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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Israel_and_Judah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Israel_and_Judah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient Israel and Judah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Israel_and_Judah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diaspora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaspora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Diaspora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaspora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الجماعات الإثنية اليهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجماعات الإثنية اليهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisions_etnicas_chodigas" title="Divisions etnicas chodigas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Divisions etnicas chodigas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisiones_%C3%A9tnicas_del_pueblo_jud%C3%ADo" title="Divisiones étnicas del pueblo judío – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Divisiones étnicas del pueblo judío" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnaj_dividoj_de_la_judismo" title="Etnaj dividoj de la judismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Etnaj dividoj de la judismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="تقسیم‌های قومی یهودی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تقسیم‌های قومی یهودی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_ethnique_des_Juifs" title="Division ethnique des Juifs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Division ethnique des Juifs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אתניות יהודית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אתניות יהודית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembahagian_etnik_Yahudi" title="Pembahagian etnik Yahudi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembahagian etnik Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8disk_etniske_inndelinger" title="Jødisk etniske inndelinger – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jødisk etniske inndelinger" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnias_judaicas" title="Etnias judaicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Etnias judaicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D1%8B_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2" title="Этнические группы евреев – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этнические группы евреев" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Palestine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jewish ethnic divisions</b> refer to many distinctive communities within the world's <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population">Jewish population</a>. Although "Jewish" is considered an ethnicity itself, there are distinct ethnic subdivisions among <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating <a href="/wiki/Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite">Israelite</a> population, <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">mixing with local communities</a>, and subsequent independent evolutions.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the millennia of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>, the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographic">demographic</a>. Today, the manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish cultural expressions</a> of each community, including <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish linguistic diversity</a>, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, and degrees and sources of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">genetic</a> admixture.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Israel_and_Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Israel and Judah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> <p>The full extent of the cultural, linguistic, religious or other differences among the Israelites in antiquity is unknown. Following the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> in the 720s BCE and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> in 586 BCE, the Jewish people became dispersed throughout much of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and North Africa to the west, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> to the south, and in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> to the east. The Jewish population in ancient Israel was severely reduced by the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> and by the later hostile policies of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Christian emperors</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against non-Christians, but the Jews always retained a presence in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a> writes of this time: "Wherever towns survived, or urban communities sprang up, Jews would sooner or later establish themselves. The near-destruction of Palestinian Jewry in the second century turned the survivors of Jewish rural communities into marginal town-dwellers. After the Arab conquest in the seventh century, the large Jewish agricultural communities in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> were progressively wrecked by high taxation, so that there too the Jews drifted into towns and became craftsmen, tradesmen, and dealers. Everywhere these urban Jews, the vast majority literate and numerate, managed to settle, unless penal laws or physical violence made it impossible."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png/500px-Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png/750px-Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png/1000px-Jewish_ethnic_cultural_divisions_map.png 2x" data-file-width="6459" data-file-height="3649" /></a><figcaption>Jewish ethnic/cultural divisions map</figcaption></figure> <p>Jewish communities continued to exist in Palestine in relatively small numbers: during the early Byzantine 6th century there were 43 communities; during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic period</a> and the intervening <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> there were 50 (including <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramleh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ashkelon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>); and during the early Ottoman 14th century there were 30 (including <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Shechem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>, Ramleh, <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, Gaza, Jerusalem, and <a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a>). The majority of the Jewish population during the High Middle Ages lived in <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> (what is now <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>) and in the region of Mesopotamia and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (what is now <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), the former known as the Sefardim and the latter known as the <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a>. A substantial population existed also in central Europe, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expulsion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sephardim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardim">Sephardim</a> from Iberia during the 15th century, a mass migration into the Ottoman Empire swelled the size of many eastern communities including those in Palestine; the town of Safed reached 30,000 Jews by end of the 16th century. The 16th century saw many Ashkenazi <a href="/wiki/Kabbalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalists">Kabbalists</a> drawn to the mystical aura and teachings of the Jewish holy city. Johnson notes that in the Arab-Muslim territories, which included most of Spain, all of North Africa, and the Near East south of Anatolia in the Middle Ages, the Jewish condition was easier as a rule, than it was in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the centuries following the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, Jews from around the world began emigrating in increasing numbers. Upon arrival, these Jews adopted the customs of the Mizrahi and Sephardi communities into which they moved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diaspora">Diaspora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Diaspora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewottoman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jewottoman.jpg/200px-Jewottoman.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jewottoman.jpg/300px-Jewottoman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Jewottoman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>Painting of a Jewish man from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, 1779</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the failure of the second revolt against the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">exile</a>, Jewish communities could be found in nearly every notable center throughout the Roman Empire, as well as scattered communities found in centers beyond the Empire's borders in northern Europe, in eastern Europe, in southwestern Asia, and in Africa. Farther to the east along trade routes, Jewish communities could be found throughout <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and in empires even farther east including in India and China. In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> of the 6th to 11th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanites</a> traded along the overland routes between Europe and Asia earlier established by the Romans, dominated trade between the Christian and the Islamic worlds, and used a trade network that covered most areas of Jewish settlement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the middle Byzantine period, the khan of <a href="/wiki/Khazaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazaria">Khazaria</a> in the northern Caucasus and his court converted to Judaism, partly in order to maintain neutrality between Christian Byzantium and the Islamic world. This event forms the framework for <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Halevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehuda Halevi">Yehuda Halevi</a>'s work <i>The <a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Kuzari</a></i> (c.1140), but how much the traces of Judaism within this group survived the collapse of the Khazar empire is a matter of scholarly debate. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Thirteenth_Tribe" title="The Thirteenth Tribe">The Thirteenth Tribe</a></i> (1976), and more recently <a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Sand" title="Shlomo Sand">Shlomo Sand</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Invention_of_the_Jewish_People" title="The Invention of the Jewish People">The Invention of the Jewish People</a></i> (2008) theorized that East-European Jews are more ethnically Khazar than they are Semitic.