictions_of_Zenobia:_selected_works\"] = 1,\n [\"In_ancient_sources\"] = 1,\n [\"Myths,_romanticism_and_popular_culture\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 78,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox royalty\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Palmyra\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Rulers of the Ancient Near East\"] = 1,\n [\"Script\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 496,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","540","30.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","320","17.8"],["?","200","11.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","8.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.3"],["(for generator)","40","2.2"],["pairs","40","2.2"],["init \u003CModule:Footnotes/whitelist\u003E","40","2.2"],["[others]","220","12.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-66d47bf9fb-6wn46","timestamp":"20250401182829","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Zenobia","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zenobia","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q189705","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q189705","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-03-08T14:19:21Z","dateModified":"2025-03-26T03:05:31Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6d\/Antoninianus_of_Zenobia_%28obverse%29.png","headline":"3rd-century Queen of the Palmyrene Empire"}</script> 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