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class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Consonant distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Prosody </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Grammar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borrowed_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borrowed_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Borrowed words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borrowed_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loanwords_from_Polish_in_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords_from_Polish_in_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Loanwords from Polish in other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords_from_Polish_in_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Polish language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 197 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-197" aria-hidden="true" > 197 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools" title="Pools – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pools" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polnische_Sprache" title="Polnische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Polnische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%96%E1%88%8D%E1%8A%9B" title="ፖልኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፖልኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polisc_spr%C7%A3c" title="Polisc sprǣc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Polisc sprǣc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Аполиак бызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Аполиак бызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة البولندية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة البولندية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_polaco" title="Idioma polaco – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma polaco" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%A6%DC%98%DC%A0%DC%A2%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܦܘܠܢܕܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܦܘܠܢܕܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%A8s" title="Polonès – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Polonès" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_polacu" title="Idioma polacu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma polacu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polo%C3%B1a%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Poloñañe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Poloñañe'ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="Пол мацӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Пол мацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyak_dili" title="Polyak dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Polyak dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="لهیستان دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لهیستان دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Polandia" title="Basa Polandia – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Polandia" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="পোলীয় ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পোলীয় ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pho-l%C3%A2n-g%C3%AD" title="Pho-lân-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pho-lân-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Поляк теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Поляк теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Польская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Польская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Польская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Польская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poinische_Sproch" title="Poinische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Poinische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%95%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="ཕོ་ལན་སྐད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཕོ་ལན་སྐད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljski_jezik" title="Poljski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Poljski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloneg" title="Poloneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Poloneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Польшо хэлэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Польшо хэлэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%A8s" title="Polonès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Polonès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Поляк чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Поляк чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulongang_Polako" title="Pinulongang Polako – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pinulongang Polako" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C5%A1tina" title="Polština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Polština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_pulacca" title="Lingua pulacca – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lingua pulacca" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwyleg" title="Pwyleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pwyleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsk_(sprog)" title="Polsk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Polsk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لپولونية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لپولونية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polskkagiella" title="Polskkagiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Polskkagiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polnische_Sprache" title="Polnische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Polnische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8D%DE%A6%DE%80%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%8C%DE%A7%DE%82%DE%A9" title="ލަހިސްތާނީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ލަހިސްތާނީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3l%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Pólšćina – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Pólšćina" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola_keel" title="Poola keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poola keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Πολωνική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολωνική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pul%C3%A0c" title="Pulàc – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Pulàc" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Поляконь кель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Поляконь кель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_polaco" title="Idioma polaco – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma polaco" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_lingvo" title="Pola lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pola lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloniera" title="Poloniera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Poloniera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%94lisigbe" title="Pɔlisigbe – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Pɔlisigbe" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زبان لهستانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان لهستانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_bhasa" title="Polish bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Polish bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Pólskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Pólskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonais" title="Polonais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Polonais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poalsk" title="Poalsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Poalsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Pholainnis" title="An Pholainnis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Pholainnis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynnish" title="Polynnish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Polynnish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B2lais" title="Pòlais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Pòlais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_polaca" title="Lingua polaca – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua polaca" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4-l%C3%A0n-ng%C3%AE" title="Pô-làn-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Pô-làn-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B4%EB%9E%80%EB%93%9C%EC%96%B4" title="폴란드어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폴란드어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B0%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Լեհերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեհերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3l%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Pólšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Pólšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljski_jezik" title="Poljski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poljski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polona_linguo" title="Polona linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Polona linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Polako" title="Pagsasao a Polako – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Polako" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Polandia" title="Bahasa Polandia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Polandia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_polonese" title="Lingua polonese – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua polonese" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%C3%A6%D0%B9%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Польшæйаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Польшæйаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiPholisi" title="IsiPholisi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiPholisi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lska" title="Pólska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Pólska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_polacca" title="Lingua polacca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua polacca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פולנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פולנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Polen" title="Basa Polen – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Polen" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C9%9B%C9%9B_k%CA%8Bn%CA%8B%C5%8B" title="Polonɛɛ kʋnʋŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Polonɛɛ kʋnʋŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Поляк тил – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Поляк тил" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="პოლონური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოლონური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%96%D8%B4_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پولیٖش زبان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="پولیٖش زبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B2lsczi_j%C3%A3z%C3%ABk" title="Pòlsczi jãzëk – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Pòlsczi jãzëk" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Поляк тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Поляк тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonek" title="Polonek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Polonek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kipoland" title="Kipoland – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kipoland" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Поляк кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Поляк кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polskava" title="Polskava – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Polskava" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_polon%C3%AE" title="Zimanê polonî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê polonî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Поляк тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Поляк тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaz_polach" title="Lingaz polach – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Lingaz polach" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_polaka" title="Lingua polaka – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua polaka" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Polonica" title="Lingua Polonica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Polonica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%BCu_valoda" title="Poļu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Poļu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polnesch" title="Polnesch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Polnesch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Поляк чӀал – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Поляк