<sup id="cite_ref-GoldsteinWSJ2009_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoldsteinWSJ2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scammell2009p547_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scammell2009p547-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Judt20091207_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Judt20091207-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bartal_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartal-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Strenger_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strenger-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haatz_Stampfer_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haatz_Stampfer-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, numerous genetic studies have not supported this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Nebel_1095–112_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nebel_1095–112-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atzmon2010_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atzmon2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doron_M._Behar_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doron_M._Behar-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In western Europe, following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in 476, and especially after the re-orientation of trade caused by the <a href="/wiki/Moorish_conquest_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish conquest of Iberia">Moorish conquest of Iberia</a> in the early 8th century, communications between the Jewish communities in northern parts of the former western empire became sporadic. At the same time, rule under Islam, even with <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> status, resulted in freer trade and communications within the Muslim world, and the communities in Iberia remained in frequent contact with Jewry in North Africa and the Middle East, but communities further afield, in central and south Asia and central Africa, remained more isolated, and continued to develop their own unique traditions. For the Sephardim in Spain, it resulted in a "<a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Hebrew Golden Age</a>" in the 10th to 12th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1492 <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expulsion from Spain</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> however, made the Sephardic Jews <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">hide</a> and disperse to France, Italy, England, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, parts of what is now northwestern Germany, and to other existing communities in Christian Europe, as well as to those within the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> in North Africa and smaller numbers to other areas of the Middle East, and eventually to the Americas in the early 17th century. </p><p>In northern and Christian Europe during this period, financial competition developed between the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> in Rome and nascent states and empires. In western Europe, the conditions for Jewry differed between the communities within the various countries and over time, depending on background conditions. With both pull and push factors operating, Ashkenazi emigration to the Americas would increase in the early 18th century with German-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, and end with a tidal wave between 1880 and the early 20th century with <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>-speaking <i>Ashkenazim</i>, as conditions in the east deteriorated under the failing <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. After <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, which resulted in the murder of more than 6 million Jews living in Europe, North America became the place where the majority of Jews live.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_divisions">Modern divisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chass%C3%A9riau,_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg/220px-Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg/330px-Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg/440px-Chass%C3%A9riau%2C_Th%C3%A9odore_-_Scene_in_the_Jewish_Quarter_of_Constantine_-_1851.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Jewish women in Algeria, 1851</figcaption></figure> <p>Historically, European Jews have been classified as belonging to two major groups: the <i>Ashkenazim</i>, or "Germanics" (<i>Ashkenaz</i> meaning "<a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a>), denoting their <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> base, and the <i>Sephardim</i>, or "Spaniards" (<i>Sefarad</i> meaning "<a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberia</a>" in Hebrew), denoting their <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> base. A third historic term <i>Mizrahim</i>, or "Easterners" (<i>Mizrach</i> being "east" in Hebrew) has been used to describe other non-European Jewish communities which have bases which are located further to the east, but its usage has changed both over time and relative to the location where it was used. One definition is the Jews who never left the Middle East, in contrast to the Sephardim who went west to Spain, Portugal, and North Africa. A similar three-part distinction in the Jewish community of 16th-century Venice is noted by Johnson as being "divided into three nations, the Penentines from Spain, the Levantines who were Turkish subjects, and the Natione Tedesca or Jews of German origin..."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The far more recent meaning of the term, to include both Middle Eastern and North African Jews in a single term, developed within <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> in the mid-1940s, when Jews from these countries were all combined in one category as the target of <a href="/wiki/One_Million_Plan" title="One Million Plan">an immigration plan</a>. According to some sources, the current sense of the term, as an ethnic group which is distinct from European-born Jews, was invented at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term constitutes a third major layer to some, and following the partition of <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and Israeli independence, the Mizrahim's <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">often-forced migration</a>, led to their establishment of communities in the newly constructed Israel. </p><p> The divisions between these major groups are rough and their boundaries are not solid. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> Jewish communities which are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In traditional religious usage and sometimes in modern usage, however, Mizrahim overlap with termed <i>Sephardi</i> due to factors including the similar styles of liturgy, despite independent evolutions from Sephardim proper.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, among such Mizrahim there are <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraqi Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudanese Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Jews">Tunisian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Jews">Algerian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Moroccan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanese Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libyan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syrian Jews</a>, and various others. Other Asian groups that evolved separately from Sephardim include the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_(geographic_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus (geographic region)">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in India">Indian Jews</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Malabar Yehuddim</a> (Cochin Jews), <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bnei_Menashe" title="Bnei Menashe">Bnei Menashe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bene_Ephraim" title="Bene Ephraim">Bene Ephraim</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Chinese Jews</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a>. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family,_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg/220px-Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg/330px-Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg/440px-Suleiman_ben_Pinhas_Cohen_family%2C_Sana%27a_ca._1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1494" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>The Suleiman ben Pinchas Cohen family of Yemen, <i>circa</i> 1944</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a> ("Teimanim") from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Kurdish Jews</a> are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. Additionally, there is a difference between the pre-existing Middle Eastern and North African Jewish communities as distinct from the descendants of those Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> in 1492, and in 1497 from the expulsion decreed in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distinct smaller Jewish groups include the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews#Italian_Rite_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian rite Jews</a> (i.e. only descendants of ancient Italian Jewish community without later migrants to Italy); the <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniotes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>; various <a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Judaism_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews and Judaism in Africa">African Jews</a>, including most numerously the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>; as well as various other distinct but now extinct communities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Despite this diversity, Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, estimated at between 70% and 80% of all Jews worldwide;<sup id="cite_ref-adherents_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adherents-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> however, it was 90%.<sup id="cite_ref-adherents_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adherents-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashkenazim developed in Europe, but underwent massive emigration in search of better opportunities and during periods of civil strife and warfare. As a result of this, they became the overwhelming majority of Jews in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> continents and countries, which previously were without native European or Jewish populations. These include the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South Africa</a>, but with <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> being exceptions since Sephardim still compose the majority of the Jewish communities in these two countries. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a>, more recent Sephardi Jewish immigrants from North Africa and their descendants now outnumber the pre-existing Ashkenazim.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_studies">Genetic studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genetic studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Aaron" title="Y-chromosomal Aaron">Y-chromosomal Aaron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">Gerim</a></div> <p>Despite the evident diversity displayed by the world's distinctive Jewish populations, both culturally and physically, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">genetic</a> studies have demonstrated most of these to be genetically related to one another, having ultimately originated from a common ancient <a href="/wiki/Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite">Israelite</a> population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study published by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> stated that "The results support the hypothesis that the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population, and suggest that most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora."<sup id="cite_ref-hammer_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> has become dispersed around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> tests have demonstrated substantially less inter-marriage in most of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years than in other populations.<sup id="cite_ref-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world's Jewish populations were founded by entirely <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">gentile populations that adopted the Jewish faith</a>, as in the notable case of the historic <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times_Y_Chromosome-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although groups such as the Khazars could have been absorbed into modern Jewish populations – in the Khazars' case, absorbed into the Ashkenazim – it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Ashkenazi Jews, and much less that they were the genesis of the Ashkenazim.<sup id="cite_ref-Nebel_1095–112_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nebel_1095–112-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Previously, the Israelite origin identified in the world's Jewish populations was attributed only to the males who had migrated from the Middle East and then forged the current known communities with "the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism".<sup id="cite_ref-wade_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wade-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research in Ashkenazi Jews has suggested that, in addition to the male founders, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East, with about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrew</a>/<a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> mtDNA pool" originating in the Near East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.<sup id="cite_ref-wade_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wade-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Points in which Jewish groups differ are the source and proportion of <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">genetic contribution from host populations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oppenheim&Hammer_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheim&Hammer-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Teimanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Teimanim">Teimanim</a> differ to a certain extent from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim in the proportion of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan African</a> gene types which have entered their <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a>, the average stands at 5–10%, due to the relative genetic isolation of Yemenite Jews this is only a quarter of the frequency of the non-Jewish Yemenite sample, which can reach 35%.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Ashkenazi Jews, the proportion of male indigenous European genetic admixture amounts to around 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, and a total admixture estimate around 12.5%.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only exception to this among Jewish communities is in the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> (Ethiopian Jews); a 1999 genetic study came to the conclusion that "the distinctiveness of the Y-chromosome <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotype</a> distribution of Beta Israel Jews from conventional Jewish populations and their relatively greater similarity in haplotype profile to non-Jewish Ethiopians are consistent with the view that the Beta Israel people descended from ancient inhabitants of Ethiopia who converted to Judaism."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 2001 study did, however, find a possible genetic similarity between 11 Ethiopian Jews and 4 Yemenite Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">population samples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe—"<a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Cohanim</a>"—share a common ancestor dating back about 3,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer2_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer2-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-hammer2_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hammer2-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Cohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Biblical Exodus</a>) and 586 BCE, when the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Society_For_Technion_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Society_For_Technion_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Society_For_Technion_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Society_For_Technion-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by Richards et al. (2013) suggested that, though Ashkenazi paternal lineages were of Middle Eastern origin, the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in the past<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimesEuropeanWomen_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimesEuropeanWomen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Levant, nor recruited in the Caucasus, but were assimilated within Europe. The study estimated that 80 percent of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe, 8 percent from the Near East, and the remainder undetermined.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimesEuropeanWomen_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimesEuropeanWomen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the study these findings 'point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities.' Some geneticists, such as Doron Behar, a geneticist at Gene by Gene in Houston, US, and Karl Skorecki, at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa, are skeptical of these results.<sup id="cite_ref-Costa_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costa-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 study by Fernández et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their maternal DNA, suggesting an ancient Near Eastern matrilineal origin, similar to the results of the Behar study in 2006. Fernández noted that this observation clearly contradicts the results of the 2013 study led by Richards that suggested a European source for 3 exclusively Ashkenazi K lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> A study by Haber et al. (2013) noted that while previous studies of the Levant, which had focused mainly on diaspora Jewish populations, showed that the "Jews form a distinctive cluster in the Middle East", these studies did not make clear "whether the factors driving this structure would also involve other groups in the Levant". The authors found strong evidence that modern Levant populations descend from two major apparent ancestral populations. One set of genetic characteristics which is shared with modern-day Europeans and Central Asians is most prominent in the Levant among "Lebanese, Armenians, Cypriots, Druze and Jews, as well as Turks, Iranians and Caucasian populations". The second set of inherited genetic characteristics is shared with populations in other parts of the Middle East as well as some African populations. Levant populations in this category today include "Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, as well as North Africans, Ethiopians, Saudis, and Bedouins". Concerning this second component of ancestry, the authors remark that while it correlates with "the pattern of the Islamic expansion", and that "a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners," they also say that "its presence in Lebanese Christians, Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews, Cypriots and Armenians might suggest that its spread to the Levant could also represent an earlier event". The authors also found a strong correlation between religion and apparent ancestry in the Levant: </p><blockquote><p>"all Jews (Sephardi and Ashkenazi) cluster in one branch; Druze from Mount Lebanon and Druze from Mount Carmel are depicted on a private branch; and Lebanese Christians form a private branch with the Christian populations of Armenia and Cyprus placing the Lebanese Muslims as an outer group. The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A 2013 study by Doron M. Behar, Mait Metspalu, Yael Baran, Naama M. Kopelman, Bayazit Yunusbayev et al. using integration of genotypes on newly collected largest data set available to date (1,774 samples from 106 Jewish and non-Jewish populations) for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins from the regions of potential Ashkenazi ancestry:(Europe, the Middle East, and the region historically associated with the Khazar Khaganate) concluded that "This most comprehensive study... does not change and in fact reinforces the conclusions of multiple past studies, including ours and those of other groups (Atzmon and others, 2010; Bauchet and others, 2007; Behar and others, 2010; Campbell and others, 2012; Guha and others, 2012; Haber and others; 2013; Henn and others, 2012; Kopelman and others, 2009; Seldin and others, 2006; Tian and others, 2008). We confirm the notion that the Ashkenazi, North African, and Sephardi Jews share substantial genetic ancestry and that they derive it from Middle Eastern and European populations, with no indication of a detectable Khazar contribution to their genetic origins."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The authors also reanalyzed the 2012 study of Eran Elhaik, and found that "The provocative assumption that Armenians and Georgians could serve as appropriate proxies for Khazar descendants is problematic for a number of reasons as the evidence for ancestry among Caucasus populations do not reflect Khazar ancestry". Also, the authors found that "Even if it were allowed that Caucasus affinities could represent Khazar ancestry, the use of the Armenians and Georgians as Khazar proxies is particularly poor, as they represent the southern part of the Caucasus region, while the Khazar Khaganate was centered in the North Caucasus and further to the north. Furthermore, among populations of the Caucasus, Armenians and Georgians are geographically the closest to the Middle East, and are therefore expected a priori to show the greatest genetic similarity to Middle Eastern populations." Concerning the similarity of South Caucasus populations to Middle Eastern groups which was observed at the level of the whole genome in one recent study (Yunusbayev and others, 2012). The authors found that "Any genetic similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Armenians and Georgians might merely reflect a common shared Middle Eastern ancestry component, actually providing further support to a Middle Eastern origin of Ashkenazi Jews, rather than a hint for a Khazar origin". The authors claimed "If one accepts the premise that similarity to Armenians and Georgians represents Khazar ancestry for Ashkenazi Jews, then by extension one must also claim that Middle Eastern Jews and many Mediterranean European and Middle Eastern populations are also Khazar descendants. This claim is clearly not valid, as the differences among the various Jewish and non-Jewish populations of Mediterranean Europe and the Middle East predate the period of the Khazars by thousands of years".<sup id="cite_ref-Doron_M._Behar_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doron_M._Behar-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 study by Carmi et al. published by <a href="/wiki/Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a> found that the Ashkenazi Jewish population originates from an approximately even mixture of Middle Eastern and European ancestry. According to the authors, that mixing likely occurred some 600–800 years ago, followed by rapid growth and genetic isolation (rate per generation 16–53%;). The study found that all Ashkenazi Jews descent from around 350 individuals, and that the principal component analysis of common variants in the sequenced AJ samples, confirmed previous observations, namely, the proximity of Ashkenazi Jewish cluster to other Jewish, European and Middle Eastern populations".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JewishmalteseFamily.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/JewishmalteseFamily.jpg/200px-JewishmalteseFamily.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/JewishmalteseFamily.jpg/300px-JewishmalteseFamily.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/JewishmalteseFamily.jpg/400px-JewishmalteseFamily.