чӀал" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenk%C5%B3_kalba" title="Lenkų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lenkų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_polacca" title="Lengua polacca – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua polacca" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools" title="Pools – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Pools" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsce_(lingua)" title="Polsce (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Polsce (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%E2%80%99%C5%A1an_kieli" title="Pol’šan kieli – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Pol’šan kieli" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_polacca" title="Lengua polacca – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua polacca" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengyel_nyelv" title="Lengyel nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lengyel nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_p%C3%B4l%C3%B4ney" title="Fiteny pôlôney – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny pôlôney" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="പോളിഷ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പോളിഷ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwa_Pollakka" title="Lingwa Pollakka – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwa Pollakka" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_P%C5%8Drana" title="Reo Pōrana – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Pōrana" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="პოლონური ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პოლონური ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%89" title="لغه بولاندى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه بولاندى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="لهستانی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="لهستانی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Poland" title="Bahasa Poland – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Poland" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯄꯣꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯄꯣꯂꯤꯁ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%8F%CC%A4-l%C3%A0ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Pŏ̤-làng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Pŏ̤-làng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Поляконь кяль – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Поляконь кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Польш хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Польш хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools" title="Pools – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pools" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools" title="Pools – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Pools" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पोलिश भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पोलिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E8%AA%9E" title="ポーランド語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポーランド語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_pulacca" title="Lengua pulacca – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Lengua pulacca" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Полякийн мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Полякийн мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolsk_spriak" title="Poolsk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Poolsk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poelish" title="Poelish – Pitcairn-Norfolk" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Poelish" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Pitcairn-Norfolk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsk" title="Polsk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Polsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsk" title="Polsk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Polsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%A9s" title="Polonés – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Polonés" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Поляк йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Поляк йылме" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyak_tili" title="Polyak tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Polyak tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪੋਲਿਸ਼ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੋਲਿਸ਼ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="پولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaco" title="Polaco – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Polaco" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%89%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="پولينډي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پولينډي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolish" title="Puolish – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Puolish" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%A1%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%89" title="ភាសាប៉ូឡូញ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាប៉ូឡូញ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%A8" title="Polonè – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Polonè" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_polon%C3%A8isa" title="Lenga polonèisa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga polonèisa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Polan" title="Tok Polan – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Tok Polan" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolsche_Spraak" title="Poolsche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Poolsche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_polski" title="Język polski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język polski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_polaca" title="Língua polaca – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua polaca" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyak_tili" title="Polyak tili – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Polyak tili" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leh_tili" title="Leh tili – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Leh tili" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_polonez%C4%83" title="Limba poloneză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba poloneză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulaku_simi" title="Pulaku simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pulaku simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Польскый язык – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Польскый язык" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Польский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Польский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Поляк тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Поляк тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%CA%BBa_Polani" title="Faʻa Polani – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Faʻa Polani" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%ABe" title="Polonëe – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Polonëe" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱯᱳᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱳᱞᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_polonesa" title="Limba polonesa – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba polonesa" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pols_leid" title="Pols leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Pols leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolsk" title="Poolsk – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Poolsk" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_polake" title="Gjuha polake – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha polake" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_pulacca" title="Lingua pulacca – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua pulacca" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Polish language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%BE%C5%A1tina" title="Poľština – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Poľština" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polj%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Poljščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Poljščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D2%84%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D1%A9%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Пол҄ьскъ ѩꙁꙑкъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Пол҄ьскъ ѩꙁꙑкъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polsko_godka" title="Polsko godka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Polsko godka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%86%DA%B5%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="زمانی پۆڵەندی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی پۆڵەندی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Пољски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пољски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poljski_jezik" title="Poljski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Poljski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Polandia" title="Basa Polandia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa Polandia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolan_kieli" title="Puolan kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puolan kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polska" title="Polska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Polska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Polako" title="Wikang Polako – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Polako" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="போலிய மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="போலிய மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapulunit" title="Tapulunit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tapulunit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Поляк теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Поляк теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lia-polaku" title="Lia-polaku – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Lia-polaku" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="ภาษาโปแลนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาโปแลนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%96%E1%88%8A%E1%88%BD" title="ፖሊሽ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ፖሊሽ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D2%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Забони лаҳистонӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони лаҳистонӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leh%C3%A7e" title="Lehçe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Lehçe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Поляк дыл – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Поляк дыл" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Поляк кыл – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Поляк кыл" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Польська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Польська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پولینڈی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پولینڈی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%95%D9%83_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="پولەك تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پولەك تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngua_po%C5%82aca" title="Łéngua połaca – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Łéngua połaca" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%27%C5%A1an_kel%27" title="Pol'šan kel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Pol'šan kel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Ba_Lan" title="Tiếng Ba Lan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ba Lan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%A4nap%C3%BCk" title="Polänapük – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Polänapük" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poola_kiil" title="Poola kiil – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Poola kiil" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polon%C3%A8s_(lingaedje)" title="Polonès (lingaedje) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Polonès (lingaedje)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pools" title="Pools – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Pools" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinolako" title="Pinolako – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pinolako" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="波兰语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="波兰语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9" title="פויליש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פויליש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_P%C3%B3l%C3%A1nd%C3%AC" title="Èdè Pólándì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Pólándì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E8%98%AD%E6%96%87" title="波蘭文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="波蘭文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonki" title="Polonki – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Polonki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C3%B4ls" title="Poôls – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Poôls" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%97nku_kalba" title="Lėnku kalba – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Lėnku kalba" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="波兰语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="波兰语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku_Poland" title="Jaku Poland – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku Poland" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Pulandiya" title="Basa Pulandiya – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Basa Pulandiya" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Polish</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">polski</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ˈpɔlskʲi]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Pl-polski.ogg\/Pl-polski.