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malta" title="History of the Jews in Malta">Maltese Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Valletta" title="Valletta">Valletta</a>, 19th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia,_19th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia%2C_19th_century.jpg/200px-Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia%2C_19th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia%2C_19th_century.jpg/300px-Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia%2C_19th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Sephardic_family_in_Bosnia%2C_19th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jew">Sephardi Jewish</a> family descendants of <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_decree" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhambra decree">Spanish expellees</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_(region)" title="Bosnia (region)">Bosnia</a>, 19th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashkenazic-Family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ashkenazic-Family.jpg/220px-Ashkenazic-Family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ashkenazic-Family.jpg/330px-Ashkenazic-Family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ashkenazic-Family.jpg/440px-Ashkenazic-Family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Eastern Ashkenazic</a> family living in the <a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">Shtetl</a> of <a href="/wiki/Romanivka,_Bereznehuvate_settlement_hromada,_Bashtanka_Raion,_Mykolaiv_Oblast" title="Romanivka, Bereznehuvate settlement hromada, Bashtanka Raion, Mykolaiv Oblast">Romanivka</a>, circa 1905</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemenite_Jews,_Sa%27dah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg/200px-Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg/300px-Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg/400px-Yemenite_Jews%2C_Sa%27dah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1926" /></a><figcaption>Yemenite Jews in <a href="/wiki/Sa%27dah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'dah">Sa'dah</a>, smoking <a href="/wiki/Hookah" title="Hookah">Nargile</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Women_at_kotel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_at_kotel.jpg/200px-Women_at_kotel.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_at_kotel.jpg/300px-Women_at_kotel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Women_at_kotel.jpg/400px-Women_at_kotel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Jew">Ethiopian Jewish</a> women at <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a>, 2006</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/200px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/300px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/400px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3067" data-file-height="2749" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukharan Jew">Bukharan Jewish</a> teacher and students in <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, modern-day <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, circa 1910</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berber_Jews.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Berber_Jews.jpg/200px-Berber_Jews.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Berber_Jews.jpg/300px-Berber_Jews.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Berber_Jews.jpg/400px-Berber_Jews.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, circa 1900</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jews_of_Kai-Fung-Foo,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Jews_of_Kai-Fung-Foo%2C_China.jpg/200px-Jews_of_Kai-Fung-Foo%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Jews_of_Kai-Fung-Foo%2C_China.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="286" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Chinese Jews</a> from the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, circa 1900</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg/200px-KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg/300px-KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/KurdJewwomenRowendez905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Kurdish Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rawanduz" class="mw-redirect" title="Rawanduz">Rawanduz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a>, 1905</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus,_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus%2C_1913.jpg/200px-Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus%2C_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus%2C_1913.jpg/300px-Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus%2C_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Jewish_Girls_of_the_Caucasus%2C_1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>Juhur Imuni (<a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a>) girls of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, 1913</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG/200px-Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG/300px-Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG/400px-Bnei_Menashe01_Jusmine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bnei_Menashe" title="Bnei Menashe">Bnei Menashe</a> Jews from <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeastern India">Northeastern India</a>, celebrating <a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Karmiel" title="Karmiel">Karmiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.</figcaption></figure><p> Because of the independence of local communities, Jewish ethnic divisions, even when they circumscribe differences in liturgy, language, cuisine and other cultural accoutrements, are more often a reflection of geographic and historical isolation from other communities. It is for this reason that communities are referred to by referencing the historical region in which the community cohered when discussing their practices, regardless of where those practices are found today.</p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cochin_Jews.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cochin_Jews.jpg/200px-Cochin_Jews.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cochin_Jews.jpg/300px-Cochin_Jews.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Cochin_Jews.jpg/400px-Cochin_Jews.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1884" data-file-height="1322" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar Jewish">Malabar Jewish</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Cochin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin">Cochin</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, circa 1900</figcaption></figure><p>The smaller groups number in the hundreds to tens of thousands, with the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a> (also known as <i>Gruzinim</i> or <i>Qartveli Ebraeli</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> being most numerous at somewhat over 100,000 each. Many members of these groups have now emigrated from their traditional homelands, largely to Israel. For example, only about 10 percent of the <i>Gruzinim</i> remain in Georgia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A brief description of the extant communities, by the geographic regions with which they are associated, is as follows: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> (plural <i>Ashkenazim</i>) are the descendants of Jews who migrated into northern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a> around 800–1000, and later into <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. </p><p>Among the Ashkenazim there are a number of major subgroups: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/German_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="German Jews">German Jews</a>, stemming from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_European_Lowlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern European Lowlands">Lowlands</a>, historical <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>. They originally spoke <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Western Yiddish</a>, which had less Slavic influence than other Yiddish dialects. By the early 20th century, Yiddish was in decline in this population, and assimilation was proceeding rapidly.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvaks</a>, or <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuanian Jews</a>, emerged as a distinct group in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> and the northeastern <a href="/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki" title="Suwałki">Suwałki</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>). They have historically spoken the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern Yiddish</a> dialect <i>Litvish</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Lithuanian Yiddish</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galitzianers" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzianers">Galitzianers</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician Jews</a>, trace their origins to <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Ukraine" title="Western Ukraine">Western Ukraine</a> (current <a href="/wiki/Lvivska" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvivska">Lviv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivano-Frankivska" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivano-Frankivska">Ivano-Frankivsk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ternopilska" class="mw-redirect" title="Ternopilska">Ternopil</a> regions) and <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">South-Eastern Poland</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jews from central Poland</a> (origins from former <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>), while having fewer specificities and innovations in local cultures than neighboring Litvaks or Galitzianers, nevertheless have had a significant coherent Ashkenazi culture for centuries, and the <i>Poylish</i> dialect of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern Yiddish</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlanders</a>, originating in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Hungary" title="Upper Hungary">Oberland</a> region of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a> and the district surrounding <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, originally spoke <a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western Yiddish</a>. In modern times before the Holocaust, many Oberlander Jews migrated to urban centers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and adopted German or Hungarian as their first language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlanders</a>, who resided in the northeastern region of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakarpattia_Oblast" title="Zakarpattia Oblast">Zakarpattia Oblast</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Transylvania" title="Northern Transylvania">Northern Transylvania</a>.)</li> <li>According to some sources, <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan</a> can be seen as ethnic group - <i>dos udmurtishe yidntum</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russian Jews</a>, who have had a presence in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia" title="Territorial evolution of Russia">areas connected to it</a> since the times of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a>.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> (plural <i>Sephardim</i>) are Jews whose ancestors lived in <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> prior to 1492. </p><p>There are multiple subgroups among the Sephardim: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sephardim" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Sephardim">Western Sephardim</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Spanish and Portuguese Jews</a> are a distinct subgroup of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian Jews">Iberian Jews</a>. They are largely descended from Jews who lived as <a href="/wiki/New_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="New Christians">New Christians</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> during the immediate generations following the forced expulsion of unconverted Jews <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Jews_from_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Jews from Spain">from Spain in 1492</a> and <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_and_Muslims_from_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Portugal">from Portugal in 1497</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sephardim" title="Eastern Sephardim">Eastern Sephardim</a> are a subgroup of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian Jews">Iberian Jews</a> descended from families exiled from Iberia in the 15th century. Most of them settled in various parts of the Ottoman Empire, while some settled as far as the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar coast">Malabar coast</a>, importing their culture and customs to the local <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jews</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a> descend from exiled <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian Jews">Iberic Jewish</a> families of the late 15th century and North African <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi Jewish</a> communities already settled in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a>. They have historically spoken <a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> language derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_Spanish" title="Old Spanish">Old Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belmonte_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Belmonte Jews">Belmonte Jews</a> are a Jewish community in <a href="/wiki/Belmonte,_Portugal" title="Belmonte, Portugal">Belmonte</a> that lived in Portugal as <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Jews">Crypto-Jews</a> for centuries. They survived in secrecy for hundreds of years by maintaining a tradition of <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> and hiding all external signs of their faith.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuetes">Xuetes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Majorcan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorcan Jews">Majorcan Jews</a>, are descendants of Jews who were forcibly <a href="/wiki/Conversos" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversos">converted to Christianity</a> and today live in the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">maintained their faith</a>, while others observed a <a href="/wiki/Syncretist" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncretist">syncretist</a> form of Christian worship known as <a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a>.</li></ul> <p>Jewish communities in Europe that are neither Ashkenazic nor Sephardic: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italkim" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkim">Italkim</a> trace their origins as far back as the 2nd century BCE. It is thought that some families descend from Jews deported from Judaea in 70 CE. They have traditionally spoken a variety of <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italkian" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkian">Italkian</a>) and used <a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian Hebrew</a> as a pronunciation system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniotes</a> are a distinct Jewish community that has resided in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and neighboring areas for over 2,000 years. They have historically spoken the <a href="/wiki/Jud%C3%A6o-Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Judæo-Greek">Judæo-Greek</a> dialect <a href="/wiki/Yevanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yevanic">Yevanic</a>, although due to the majority of them being murdered in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, combined with assimilation post-WW2 there are no longer any speakers of it.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Nicandro_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="San Nicandro Jews">San Nicandro Jews</a> – A group of mid-20th century <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">converts</a> from Italy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Caucasus_and_the_Crimea">The Caucasus and the Crimea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Caucasus and the Crimea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juhurim" class="mw-redirect" title="Juhurim">Juhurim</a>, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a>, are descendants of Persian Jews from Iran and Babylonian Jews from <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> who settled in the eastern and northern Caucasus (modern <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ingushetia" title="Ingushetia">Ingushetia</a>). It's believed that they had reached Persia from Ancient Israel as early as the 8th century BCE. The <a href="/wiki/Juhuro" class="mw-redirect" title="Juhuro">Juhuro</a> survived numerous historical vicissitudes by settling in extremely remote and mountainous areas. They were known to be accomplished warriors and horseback riders. Their language is <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a>, an ancient Southwest Iranian language which integrates many elements of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Ancient Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruzim" class="mw-redirect" title="Gruzim">Gruzim</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a>, are one of the oldest surviving Jewish communities tracing back to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a> in the 6th century BCE. The 2,600-year history of the Georgian Jews was unique in its complete absence of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> prior to Russia's annexation of Georgia. They have traditionally spoken <a href="/wiki/Kivruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Kivruli">Kivruli</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> dialect with a lot of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> loan words. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/1990s_Post-Soviet_aliyah" class="mw-redirect" title="1990s Post-Soviet aliyah">Post-Soviet aliyah</a>, the vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews_in_Israel" title="Georgian Jews in Israel">Georgian Jews now live in Israel</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a> are Turkic-speaking Jews of the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. The Krymchaks practice <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, while the Karaim practice <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a>. Whether they are primarily the descendants of Israelite Jews who adopted Turkic language and culture, or the descendants of Turkic converts to Judaism, is still debated, although the question is irrelevant as far as <a href="/wiki/Halakhah" class="mw-redirect" title="Halakhah">Jewish law</a> is concerned, according to which they are Jews, regardless of whether by Israelite descent or by conversion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a> are a dwindling group of Jews from Azerbaijan and Armenia, whose ancestors were Russian peasants who <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">converted to Judaism</a> for unknown reasons in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mostly Sephardi Jews and collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi Jews</a> and sometime considered part of the wider <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> group: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Moroccan Jews</a> migrated to this area after the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/First_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="First Temple">First Temple in Jerusalem</a> and settled among the <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a>. They were later met by a second wave of migration from the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a> in the period immediately preceding and following the 1492 Alhambra Decree, when the Jews were expelled from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain">kingdoms of Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>. Their descendants in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a> are known as <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_Jews" title="Amazonian Jews">Amazonian Jews</a>, many of whom remain in traditional Jewish communities<sup id="cite_ref-amazon_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amazon-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-museum_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-museum-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haketia_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haketia-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but others mixed into the local population and developed a separate <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic identity">ethnic identity</a>, often with <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">mixed religious practices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Algerian Jews">Algerian Jews</a>: There is evidence of Jewish settlements in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> since at least the late Roman period, followed by Jewish immigrants came to North Africa after fleeing from the persecutions of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic">Visigothic</a> king <a href="/wiki/Sisebut" title="Sisebut">Sisebut</a>, and finally the largest segment which were Sephardic Jews forced from Spain due to the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Libyan Jews">Libyan Jews</a> stretch back to the 3rd century BCE, when Cyrenaica was under Greek rule. The Jewish population of Libya, a part of the Berber Jewish community, continued to populate the area continuously until the modern times.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Jews">Tunisian Jews</a>: similar to the Libyan Jews</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a>: Jewish communities of the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudanese Jews</a> are Jewish community that lived in Sudan, and was concentrated in the capital <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>, they were mainly of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> background, who had constructed a <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish school">Jewish school</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a> are generally Jews thought to have descended from the great Jewish communities of Hellenistic Alexandria, mixed with many more recent groups of immigrants. These include Babylonian Jews following the Muslim conquest; Jews from Palestine following the Crusades; Sephardim following the expulsion from Spain; Italian Jews settling for trading reasons in the 18th and 19th centuries; and Jews from Aleppo in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia">West Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: West Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jews originating from West Asia are generally called by the catch-all term <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>, more precise terms for particular groups are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Jews">Babylonian Jews</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraqi Jews</a>, are descendants of the Jewish people whom have lived in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Siege_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem">Assyrian conquest of Samaria</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Kurdish Jews</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a>, as distinct from the Persian Jews of central and eastern <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, as well as from the lowland <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Jews">Babylonian Jews</a> of Mesopotamia.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a> from Iran (commonly called <i>Parsim</i> in Israel, from the Hebrew) have a 2700-year history. One of the oldest Jewish communities of the world, Persian Jews constitute the largest Jewish community in West Asia outside Israel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a> (called <i>Temanim</i>, from the Hebrew), as well as <a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a> are Oriental Jews whose geographic and social isolation from the rest of the Jewish community allowed them to maintain a <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> and set of practices that are significantly distinct from other Oriental Jewish groups; they themselves comprise three distinctly different groups, though the distinction is one of religious law and liturgy rather than of ethnicity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a> are Jewish inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> throughout certain periods of Middle Eastern history. After the modern State of Israel was born, nearly all native Palestinian Jews became citizens of Israel, and the term "Palestinian Jews" largely fell into disuse.