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-polski.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d8/Pl-polski.ogg/Pl-polski.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-polski.ogg" title="File:Pl-polski.ogg">ⓘ</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, and bordering regions</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a>: 40 million (2021)<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a>: 2.1 million (2021)<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a> Total: 43 million<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Polish</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish" title="Middle Polish">Middle Polish</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_dialect_group" title="Greater Poland dialect group">Greater Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goral_ethnolect" title="Goral ethnolect">Goral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_dialect_group" title="Lesser Poland dialect group">Lesser Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masovian_dialect_group" title="Masovian dialect group">Masovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mixed_dialects" title="New mixed dialects">New mixed dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Borderlands_dialect" title="Northern Borderlands dialect">Northern Borderlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-silesian-6">[a]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Borderlands_dialect" title="Southern Borderlands dialect">Southern Borderlands</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">Polish alphabet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Sign_Language_System" title="Sign Language System">Sign Language System</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a><a href="#cite_note-euro-charter-7">[6]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a><a href="#cite_note-euro-charter-7">[6]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a><a href="#cite_note-euro-charter-7">[6]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a><a href="#cite_note-euro-charter-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Language_Council" title="Polish Language Council">Polish Language Council</a> (of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=pl">pl</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=361">pol</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/pol" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:pol">pol</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/poli1260">poli1260</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">53-AAA-cc <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">53-AAA-b..-d</a> (varieties: 53-AAA-cca to 53-AAA-ccu)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_language_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Polish_language_map.PNG/320px-Polish_language_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="320" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Polish_language_map.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="385" data-file-height="404" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Majority of Polish speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Polish used together alongside other languages</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Significant minority of Polish speakers outside of Poland</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Polish (<a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">endonym</a>: język polski, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ˈjɛ̃zɘk ˈpɔlskʲi]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d9\/Pl-j%C4%99zyk_polski.ogg\/Pl-j%C4%99zyk_polski.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-j\u0119zyk polski.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Pl-j%C4%99zyk_polski.ogg/Pl-j%C4%99zyk_polski.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-j%C4%99zyk_polski.ogg" title="File:Pl-język polski.ogg">ⓘ</a>, polszczyzna <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɘzna]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/47\/Pl-polszczyzna.ogg\/Pl-polszczyzna.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-polszczyzna.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/47/Pl-polszczyzna.ogg/Pl-polszczyzna.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-polszczyzna.ogg" title="File:Pl-polszczyzna.ogg">ⓘ</a> or simply polski, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ˈpɔlskʲi]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Pl-polski.ogg\/Pl-polski.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-polski.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d8/Pl-polski.ogg/Pl-polski.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-polski.ogg" title="File:Pl-polski.ogg">ⓘ</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic group</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language family</a> written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> It is primarily spoken in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and serves as the official language of the country, as well as the language of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora" title="Polish diaspora">Polish diaspora</a> around the world. In 2024, there were over 39.7 million Polish native speakers.<a href="#cite_note-ethnologue-15">[14]</a> It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union" title="Languages of the European Union">languages of the European Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> Polish is subdivided into regional <a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">dialects</a> and maintains strict <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">T–V distinction</a> pronouns, <a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">honorifics</a>, and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The traditional 32-letter <a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">Polish alphabet</a> has nine additions (ą, ć, ę, ł, ń, ó, ś, ź, ż) to the letters of the basic 26-letter <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-sjp.pwn.pl-18">[17]</a> The traditional set comprises 23 <a href="/wiki/Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonants">consonants</a> and 9 written <a href="/wiki/Vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowels">vowels</a>, including two <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal vowels">nasal vowels</a> (ę, ą) defined by a reversed <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> hook called an <a href="/wiki/Ogonek" title="Ogonek">ogonek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Polish is a <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">synthetic and fusional</a> language which has seven <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> It has fixed <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">penultimate stress</a> and an abundance of <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal consonants">palatal consonants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a> (10th–16th centuries) and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish" title="Middle Polish">Middle Polish</a> (16th–18th centuries).<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> Among the major languages, it is most closely related to <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a><a href="#cite_note-Swan-2002-24">[23]</a> but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. Additionally, Polish was profoundly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> (most notably <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> Extensive usage of <a href="/wiki/Nonstandard_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonstandard dialect">nonstandard dialects</a> has also shaped the <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard language</a>; considerable <a href="/wiki/Colloquialism" title="Colloquialism">colloquialisms</a> and expressions were directly borrowed from German or <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> and subsequently adopted into the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> of Polish which is in everyday use.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> Historically, Polish was a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> important both diplomatically and academically in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and part of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. In addition to being the official language of Poland, Polish is also spoken as a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> in eastern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, western parts of <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> as well as in southeast <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>. Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Polish">History of Polish</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish" title="Middle Polish">Middle Polish</a></div> Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. At the time, it was a collection of dialect groups with some mutual features, but much regional variation was present.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mieszko_I_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieszko I of Poland">Mieszko I</a>, ruler of the Polans tribe from the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">Greater Poland</a> region, united a few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a>, Poland also adopted the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> The closest relatives of Polish are the <a href="/wiki/Elbe_Slavs" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbe Slavs">Elbe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomeranians_(tribe)" title="Pomeranians (tribe)">Baltic Sea</a> Lechitic dialects (<a href="/wiki/Polabian_language" title="Polabian language">Polabian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_language" title="Pomeranian language">Pomeranian</a> varieties). All of them, except <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a>, are extinct.<a href="#cite_note-Kolaczyk-34">[33]</a> The precursor to modern Polish is the <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Polish language">Old Polish language</a>. Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> language. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG/220px-Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG/330px-Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG/440px-Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w" title="Book of Henryków">Book of Henryków</a> is the earliest document to include a sentence written entirely in what can be interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Polish language">Old Polish</a> – Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ty poziwai, meaning "let me grind, and you have a rest" highlighted in red.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w" title="Book of Henryków">Book of Henryków</a> (Polish: Księga henrykowska, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (in modern orthography: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj; the corresponding sentence in modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij; and in English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Programme" title="Memory of the World Programme">Memory of the World</a>" list. <a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of the Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish").<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jakub_Parkosz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jakub Parkosz (page does not exist)">Jakub Parkosz</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakub_Parkoszowic" class="extiw" title="pl:Jakub Parkoszowic">pl</a>] around 1470.