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanese Jews</a> are the Jews that lived around <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a>, the community's emigration appears to have been completed; few remain in Lebanon today.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Omani Jews</a> are the early Jewish community of <a href="/wiki/Sohar" title="Sohar">Sohar</a>. They are thought to be descendants of Ishaq bin Yahuda, a Sohari merchant around the first millennium. This community is believed to have disappeared by 1900.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syrian Jews</a> are generally divided into two groups: those who inhabited Syria from ancient times (according to their own traditions, from the time of King David (1000 BC)), and those who fled to the Ottoman Empire after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492), at the invitation of the Ottoman sultan. There were large communities in both Aleppo and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> for centuries. In the early 20th century, a large percentage of Syrian Jews emigrated to the U.S., South America, and Israel. Today, there are almost no Jews left in Syria. The largest Syrian-Jewish community is located in Brooklyn, New York, and is estimated at 40,000.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Judaism_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews and Judaism in Africa">Jews and Judaism in Africa</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Falasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Falasha">Falashim</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, tens of thousands migrated to Israel during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Moses" title="Operation Moses">Operation Moses</a> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Operation_Joshua" title="Operation Joshua">Operation Sheba</a> (1985) and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Solomon" title="Operation Solomon">Operation Solomon</a> (1991).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are now over 160,000 <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jews_in_Israel" title="Ethiopian Jews in Israel">Ethiopian Jews in Israel</a>, making up approximately 2% of the total Israeli population.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Population_of_Ethiopian_Origin_in_Israel_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Population_of_Ethiopian_Origin_in_Israel-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_the_Bilad_el-Sudan_(West_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of the Bilad el-Sudan (West Africa)">Jews of the Bilad el-Sudan (West Africa)</a>. Jews whose ancestry was derived from the communities that once existed in the Ghana, Mali, and Songhay Empire. <a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a> in and around Mali who descend from Jewish migrations from North Africa, East Africa, and Spain.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba people</a> in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> which number as many as 40,000. This group claims descent from ancient Israelite tribes that migrated down to southern Africa via southern Arabia. <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a> has partially upheld these claims. Genetic testing suggests some males have Middle Eastern Ancestry but could not confirm Jewish ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-Soodyall_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soodyall-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South African Jews</a> make up the largest community of Jews in Africa. Dutch Sephardic Jews were among the first permanent residents of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> when the city was founded by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC</a> in 1652. Today, however, most of South Africa's Jews are Ashkenazi and, in particular, of Lithuanian descent.</li> <li>Communities also existed in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_e_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="São Tomé e Príncipe">São Tomé e Príncipe</a>, descended from Portuguese Jewish youths expelled during the Inquisition.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South,_East,_and_Central_Asia"><span id="South.2C_East.2C_and_Central_Asia"></span>South, East, and Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: South, East, and Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">History of the Jews in India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Jews_in_Israel" title="Indian Jews in Israel">Indian Jews in Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synagogues_in_India" title="Synagogues in India">Synagogues in India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_India" title="List of synagogues in India">List of synagogues in India</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jews</a> are <a href="/wiki/Indian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Jews">Indian Jews</a> from <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a> in south-western India, and one of the oldest extant groups in India. Most of them now reside in Israel. The community spoke <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a> language. They also constructed <a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_Kerala" title="List of synagogues in Kerala">synagogues across the Malabar coast</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a> are the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mumbai" title="History of the Jews in Mumbai">Jews of Mumbai</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bombay_Jews" title="Bombay Jews">Bombay Jews</a>, most of whom now reside in Israel. The community believes that their ancestors fled <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> during the persecution under <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Epiphanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus Epiphanes">Antiochus Epiphanes</a>. They spoke <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a> language. A number of <a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_Maharashtra" title="List of synagogues in Maharashtra">synagogues in Mumbai</a> are still operating.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a> are descendants of Iranian and Babylonian Jews who settled in Central Asia. They get their name from the former <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Asian">Central Asian</a> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Emirate of Bukhara</a>, which once had a large Jewish population.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi Jews</a><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are those Jews who came from Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Arab countries and settled in India in the 18th century. Most of these <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kolkata" title="History of the Jews in Kolkata">Jews settled in Calcutta</a>. They spoke <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a> language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bnei_Menashe" title="Bnei Menashe">Bnei Menashe</a> is a community of Jews living in <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a> in north-eastern India, claiming descent from the dispersed Biblical <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Menasseh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribe of Menasseh">Tribe of Menasseh</a> since 1951.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Ephraim" title="Bene Ephraim">Bene Ephraim</a> are <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a>-speaking Jews of <a href="/wiki/Kottareddipalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Kottareddipalem">Kottareddipalem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, India. They claim to be descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Ephraim" title="Tribe of Ephraim">Tribe of Ephraim</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi Jews</a> are Jews who immigrated to the Indian subcontinent during the 15th and 16th centuries following the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">expulsion of Jews from Spain</a>. The word <i>Pardesi</i> means foreign in Indian languages.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> is the term used to refer to communities of Bene Israel and Cochin Jews that had been integrated into South Asian culture and society. The Desi Jewish communities are some of the oldest in world, with more than 2000 years of continuity in the Indian subcontinent.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Chinese Jews</a>: most prominent were the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a>, an ancient Jewish community in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a>, descended from merchants living in China from at least the era of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. Today functionally extinct, although several hundred descendants have recently begun to explore and reclaim their heritage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews_in_India" title="Sephardic Jews in India">Goan Jews</a> were Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal who fled to <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> in India after the commencement of the Inquisition in those countries. They were the primary targets of the <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistani Jews</a>: There was a thriving Jewish community in Pakistan particularly around the city of <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> but also in other urban areas up north such as in <a href="/wiki/Peshawer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshawer">Peshawer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rawalpindi" title="Rawalpindi">Rawalpindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>. The origins of the Jewish community was mixed with some being <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi Jews</a>. In the late 1980s and 1990s, Jewish refugees from Iran had also came via Pakistan's Balochistan province and reached Karachi until the Iranian government closed down the operation. Most of Pakistan's Jewish community has not relocated to Israel and Pakistan's Jewish population is believed to number around 700. Also the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Allahdad" title="Allahdad">Allahdad</a> have residence in this area.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bangladesh" title="History of the Jews in Bangladesh">Bangladeshi Jews</a> areJews of <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> who are reported to have been Baghdadi Jews , Cochin Jews and the Bene Israel. Most of these Jews emigrated by the 1960s. Now, only a few Jewish families live in Bangladesh (practicing <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a>) due to government policy towards Israel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a>: Records of a Jewish population in Afghanistan go back to the 7th century. Before the arrival of Islam in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, Kabul and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> were trading places for Jewish merchants. The Afghan Jewish community has disappeared since the 1950s due to gradual emigration to Israel. Since the Mughal period, there had also been a historiographical tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Pashtun_descent_from_Israelites" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Pashtun descent from Israelites">Afghans themselves being descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Tamil Thattar Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> are Jews who have had a presence on the island nation since at least the 9th century.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most Jewish communities in the Americas are descendants of Jews who found their way there at different times of modern history. The first Jews to settle in the Americas were of Spanish/Portuguese origin. Today, however, the great majority of recognized Jews on both the North American and South American continents are Ashkenazi, particularly among <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jews in the United States</a>. There are also Mizrahim and other diaspora groups represented (as well as mixes of any or all of these) as mentioned above. Some unique communities associated with the Americas include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> are the descendants of Sephardi Jewish nominal converts (<a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a>) to Catholicism who immigrated to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> escaping the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> in Spain and Portugal. Following the establishment of the Inquisition in the Iberian colonies, again they hid their ancestry and beliefs. Their numbers are difficult to ascertain as most are at least nominally <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a>, having been converted by force or coercion, or married into the religion. Collectively, people of Sephardic Bnei Anusim Jewish descent in Latin America is in the millions. Most would be of mixed ancestry, although a few claim some communities may have been able to maintain a degree of <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> (marrying only other Crypto-Jews) throughout the centuries. They may or may not consider themselves Jewish, some may continue to preserve some of their Jewish heritage in secrecy, many others may not even be aware of it. The majority would not be <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakhically</a> Jewish, but small numbers of various communities have formally returned to Judaism over the past decade, legitimizing their status as Jews. See also <a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_Jews" title="Amazonian Jews">Amazonian Jews</a> are mainly the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Moroccan Jews</a> who migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a> in the 19th and early 20th centuries. While many remain in traditional Jewish communities in the region, mostly in the northern <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m" title="Belém">Belém</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manaus" title="Manaus">Manaus</a>, or as part of larger Jewish communities in other Brazilian cities, others scattered in the region and mixed into the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-amazon_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amazon-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-museum_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-museum-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haketia_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haketia-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Iquitos Jews are mostly the mixed descendants of Moroccan Jewish traders who arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Iquitos" title="Iquitos">Iquitos</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Rubber_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber boom">rubber boom</a> of the 1880s and the local <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a> or <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> population. In the late 20th century they began to explore their Jewish heritage, and as most of them lacked a Jewish matrilineal descent, a formal conversion would be required for them to be recognized as Jews under <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">religious law</a>. After years of study, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> rabbis from <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, most of them converted to Judaism and moved to Israel between 2003 and 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%27nai_Moshe" title="B'nai Moshe">B'nai Moshe</a> are <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">converts to Judaism</a> originally from <a href="/wiki/Trujillo,_Peru" title="Trujillo, Peru">Trujillo, Peru</a>. They are also known as <i>Inca Jews</i>, a name derived from the fact that they can trace indigenous <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> descent, as most are <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a> (persons of both Spanish and Amerindian descent) though none with any known ancestors from other Jewish communities. Again, there is no interaction between Peru's small Ashkenazi population and the Inca Jews. At the neglect of the Ashkenazi community, the conversions were conducted under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Rabbinate">Chief Rabbinate</a> of Israel. Most have made <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> and now live in Israel, while a few hundred more of the same community are awaiting conversions.</li> <li>Veracruz Jews are a recently emergent community of Jews in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)" title="Veracruz (city)">Veracruz</a>, Mexico. Whether they are gentile converts to Judaism or descendants of <a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">anusim</a> returning to Judaism is speculative. Most claim they descend from anusim.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon_Jews" title="Melungeon Jews">Melungeon Jews</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></div> <p>The state of Israel was proclaimed as being a home state for all Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the state’s founders strived towards this goal, the lived experience of Jews differed greatly. At the time when the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a> was proclaimed, the majority of the Jews who lived in both the state and the region were <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews_in_Israel" title="Ashkenazi Jews in Israel">Ashkenazi</a>. However, by the 1990s, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews_in_Israel" title="Mizrahi Jews in Israel">Israeli Jews were Mizrahi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2005, 61% of Israeli Jews are of Mizrahi ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg/220px-Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg/330px-Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg/440px-Karaite_synagogue_in_Jerusalem_18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2340" data-file-height="3555" /></a><figcaption>Chief <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a> rabbi, Moshe Fairouz (left) and vice chairman, Eli Eltahan. <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, Israel.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the establishment of the state, a flood of Jewish migrants and refugees entered Israel <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">from the Arab world</a> in particular and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> in general. Most of them were Sephardim and Mizrahim, and they included Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teimanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Teimanim">Yemenite Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Jews">Iraqi Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Kurdish Jews</a>, as well as smaller communities, principally those from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a>. Many immigrants from these communities coming to Israel were met with harsh living conditions, as the fledgling state's did not yet have sufficient financial resources to house the influx of its residents. Thus, many immigrants were temporarily housed in tents until spaces of more adequate living means were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishStudiesPodcast_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishStudiesPodcast-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An additional challenge for non-Ashkenazi Jews was that of a spoken language. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> was the spoken language within Jewish communities in the eastern portion of the European continent, but groups outside of this—who constituted a minority of the population of Israel—spoke other languages. For example, some Sephardic communities spoke <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> and many Mizrahi Jews spoke Arabic. Hebrew, which was then a language mostly reserved for religious purposes, was the language that Jewish communities had in common. Hebrew was already spoken conversationally among tradespeople living in the region of Palestine, and its full revival as a spoken language that could be used by all residents of Israel was spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, other communities have also arrived, including <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Ethiopian Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">Indian Jews</a>. Because of the relative homogeneity of Ashkenazic Jewry, especially in comparison to the diversity of the many smaller Jewish communities, over time in Israel, <i>all</i> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Jews from Europe</a> came to be called "<i>Ashkenazi</i>" in Israel (even those Jews from Europe who did not have any connection to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a>) while <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Jews from Africa</a> and Asia have come to be called "Sephardi" (even those Jews from Africa and Asia who did not have any connection to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a>). One reason for this categorization is due to many African and Asian Jewish communities performing the Sephardic prayer ritual, and also abiding by the rulings of the Sephardic rabbinic authorities. As a result, they consider themselves "Sephardim" in the broader sense of the term "Jews of the Spanish rite" because they do not consider themselves "Sephardim" in the narrower sense of the term "Spanish Jews". Similarly, the term "Ashkenazim" has the broader sense of the term "Jews of the German rite". </p><p>Aspects of these differing experiences among Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jewry still linger a half-century later, according to studies which were conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Adva_Center" title="Adva Center">Adva Center</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a think tank on social equality, and by other Israeli academic research<sup id="cite_ref-ha-keshet.org_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ha-keshet.org-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every Israeli prime minister has been Ashkenazi, although Sephardim and Mizrahim have attained the presidency, generally considered a ceremonial position,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other high positions. The student bodies of Israel's universities remain overwhelmingly European in origin, despite the fact that roughly half the country's population is non-European. Scattered over areas on the border of the Negev Desert and the Galilee, far from Israel's major cities, most of these towns never had the critical mass or ingredients to succeed as places to live, and reports have emerged that document their residents suffering from high unemployment and inadequate schools.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Prof. <a href="/wiki/Smadar_Lavie" title="Smadar Lavie">Smadar Lavie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> U.S.-Israeli anthropologist, has documented and analyzed the discriminatory treatment Mizrahi single mothers endure from the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a>-majority Israeli government, suggesting that Israeli bureaucracy is based on a theological notion that inserts the categories of religion, gender, and race into the foundation of citizenship. Lavie connects intra-Jewish racial and gendered dynamics to the 2014 Gaza War in her widely reviewed book, <i>Wrapped in the Flag of Israel: Mizrahi Single Mothers and Bureaucratic Torture</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and analyzes the racial and gender justice protest movements in the State of Israel from the 2003 Single Mothers’ March to the 2014 New Black Panthers.