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_Poland" title="History of printing in Poland">printed</a> book in Polish appeared in either 1508<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> or 1513,<a href="#cite_note-Comrie-41">[40]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Merkuriusz_Polski_Ordynaryjny" title="Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny">oldest Polish newspaper</a> was established in 1661.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> The writing system achieved its overall form in the 16th century,<a href="#cite_note-Kolaczyk-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009111-44">[43]</a> which is also regarded as the "<a href="/wiki/Polish_Golden_Age" title="Polish Golden Age">Golden Age</a> of Polish literature".<a href="#cite_note-Comrie-41">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish_orthography" title="History of Polish orthography">orthography was modified</a> in the 19th century and in 1936.<a href="#cite_note-Kolaczyk-34">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Kamusella" title="Tomasz Kamusella">Tomasz Kamusella</a> notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day."<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> Polish evolved into the main <a href="/wiki/Sociolect" title="Sociolect">sociolect</a> of the nobles in <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union" title="Polish–Lithuanian union">Poland–Lithuania</a> in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009111-44">[43]</a> The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a>. Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria</a>, and as the administrative language in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Western_Krai" title="Western Krai">Western Krai</a>. The growth of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>'s influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009137-46">[45]</a> The process of standardization began in the 14th century<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> and solidified in the 16th century during the Middle Polish era.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> Standard Polish was based on various dialectal features, with the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_dialect_group" title="Greater Poland dialect group">Greater Poland dialect group</a> serving as the base.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Standard Polish became the most widely spoken variant of Polish across the country, and most dialects stopped being the form of Polish spoken in villages.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geographical_distribution_of_Polish_speakers" title="Geographical distribution of Polish speakers">Geographical distribution of Polish speakers</a></div> Poland is one of the most linguistically <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Homogeneous" class="extiw" title="wikt:Homogeneous">homogeneous</a> European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a>. Elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a> constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. Polish is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_County" title="Vilnius County">Vilnius County</a>, by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of <a href="/wiki/Lviv_Oblast" title="Lviv Oblast">Lviv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volyn_Oblast" title="Volyn Oblast">Volyn Oblasts</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/West_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="West Belarus">West Belarus</a> it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Brest,_Belarus" title="Brest, Belarus">Brest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a> regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Americans" title="Polish Americans">Polish Americans</a> number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="2000 United States Census">2000 United States Census</a>, 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as the language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> (185,749), <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> (111,740), and <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> (74,663).<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> Enough people in these areas speak Polish that <a href="/wiki/PNC_Financial_Services" title="PNC Financial Services">PNC Financial Services</a> (which has a large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their <a href="/wiki/Cash_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cash machine">cash machines</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, there is a significant <a href="/wiki/Polish_Canadians" title="Polish Canadians">Polish Canadian population</a>: There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> (91,810 speakers) and <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-census-53">[52]</a> The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_immediately_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II">territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish population transfers (1944–46)">Polish population transfers (1944–46)</a>. Poles settled in the "<a href="/wiki/Recovered_Territories" title="Recovered Territories">Recovered Territories</a>" in the west and north, which had previously been mostly <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>-speaking. Some Poles remained in the previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>, resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking communities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long strip along either side of the <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>-<a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> border. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Poland_and_Soviet_Ukraine" title="Population exchange between Poland and Soviet Ukraine">expulsion of Ukrainians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vistula" title="Operation Vistula">Operation Vistula</a>, the 1947 migration of Ukrainian minorities in the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:923px;max-width:923px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center;background-color:#CCCCFF">Geographic language distribution maps of Poland from pre-WWII to present</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Curzon_line_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Curzon_line_en.svg/346px-Curzon_line_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="346" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Curzon_line_en.svg/519px-Curzon_line_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Curzon_line_en.svg/692px-Curzon_line_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="513" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The "<a href="/wiki/Recovered_Territories" title="Recovered Territories">Recovered Territories</a>" (in pink) were parts of Germany, including the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>), that became part of Poland after World War II. The territory shown in grey was lost to the Soviet Union, which <a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish population transfers (1944–46)">expelled many Poles</a> from the area.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG/275px-Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG" decoding="async" width="275" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG/413px-Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG/550px-Languages_of_CE_Europe-3.PNG 2x" data-file-width="951" data-file-height="1088" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Geographical distribution of the Polish language (green) and other Central and Eastern European languages and dialects. A large Polish-speaking diaspora remains in the countries located east of Poland that were once the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Borderlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Borderlands">Eastern Borderlands</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> (1918–1939).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Polish_language.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_of_the_Polish_language.png/290px-Map_of_the_Polish_language.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_of_the_Polish_language.png/435px-Map_of_the_Polish_language.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_of_the_Polish_language.png/580px-Map_of_the_Polish_language.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1114" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Knowledge of the Polish language within parts of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Polish is not a majority language of any nation outside of Poland, though areas that speak and are majority Polish are present in some neighboring countries.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dialects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Dialects of Polish</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG/220px-Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG/330px-Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG/440px-Modlitwy_drukowane_po_polsku_w_r._1475.JPG 2x" data-file-width="463" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption>The oldest printed text in Polish – Statuta synodalia Episcoporum Wratislaviensis printed in 1475 in <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> by Kasper Elyan.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish-alphabet.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Polish-alphabet.png/220px-Polish-alphabet.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Polish-alphabet.png/330px-Polish-alphabet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Polish-alphabet.png/440px-Polish-alphabet.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The Polish alphabet contains 32 letters. Q, V and X are not used in the Polish language.</figcaption></figure> The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit">[update]</a> speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> varieties and standard Polish (język ogólnopolski) appear relatively slight. Most of the middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-wtad-54">[53]</a> First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and <a href="/wiki/Sociolect" title="Sociolect">social</a> differences. The modern <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard dialect</a>, often termed as "correct Polish",<a href="#cite_note-wtad-54">[53]</a> is spoken or at least understood throughout the entire country.<a href="#cite_note-Swan-2002-24">[23]</a> Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of three to five main regional dialects: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Polish dialect">Greater Polish</a>, spoken in the west</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesser Polish dialect">Lesser Polish</a>, spoken in the south and southeast</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masovian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Masovian dialect">Masovian</a>, spoken throughout the central and eastern parts of the country</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a> respectively, are thought of as either <a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Polish dialects</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ausbau" class="mw-redirect" title="Ausbau">distinct languages</a>, depending on the criteria used.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Kashubian contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs. the six of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from <a href="/wiki/Common_Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Slavic">Common Slavic</a> times and not found anywhere else among the <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic languages</a>. However, it was described by some linguists as lacking most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a regional language separate from Polish,<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> while some consider Silesian to be a dialect of Polish.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> Many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of Silesian as a <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Poland" title="Languages of Poland">regional language in Poland</a>. The law recognizing it as such was passed by the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate</a> in April 2024, but has been vetoed by President <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Duda" title="Andrzej Duda">Andrzej Duda</a> in late May of 2024. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Kamusella" title="Tomasz Kamusella">Tomasz Kamusella</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tomasz_Wicherkiewicz" title="Tomasz Wicherkiewicz">Tomasz Wicherkiewicz</a>)<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether a lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">speech variety</a> or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" class="mw-redirect" title="SIL International">SIL International</a><a href="#cite_note-SIL-63">[62]</a> and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>,<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> and others, for example the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Administration_and_Digitization_(Poland)" title="Ministry of Administration and Digitization (Poland)">Ministry of Administration and Digitization</a><a href="#cite_note-MoAaD-66">[65]</a> recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007, the Silesian language was recognized by <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a>, and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: <ol><li>The distinctive dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Gorals#Language" title="Gorals">Gorals</a> (Góralski) occurs in the mountainous area bordering the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. The Gorals ("Highlanders") take great pride in their culture and the dialect. It exhibits some cultural influences from the <a href="/wiki/Vlachs" title="Vlachs">Vlach</a> shepherds in the 14th–17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></li> <li>The <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwara_pozna%C5%84ska" class="extiw" title="pl:Gwara poznańska">Poznański dialect</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> and to some extent in the whole region of the former <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Partition" title="Prussian Partition">Prussian Partition</a> (excluding <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a>), with noticeable German influences.</li> <li>In the northern and western (formerly German) regions where Poles from the territories annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> resettled after World War II, the older generation speaks a dialect of Polish characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> that includes a longer pronunciation of vowels.</li> <li>Poles living in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> (particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> region), in Belarus (particularly the northwest), and in the northeast of Poland continue to speak the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Eastern Borderlands</a> dialect, which sounds "slushed"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] (in Polish described as zaciąganie z ruska, "speaking with a Ruthenian drawl") and is easily distinguishable.</li> <li>Some city dwellers, especially the less affluent population, had their own distinctive dialects – for example, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_dialect" title="Warsaw dialect">Warsaw dialect</a>, still spoken by some of the population of <a href="/wiki/Praga" title="Praga">Praga</a> on the eastern bank of the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>. However, these city dialects are now<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit">[update]</a> mostly extinct due to assimilation with standard Polish.</li> <li>Many Poles living in emigrant communities (for example, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>), whose families left Poland just after World War II, retain a number of minor features of Polish vocabulary as spoken in the first half of the 20th century that now sound archaic to contemporary visitors from Poland.</li></ol> Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">prescriptive</a> ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity,<a href="#cite_note-mling-68">[67]</a> along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness"<a href="#cite_note-wtad-54">[53]</a> (unusual by Western standards).<a href="#cite_note-mling-68">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish phonology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="69" data-mwtitle="Pl-Deflegmator-article.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Pl-Deflegmator-article.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Pl-Deflegmator-article.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Pl-Deflegmator-article.ogg/Pl-Deflegmator-article.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Spoken Polish in a neutral informative tone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="128" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Marta_speaking_Polish.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>A Polish speaker, recorded in Poland</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a>, and two <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowels</a>. The oral vowels are /<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/ (spelled i), /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>/ (spelled y and also transcribed as /ɘ/ or /ɪ/), /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>/ (spelled e), /<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/ (spelled a), /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>/ (spelled o) and /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ (spelled u and <a href="/wiki/%C3%93" title="Ó">ó</a> as separate letters). The nasal vowels are /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a><a href="/wiki/Nasal_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Nasal labial–velar approximant">w̃</a>/ (spelled <a href="/wiki/%C4%98" title="Ę">ę</a>) and /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a><a href="/wiki/Nasal_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Nasal labial–velar approximant">w̃</a>/ (spelled <a href="/wiki/%C4%84" title="Ą">ą</a>). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter ó, which formerly represented lengthened /ɔː/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_vowel_chart_(with_allophones).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg/220px-Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg/330px-Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg/440px-Polish_vowel_chart_%28with_allophones%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>Polish oral vowels depicted on a vowel chart. Main <a href="/wiki/Allophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophones">allophones</a> (in black) are in broad transcription, whereas positional allophones (in red and green) are in narrow transcription. Allophones with red dots appear in palatal contexts. The central vowel [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>] is an unstressed allophone of /ɛ, ɔ, a/ in certain contexts</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The Polish <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include the series of <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal consonants</a> that resulted from four <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a> palatalizations and two further <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalizations</a> that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th>(<a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">Alveolo-</a>) <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental affricate">t͡s</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">t͡ʂ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">t͡ɕ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental affricate">d͡z</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex affricate">d͡ʐ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">d͡ʑ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">s</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental sibilant fricative">z</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralization (linguistics)">Neutralization</a> occurs between <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>–<a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> consonant pairs in certain environments, at the end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">assimilation</a> occurs). For details, see <a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology#Voicing_and_devoicing" title="Polish phonology">Voicing and devoicing</a> in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are <a href="/wiki/Paroxytone" title="Paroxytone">paroxytones</a> (that is, the <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonant_distribution">Consonant distribution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consonant distribution">edit</a>]</div> Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from the disappearance of <a href="/wiki/Yer" title="Yer">yers</a>. Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), źdźbło [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/26\/Pl-wstrz%C4%85s.ogg\/Pl-wstrz%C4%85s.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"wstrz\u0105s<\/i>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-wstrz\u0105s.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/26/Pl-wstrz%C4%85s.ogg/Pl-wstrz%C4%85s.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">wstrząs</a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-wstrz%C4%85s.ogg" title="File:Pl-wstrząs.ogg">ⓘ</a> [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and krnąbrność [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish <a href="/wiki/Tongue-twister" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongue-twister">tongue-twister</a> (from a verse by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Brzechwa" title="Jan Brzechwa">Jan Brzechwa</a>) is <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/22\/Polish_Tongue_twister_-_Chrz%C4%85szcz_-_2.ogg\/Polish_Tongue_twister_-_Chrz%C4%85szcz_-_2.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"W Szczebrzeszynie chrz\u0105szcz brzmi w trzcinie<\/i>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Polish Tongue twister - Chrz\u0105szcz - 2.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/22/Polish_Tongue_twister_-_Chrz%C4%85szcz_-_2.ogg/Polish_Tongue_twister_-_Chrz%C4%85szcz_-_2.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">W Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie</a><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_Tongue_twister_-_Chrz%C4%85szcz_-_2.ogg" title="File:Polish Tongue twister - Chrząszcz - 2.ogg">ⓘ</a> [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In <a href="/wiki/Szczebrzeszyn" title="Szczebrzeszyn">Szczebrzeszyn</a> a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a> – the nucleus of a <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> is always a vowel.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede the letter y. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosody">Prosody</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Prosody">edit</a>]</div> The predominant <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter i normally does not represent a vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/, palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters u and i sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in autor /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native nauka /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized Mateusz /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg/220px-Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg/330px-Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg/440px-Styl_urzedowy_-_Polish_sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="2616" /></a><figcaption>A formal-tone informative sign in Polish, with a composition of vowels and consonants and a mixture of long, medium and short <a href="/wiki/Syllables" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllables">syllables</a></figcaption></figure> Some <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical languages</a>, have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, fizyka (/ˈfizɨka/) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example muzyka /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. muzyka /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of muzyk 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixation</a>, the stress normally becomes regular. For example, uniwersytet (/uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/, 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive uniwersytetu (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/) and derived adjective uniwersytecki (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussmann20079-72">[71]</a> In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to the distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings -by, -bym, -byśmy, etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, zrobiłbym ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and zrobilibyśmy ('we would do') on the second. According to <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">prescriptive authorities</a>, the same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings -śmy, -ście, although this rule is often ignored in <a href="/wiki/Colloquialism" title="Colloquialism">colloquial speech</a> (so zrobiliśmy 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in <a href="/wiki/Usus" class="mw-redirect" title="Usus">practice</a> it is commonly stressed on the third as zrobiliśmy).