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">Intermarriage</a> between members of all of these regathered Jewish ethnic groups was initially uncommon, partially as a result of the distances which separated each group's settlement in Israel, and partially because of cultural and/or racial biases. In recent generations, however, the barriers were lowered by the state-sponsored assimilation of all of the Jewish ethnic groups into a common <a href="/wiki/Sabra_(person)" title="Sabra (person)">Sabra</a> (native-born Israeli) identity, a policy which facilitated extensive mixed-marriages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>Reduce list to most pertinent cross-references only!</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Special:EditPage/Jewish ethnic divisions">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Israel" title="Demographics of Israel">Demographics of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">Gerim (Jewish converts)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Expulsions and exoduses of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Genetic history of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Racism in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Jewish_communities" title="Racism in Jewish communities">Racism in Jewish communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_ethnic_divisions&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist 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Behar; Mait Metspalu; Yael Baran; Naama Kopelman; Bayazit Yunusbayev; et al. (August 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=humbiol_preprints">"No evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews"</a>. <i>Human Biology Open Access Pre-Prints</i>. Wayne State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Biology+Open+Access+Pre-Prints&rft.atitle=No+evidence+from+Genome-Wide+Data+of+a+Khazar+Origin+for+the+Ashkenazi+Jews&rft.date=2013-08-01&rft.au=Doron+M.+Behar&rft.au=Mait+Metspalu&rft.au=Yael+Baran&rft.au=Naama+Kopelman&rft.au=Bayazit+Yunusbayev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.wayne.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1040%26context%3Dhumbiol_preprints&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory B. Kaplan, Review of: <i>The Compunctious Poet: Cultural Ambiguity and Hebrew Poetry in Muslim Spain</i>, Ross Brann, Johns Hopkins UP, 1991. <i><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_Review" title="Hispanic Review">Hispanic Review</a></i>, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 405–407. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/475075">here</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Jstor" class="mw-redirect" title="Jstor">Jstor</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190427/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/religions/jews">"Jewish Population by Country"</a>. Pew Religious Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/religions/jews">the original</a> on May 10, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Population+by+Country&rft.pub=Pew+Religious+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalreligiousfutures.org%2Freligions%2Fjews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, <i>A History of the Jews</i>, p.237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyal2006" class="citation cs2">Eyal, Gil (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5d3iEECpQSoC&pg=PA86">"The "One Million Plan" and the Development of a Discourse about the Absorption of the Jews from Arab Countries"</a>, <i>The Disenchantment of the Orient: Expertise in Arab Affairs and the Israeli State</i>, Stanford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">86–</span>90, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804754033" title="Special:BookSources/9780804754033"><bdi>9780804754033</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%E2%80%9COne+Million+Plan%E2%80%9D+and+the+Development+of+a+Discourse+about+the+Absorption+of+the+Jews+from+Arab+Countries&rft.btitle=The+Disenchantment+of+the+Orient%3A+Expertise+in+Arab+Affairs+and+the+Israeli+State&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780804754033&rft.aulast=Eyal&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5d3iEECpQSoC%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span> p. 86: "The principal significance of this plan lies in the fact, noted by <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Shenhav" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehuda Shenhav">Yehuda Shenhav</a>, that this was the first time in Zionist history that Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were all packaged together in one category as the target of an immigration plan. 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Federal University of Minas Gerais.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%C3%ADnguas+em+extin%C3%A7%C3%A3o%3A+o+haketia+em+Bel%C3%A9m+do+Par%C3%A1&rft.pub=Federal+University+of+Minas+Gerais&rft.date=2006&rft.au=C%C3%A1ssia+Scheinbein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catedra-alberto-benveniste.org%2F_fich%2F17%2Futima_versao.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaltz2013" class="citation news cs1">Maltz, Judy (November 6, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.556547">"For the Jews of the Amazon, Israel Is a Whole Different Kind of Jungle"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=For+the+Jews+of+the+Amazon%2C+Israel+Is+a+Whole+Different+Kind+of+Jungle&rft.date=2013-11-06&rft.aulast=Maltz&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F.premium-1.556547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishfilmfestivals.org/films/2008/fire-within-jews-amazonian-rainforest/">"The Fire Within: Jews in the Amazonian Rainforest - Jewish Film Festivals and Films"</a>. <i>Jewish Film Festivals and Films</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Film+Festivals+and+Films&rft.atitle=The+Fire+Within%3A+Jews+in+the+Amazonian+Rainforest+-+Jewish+Film+Festivals+and+Films&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishfilmfestivals.org%2Ffilms%2F2008%2Ffire-within-jews-amazonian-rainforest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishgen.org/Sephardic/amazon.HTM">"Moroccan Jews in the Amazon"</a>. <i>www.jewishgen.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishgen.org&rft.atitle=Moroccan+Jews+in+the+Amazon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishgen.org%2FSephardic%2Famazon.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/36174/film-uncovers-amazonian-jews-who-want-to-make-aliyah/">"Film uncovers Amazonian Jews who want to make aliyah"</a>. <i>J</i>. November 14, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J&rft.atitle=Film+uncovers+Amazonian+Jews+who+want+to+make+aliyah&rft.date=2008-11-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jweekly.com%2Farticle%2Ffull%2F36174%2Ffilm-uncovers-amazonian-jews-who-want-to-make-aliyah%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ephraim Isaac, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.binacf.org/files/ETH-JEWS02-01-05.pdf">The Question of Jewish Identity and Ethiopian Jewish Origins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111218202932/http://www.binacf.org/files/ETH-JEWS02-01-05.pdf">Archived</a> December 18, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", 2005; Amaleletch Teferi, "About the Jewish identity of the Beta Israel" in Tudor Parfitt & Emanuela Trevisan Semi (Editors), <i>Jews of Ethiopia: The Birth of an Elite</i>, Routledge, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31838-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31838-9">978-0-415-31838-9</a>, pp. 173–192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Population_of_Ethiopian_Origin_in_Israel-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Population_of_Ethiopian_Origin_in_Israel_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2020/358/11_20_358e.docx">"The Population of Ethiopian Origin in Israel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Central_Bureau_of_Statistics" title="Israel Central Bureau of Statistics">Israel Central Bureau of Statistics</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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R Kromberg (October 29, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E9icBAAAQBAJ&q=Cohen+Modal+Haplotype+Lemba&pg=PA309">"Human Genetics and Genomics and Sociocultural Beliefs and Practices in South Africa"</a>. In Kumar, Dhavendra; Chadwick, Ruth (eds.). <i>Genomics and Society: Ethical, Legal, Cultural and Socioeconomic Implications</i>. Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-420195-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-420195-8"><bdi>978-0-12-420195-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+Genetics+and+Genomics+and+Sociocultural+Beliefs+and+Practices+in+South+Africa&rft.btitle=Genomics+and+Society%3A+Ethical%2C+Legal%2C+Cultural+and+Socioeconomic+Implications&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2FElsevier&rft.date=2015-10-29&rft.isbn=978-0-12-420195-8&rft.au=Himla+Soodyall&rft.au=Jennifer+G.+R+Kromberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE9icBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DCohen%2BModal%2BHaplotype%2BLemba%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTofanelliTaglioliBertonciniFrancalacci2014" class="citation journal cs1">Tofanelli, Sergio; Taglioli, Luca; Bertoncini, Stefania; Francalacci, Paolo; <a href="/wiki/Klyosov" class="mw-redirect" title="Klyosov">Klyosov, Anatole</a>; Pagani, Luca (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4229899">"Mitochondrial and y chromosome haplotype motifs as diagnostic markers of Jewish ancestry: A reconsideration"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Genetics</i>. <b>5</b>: 384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffgene.2014.00384">10.3389/fgene.2014.00384</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4229899">4229899</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25431579">25431579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+and+y+chromosome+haplotype+motifs+as+diagnostic+markers+of+Jewish+ancestry%3A+A+reconsideration&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=384&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4229899%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25431579&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffgene.2014.00384&rft.aulast=Tofanelli&rft.aufirst=Sergio&rft.au=Taglioli%2C+Luca&rft.au=Bertoncini%2C+Stefania&rft.au=Francalacci%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Klyosov%2C+Anatole&rft.au=Pagani%2C+Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4229899&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adaniel.tripod.com/baghdadi.htm">"Jews in India: Baghdadi Jews"</a>. adaniel's info site.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+in+India%3A+Baghdadi+Jews&rft.pub=adaniel%27s+info+site&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadaniel.tripod.com%2Fbaghdadi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir Henry Yule, "Afghanistan" article in the 1902 <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>: "The Afghan chroniclers call their people Bani-Israil (Arab. For Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul (whom they call by the Mahommedan corruption Talut) through a son whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a son called Afghana. [...] This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the 16th century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of older date."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/1.535711">"New Group of 'Amazon Jews' Arrives in Israel"</a>. Haaretz. 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Keith Feldman"</a>. <i>Tikkun Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tikkun+Magazine&rft.atitle=Tikkun+Magazine%2C+Winter+2019+pp.+127-130.+Review+of+Wrapped+in+the+Flag+of+Israel.+Keith+Feldman.&rft.date=2019-03-08&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Lavie%2C+Smadar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38525554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+ethnic+divisions" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/university-of-nebraska-press/9781496205544">"Wrapped in the Flag of Israel - University of Nebraska Press"</a>. <i>Nebraska Press</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judeo-Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a 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