<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a> rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of kogo zobaczyliście? ('whom did you see?') it is possible to say kogoście zobaczyli? – here kogo retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were a single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as do niej ('to her'), na nas ('on us'), przeze mnie ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">Polish orthography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish Braille</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish_orthography" title="History of Polish orthography">History of Polish orthography</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">Polish alphabet</a> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> but includes certain additional letters formed using <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages, the others being <a href="/wiki/Czech_orthography" title="Czech orthography">Czech orthography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian orthography</a>, the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. <a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a> uses a Polish-based system, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> uses a Czech-based system, and <a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a> follows the Croatian one; the <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian languages</a> blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Lipka_Tatars" title="Lipka Tatars">Lipka Tatars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> inhabiting the eastern parts of the former <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> wrote Polish in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> is used to a certain extent today by <a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Belarus" title="Poles in Belarus">Polish speakers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Belarus">Western Belarus</a>, especially for religious texts.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the kreska (graphically similar to the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) over the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź and through the letter in ł; the kropka (superior dot) over the letter ż, and the <a href="/wiki/Ogonek" title="Ogonek">ogonek</a> ("little tail") under the letters ą, ę. The letters q, v, x are used only in foreign words and names.<a href="#cite_note-sjp.pwn.pl-18">[17]</a> Polish orthography is largely <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a>—there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraphs</a>) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in the following table. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg/220px-Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg/330px-Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg/440px-Wyjscia_wujek_1599.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="909" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Wujek_Bible" title="Jakub Wujek Bible">Jakub Wujek Bible</a> in Polish, 1599 print. The letters á and é were subsequently abolished, but survive in Czech.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Upper case </th> <th>Lower case </th> <th>Phonemic value(s) </th> <th>Upper case </th> <th>Lower case </th> <th>Phonemic value(s) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">A</a> </td> <td>a </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%83" title="Ń">Ń</a> </td> <td>ń </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%84" title="Ą">Ą</a> </td> <td>ą </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɔ̃</a>/, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɔn]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɔm]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">O</a> </td> <td>o </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">B</a> </td> <td>b </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%93" title="Ó">Ó</a> </td> <td>ó </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">C</a> </td> <td>c </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental affricate">ts</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">P</a> </td> <td>p </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%86" title="Ć">Ć</a> </td> <td>ć </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Q</a> </td> <td>q </td> <td>Only loanwords </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">D</a> </td> <td>d </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t</a>/) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">R</a> </td> <td>r </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">E</a> </td> <td>e </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">S</a> </td> <td>s </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">s</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%98" title="Ę">Ę</a> </td> <td>ę </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɛ̃</a>/, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɛn]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɛm]</a>, /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A" title="Ś">Ś</a> </td> <td>ś </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">F</a> </td> <td>f </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">T</a> </td> <td>t </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">G</a> </td> <td>g </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">U</a> </td> <td>u </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">H</a> </td> <td>h </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">V</a> </td> <td>v </td> <td>Only loanwords </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">I</a> </td> <td>i </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">W</a> </td> <td>w </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">J</a> </td> <td>j </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">X</a> </td> <td>x </td> <td>Only loanwords </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">K</a> </td> <td>k </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Y</a> </td> <td>y </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">L</a> </td> <td>l </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Z</a> </td> <td>z </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental sibilant fricative">z</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">s</a>/) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81" title="Ł">Ł</a> </td> <td>ł </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%B9" title="Ź">Ź</a> </td> <td>ź </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">M</a> </td> <td>m </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%BB" title="Ż">Ż</a> </td> <td>ż </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a>/) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">N</a> </td> <td>n </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n</a>/ </td></tr></tbody></table> The following <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraphs</a> are used: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Digraph </th> <th>Phonemic value(s) </th> <th>Digraph/trigraph (before a vowel) </th> <th>Phonemic value(s) </th></tr> <tr> <td>ch </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td>ci </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>cz </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a>/ </td> <td>dzi </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>dz </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental affricate">dz</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental affricate">ts</a>/) </td> <td>gi </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">ɡʲ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>dź </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/) </td> <td>(c)hi </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">xʲ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>dż </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex affricate">dʐ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a>/) </td> <td>ki </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">kʲ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>rz </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>/ (/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a>/) </td> <td>ni </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>sz </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a>/ </td> <td>si </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>zi </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>/ </td></tr></tbody></table> Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the <a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a> section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for the palatal sounds /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a>/ and /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ is as follows: before the vowel i the plain letters s, z, c, dz, n are used; before other vowels the combinations si, zi, ci, dzi, ni are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms ś, ź, ć, dź, ń are used. For example, the s in siwy ("grey-haired"), the si in siarka ("sulfur") and the ś in święty ("holy") all represent the sound /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/. The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where s before i is pronounced as s, e.g. sinus, sinologia, do re mi fa sol la si do, Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści, Sierioża, Siergiej, Singapur, singiel. In other loanwords the vowel i is changed to y, e.g. Syria, Sybir, synchronizacja, Syrakuzy. The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">Digraphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraphs</a> are used: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Phonemic value </th> <th>Single letter/Digraph (in pausa or before a consonant) </th> <th>Digraph/Trigraph (before a vowel) </th> <th>Single letter/Digraph (before the vowel i) </th></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/ </td> <td>ć </td> <td>ci </td> <td>c </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a>/ </td> <td>dź </td> <td>dzi </td> <td>dz </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/ </td> <td>ś </td> <td>si </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>/ </td> <td>ź </td> <td>zi </td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td> <td>ń </td> <td>ni </td> <td>n </td></tr></tbody></table> Similar principles apply to /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">kʲ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">ɡʲ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">xʲ</a>/ and <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">/lʲ/</a>, except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are k, g, (c)h, l before i, and ki, gi, (c)hi, li otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of k, g, (c)h or l as creating new sounds. Except in the cases mentioned above, the letter i if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/, yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using j instead of i: for example, zjeść, "to eat up". The letters ą and ę, when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by a nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, ą in dąb ("oak") is pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɔm]</a>, and ę in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɛn]</a> (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by l or ł (for example przyjęli, przyjęły), ę is pronounced as just e. When ę is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ɛ]</a>. Depending on the word, the phoneme /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ can be spelt h or ch, the phoneme /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>/ can be spelt ż or rz, and /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ can be spelt u or ó. In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: może ("maybe") and morze ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, rz represents /rz/, not /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>/, in words like zamarzać ("freeze") and in the name <a href="/wiki/Tarzan" title="Tarzan">Tarzan</a>. Doubled letters are usually pronounced as a single, <a href="/wiki/Gemination#Polish" title="Gemination">lengthened</a> consonant, however, some speakers might pronounce the combination as two separate sounds. There are certain clusters where a written consonant would not be pronounced. For example, the ł in the word jabłko ("apple") might be omitted in ordinary speech, leading to the pronunciation japko. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish grammar</a></div> Polish is a highly <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional language</a> with relatively free <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, although the dominant arrangement is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO). There are no <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">articles</a>, and subject pronouns are often <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">dropped</a>. <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> belong to one of three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">genders</a>: masculine, feminine and neuter. The masculine gender is also divided into subgenders: animate vs inanimate in the singular, human vs nonhuman in the plural. There are seven <a href="/wiki/Case_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Case (grammar)">cases</a>: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjectives</a> agree with nouns in terms of gender, case, and number. <a href="/wiki/Attributive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Attributive adjective">Attributive adjectives</a> most commonly precede the noun, although in certain cases, especially in fixed phrases (like język polski, "Polish (language)"), the noun may come first; the rule of thumb is that generic descriptive adjectives normally precede (e.g. piękny kwiat, "beautiful flower") while categorizing adjectives often follow the noun (e.g. węgiel kamienny, "black coal"). Most short adjectives and their derived <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a> form <a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">comparatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Superlative">superlatives</a> by inflection (the superlative is formed by prefixing naj- to the comparative). <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verbs</a> are of imperfective or perfective <a href="/wiki/Aspect_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspect (grammar)">aspect</a>, often occurring in pairs. Imperfective verbs have a present tense, past tense, compound future tense (except for być "to be", which has a simple future będę etc., this in turn being used to form the compound future of other verbs), subjunctive/conditional (formed with the detachable particle by), imperatives, an infinitive, present participle, present gerund and past participle. Perfective verbs have a simple future tense (formed like the present tense of imperfective verbs), past tense, subjunctive/conditional, imperatives, infinitive, present gerund and past participle. Conjugated verb forms agree with their subject in terms of person, number, and (in the case of past tense and subjunctive/conditional forms) gender. <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">Passive</a>-type constructions can be made using the auxiliary być or zostać ("become") with the passive participle. There is also an impersonal construction where the active verb is used (in third person singular) with no subject, but with the reflexive pronoun się present to indicate a general, unspecified subject (as in pije się wódkę "vodka is being drunk"—note that wódka appears in the accusative). A similar sentence type in the past tense uses the passive participle with the ending -o, as in widziano ludzi ("people were seen"). As in other Slavic languages, there are also subjectless sentences formed using such words as można ("it is possible") together with an infinitive. <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">Yes–no questions</a> (both direct and indirect) are formed by placing the word czy ("whether") at the start, although it's often omitted in casual speech. Negation uses the word nie, before the verb or other item being negated; nie is still added before the verb even if the sentence also contains other negatives such as nigdy ("never") or nic ("nothing"), effectively creating a <a href="/wiki/Double_negative" title="Double negative">double negative</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">Cardinal numbers</a> have a complex system of inflection and agreement. Zero and cardinal numbers higher than five (except for those ending with the digit 2, 3 or 4 but not ending with 12, 13 or 14) govern the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> rather than the nominative or accusative. Special forms of numbers (<a href="/wiki/Collective_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective numeral">collective numerals</a>) are used with certain classes of noun, which include dziecko ("child") and <a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">exclusively plural</a> nouns such as drzwi ("door"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Borrowed_words">Borrowed words</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Borrowed words">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:112px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chou-fleur_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chou-fleur_02.jpg/140px-Chou-fleur_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chou-fleur_02.jpg/210px-Chou-fleur_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chou-fleur_02.jpg/280px-Chou-fleur_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:146px;max-width:146px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:112px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg/144px-Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg/216px-Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg/288px-Cordage_en_chanvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2980" data-file-height="2324" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:94px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg/142px-Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg/213px-Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg/284px-Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Luc_Viatour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3584" data-file-height="2389" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:94px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg/142px-Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg/213px-Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg/284px-Teacher-writing-on-blackboard564.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1064" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Poland was once a multi-ethnic nation with many minorities that contributed to the Polish language. <div><ol><li>Top left: <a href="/wiki/Cauliflower" title="Cauliflower">cauliflower</a> (Polish kalafior from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> cavolfiore).</li><li>Top right: <a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">rope</a> (sznur from <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> Schnur).</li><li>Bottom left: <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">shark</a> (rekin from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> requin).</li><li>Bottom right: <a href="/wiki/Teacher" title="Teacher">teacher</a> (belfer (colloquial) from <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> בעלפֿער belfer)</li></ol></div></div></div></div></div> Polish has, over the centuries, borrowed a number of words from other languages. When borrowing, pronunciation was adapted to Polish phonemes and spelling was altered to match <a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">Polish orthography</a>. In addition, word endings are liberally applied to almost any word to produce <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, as well as adding the appropriate endings for cases of nouns, adjectives, <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutives</a>, double-diminutives, <a href="/wiki/Augmentative" title="Augmentative">augmentatives</a>, etc. Depending on the historical period, borrowing has proceeded from various languages. Notable influences have been <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (10th–18th centuries),<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> (10th and 14th–15th centuries), <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> (16th–17th centuries),<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (17th–19th centuries),<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> German (13–15th and 18th–20th centuries), <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> (15th–16th centuries)<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> (17th century). Currently, English words are the most common imports to Polish.<a href="#cite_note-Knara-2017-79">[78]</a> Loanwords make up 26.2% of the Polish vocabulary, with 36.3% originating from Latin, 19.7% from German, 15.9% from French, 7.1% from Czech, 3.8% from Greek, 3.5% from English, 3.1% from Italian, 1.9% from Ukrainian and Belarusian, 1.4% from Russian, and 1.5% from other languages; 5.9% are artificial borrowings (usually <a href="/wiki/Compound_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound words">compound words</a> of undetermined origin).<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> The Latin language, for a very long time the only official language of the Polish state, has had a great influence on Polish. Many Polish words were direct borrowings or calques (e.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rzeczpospolita" class="extiw" title="wikt:rzeczpospolita">rzeczpospolita</a> from res publica) from Latin. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> was known to a larger or smaller degree by most of the numerous <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a> in the 16th to 18th centuries (and it continued to be extensively taught at secondary schools until <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>). Apart from dozens of loanwords, its influence can also be seen in a number of verbatim Latin phrases in <a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish literature</a> (especially from the 19th century and earlier). During the 12th and 13th centuries, Mongolian words were brought to the Polish language during wars with the armies of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> and his descendants, e.g. dzida (spear) and szereg (a line or row).<a href="#cite_note-Knara-2017-79">[78]</a> Words from <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>, an important influence during the 10th and 14th–15th centuries include <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">sejm</a>, hańba and brama.<a href="#cite_note-Knara-2017-79">[78]</a> In 1518, the Polish king <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund I of Poland">Sigismund I the Old</a> married <a href="/wiki/Bona_Sforza" title="Bona Sforza">Bona Sforza</a>, the niece of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian, who introduced Italian cuisine to Poland, especially vegetables.<a href="#cite_note-ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl-81">[80]</a> Hence, words from Italian include pomidor from "pomodoro" (<a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>), kalafior from "cavolfiore" (<a href="/wiki/Cauliflower" title="Cauliflower">cauliflower</a>), and pomarańcza, a portmanteau from Italian "pomo" (<a href="/wiki/Pome" title="Pome">pome</a>) plus "arancio" (orange). A later word of Italian origin is autostrada (from Italian "autostrada", highway).<a href="#cite_note-ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl-81">[80]</a> In the 18th century, with the rising prominence of France in Europe, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> supplanted Latin as an important source of words. Some French borrowings also date from the Napoleonic era, when the Poles were enthusiastic supporters of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. Examples include ekran (from French "écran", screen), abażur ("abat-jour", lamp shade), biuro ("bureau", <a href="/wiki/Office" title="Office">office</a>), biżuteria ("bijou", <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewelry</a>), rekin ("requin", <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">shark</a>), meble ("meuble", furniture), bagaż ("bagage", luggage), walizka ("valise", suitcase), fotel ("fauteuil", armchair), plaża ("plage", beach) and koszmar ("cauchemar", <a href="/wiki/Nightmare" title="Nightmare">nightmare</a>). Some place names have also been adapted from French, such as the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> boroughs of <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBoliborz" title="Żoliborz">Żoliborz</a> ("joli bord" = beautiful riverside), <a href="/wiki/Marymont" title="Marymont">Marymont</a> ("Marie mont" = Mary's hill) as well as the town of <a href="/wiki/%C5%BByrard%C3%B3w" title="Żyrardów">Żyrardów</a> (from the name <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Girard" title="Philippe de Girard">Girard</a>, with the Polish suffix -ów attached to refer to the founder of the town).<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg/220px-Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg/330px-Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg/440px-Pink_Birkin_bag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1921" data-file-height="1442" /></a><figcaption>Common <a href="/wiki/Handbag" title="Handbag">handbag</a> in Polish is called a torba, a word directly derived from the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish language</a>. Turkish loanwords are common as Poland bordered the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> for centuries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]</figcaption></figure> Many words were borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a> from the sizable German population in Polish cities during medieval times. German words found in the Polish language are often connected with trade, the building industry, civic rights and city life. Some words were assimilated verbatim, for example handel (trade) and dach (roof); others are pronounced similarly, but differ in writing Schnur—sznur (cord). As a result of being neighbors with Germany, Polish has many German expressions which have become literally translated (<a href="/wiki/Calques" class="mw-redirect" title="Calques">calques</a>). The regional <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masuria" title="Masuria">Masuria</a> (Modern Polish <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>) have noticeably more German loanwords than other varieties. The <a href="/wiki/Poland-Turkey_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Poland-Turkey relations">contacts with Ottoman Turkey</a> in the 17th century brought many new words, some of them still in use, such as: jar ("yar" deep valley), szaszłyk ("şişlik" shish kebab), filiżanka ("fincan" cup), arbuz ("karpuz" <a href="/wiki/Watermelon" title="Watermelon">watermelon</a>), dywan ("divan" carpet),<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> etc. From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in 1025 through the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> created in 1569, Poland was the most tolerant country of Jews in Europe. Known as the "<a href="/wiki/Heaven_for_the_nobles,_Purgatory_for_the_townspeople,_Hell_for_the_peasants,_and_Paradise_for_the_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven for the nobles, Purgatory for the townspeople, Hell for the peasants, and Paradise for the Jews">paradise for the Jews</a>",<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> it became a shelter for persecuted and expelled European Jewish communities and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. As a result, many Polish words come from <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, spoken by the large <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Polish Jewish</a> population that existed until the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. Borrowed Yiddish words include bachor (an unruly boy or child), bajzel (slang for mess), belfer (slang for teacher), ciuchy (slang for clothing), cymes (slang for very tasty food), geszeft (slang for business), kitel (slang for apron), machlojka (slang for scam), mamona (money), manele (slang for oddments), myszygene (slang for lunatic), pinda (slang for girl, pejoratively), plajta (slang for bankruptcy), rejwach (noise), szmal (slang for money), and trefny (dodgy).<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> The mountain dialects of the <a href="/wiki/Gorals" title="Gorals">Górale</a> in southern Poland, have quite a number of words borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> (e.g. baca, gazda, juhas, hejnał) and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> as a result of historical contacts with Hungarian-dominated <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> and Wallachian herders who travelled north along the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Grypsera" title="Grypsera">Thieves' slang</a> includes such words as kimać (to sleep) or majcher (knife) of Greek origin, considered then unknown to the outside world.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> In addition, Turkish and Tatar have exerted influence upon the vocabulary of war, names of oriental costumes etc.<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> Russian borrowings began to make their way into Polish from the second half of the 19th century on.<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> Polish has also received an intensive number of English loanwords, particularly after World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a> Recent loanwords come primarily from the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>, mainly those that have <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> roots, for example komputer (computer), korupcja (from 'corruption', but sense restricted to 'bribery') etc. Concatenation of parts of words (e.g. auto-moto), which is not native to Polish but common in English, for example, is also sometimes used. When borrowing English words, Polish often changes their spelling. For example, Latin suffix '-tio' corresponds to -cja. To make the word plural, -cja becomes -cje. Examples of this include inauguracja (inauguration), dewastacja (devastation), recepcja (reception), konurbacja (conurbation) and konotacje (connotations). Also, the digraph qu becomes kw (kwadrant = quadrant; kworum = quorum). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Loanwords_from_Polish_in_other_languages">Loanwords from Polish in other languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Loanwords from Polish in other languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Polish_origin" title="List of English words of Polish origin">List of English words of Polish origin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/220px-Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/330px-Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/440px-Fishing_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>There are numerous words in both Polish and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish (Jewish)</a> languages which are near-identical due to the large Jewish minority that once inhabited Poland. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Fishing_rod" title="Fishing rod">fishing rod</a>, ווענטקע (ventke), borrowed directly from Polish wędka.</figcaption></figure> The Polish language has influenced others. Particular influences appear in other Slavic languages and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Germans_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Germans in Poland">German</a> — due to their proximity and shared borders.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Examples of loanwords include German Grenze (border),<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> grens from Polish granica; German Peitzker from Polish piskorz (weatherfish); German Zobel, French zibeline, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> sobel, and English sable from Polish soból; and <a href="/wiki/Ogonek" title="Ogonek">ogonek</a> ("little tail") — the word describing a diacritic hook-sign added below some letters in various alphabets. The common <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> word <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> comes from the dialectical <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a> kwardy. "<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szmata" class="extiw" title="pl:Szmata">Szmata</a>," a Polish, Slovak and <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Ruthenian</a> word for "mop" or "rag", became part of <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>. The Polish language exerted significant lexical influence upon <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, particularly in the fields of abstract and technical terminology; for example, the Ukrainian word панство panstvo (country) is derived from Polish państwo.<a href="#cite_note-Timothy_Shopen-1987-91">[90]</a> The Polish influence on Ukrainian is particularly marked on western Ukrainian dialects in western Ukraine, which for centuries was under Polish cultural domination.<a href="#cite_note-Timothy_Shopen-1987-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Swan-2002-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Istvan_Fodor,_Claude_Hagege-1983-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> There are a substantial number of Polish words which officially became part of Yiddish, once the main language of European <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>. These include basic items, objects or terms such as a <a href="/wiki/Bun" title="Bun">bread bun</a> (Polish bułka, Yiddish בולקע bulke), a <a href="/wiki/Fishing_rod" title="Fishing rod">fishing rod</a> (wędka, ווענטקע ventke), an <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> (dąb, דעמב demb), a <a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">meadow</a> (łąka, לאָנקע lonke), a <a href="/wiki/Moustache" title="Moustache">moustache</a> (wąsy, וואָנצעס vontses) and a <a href="/wiki/Bladder" title="Bladder">bladder</a> (pęcherz, פּענכער penkher).<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> Quite a few culinary loanwords exist in German and in other languages, some of which describe distinctive features of Polish cuisine. These include German and English <a href="/wiki/Quark_(dairy_product)" title="Quark (dairy product)">Quark</a> from twaróg (a kind of fresh cheese) and German Gurke, English gherkin from ogórek (cucumber). The word <a href="/wiki/Pierogi" title="Pierogi">pierogi</a> (Polish dumplings) has spread internationally, as well as <a href="/wiki/P%C4%85czki" title="Pączki">pączki</a> (Polish donuts)<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> and kiełbasa (sausage, e.g. kolbaso in <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>). As far as pierogi concerned, the original Polish word is already in plural (sing. pieróg, plural pierogi; stem pierog-, plural ending -i; NB. o becomes ó in a closed syllable, like here in singular), yet it is commonly used with the English plural ending -s in Canada and United States of America, pierogis, thus making it a "double plural". A similar situation happened with the Polish loanword from English czipsy ("potato chips")—from English chips being already plural in the original (chip + -s), yet it has obtained the Polish plural ending -y<a href="#cite_note-chip-95">[b]</a>. It is believed that the English word <a href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</a> was derived from Prusy, the Polish name for the region of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>. It became spruce because in Polish, z Prus, sounded like "spruce" in English (transl. "from <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>") and was a generic term for commodities brought to England by <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic</a> merchants and because the tree was believed to have come from Polish Ducal Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-etymonline-96">[94]</a> However, it can be argued that the word is actually derived from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> term Pruce, meaning literally Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-etymonline-96">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_literature" title="Polish literature">Polish literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg/220px-Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg/330px-Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg/440px-Manuscript_of_Pan_Tadeusz_8pl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3104" data-file-height="1764" /></a><figcaption>The manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Pan_Tadeusz" title="Pan Tadeusz">Pan Tadeusz</a> held at <a href="/wiki/Ossolineum" title="Ossolineum">Ossolineum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>. Adam Mickiewicz's signature is visible.</figcaption></figure> The Polish language started to be used in literature in the Late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Notable works include the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Cross_Sermons" title="Holy Cross Sermons">Holy Cross Sermons</a> (13th/14th century), <a href="/wiki/Bogurodzica" title="Bogurodzica">Bogurodzica</a> (15th century) and <a href="/wiki/Master_Polikarp%27s_Dialog_with_Death" title="Master Polikarp's Dialog with Death">Master Polikarp's Dialog with Death</a> (15th century). The most influential Renaissance-era literary figures in Poland were poet <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kochanowski" title="Jan Kochanowski">Jan Kochanowski</a> (<a href="/wiki/Laments_(Kochanowski)" title="Laments (Kochanowski)">Laments</a>), <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Rej" title="Mikołaj Rej">Mikołaj Rej</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Skarga" title="Piotr Skarga">Piotr Skarga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Saints_(Skarga)" title="Lives of the Saints (Skarga)">The Lives of the Saints</a>) who established poetic patterns that would become integral to the Polish literary language and laid foundations for the modern Polish grammar. During the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Age of Enlightenment in Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Ignacy Krasicki</a>, known as "the Prince of Poets", wrote the first Polish novel called <a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Mr._Nicholas_Wisdom" title="The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom">The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Fables_and_Parables" title="Fables and Parables">Fables and Parables</a>. Another significant work form this period is <a href="/wiki/The_Manuscript_Found_in_Saragossa" title="The Manuscript Found in Saragossa">The Manuscript Found in Saragossa</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Jan Potocki</a>, a Polish nobleman, Egyptologist, linguist, and adventurer. In the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Romantic Era</a>, the most celebrated national poets, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Bards" title="Three Bards">Three Bards</a>, were <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pan_Tadeusz" title="Pan Tadeusz">Pan Tadeusz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dziady_(poem)" title="Dziady (poem)">Dziady</a>), <a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Juliusz Słowacki</a> (<a href="/wiki/Balladyna_(drama)" title="Balladyna (drama)">Balladyna</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Zygmunt Krasiński</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Undivine_Comedy" title="The Undivine Comedy">The Undivine Comedy</a>). Poet and dramatist <a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Cyprian Norwid</a> is regarded by some scholars as the "Fourth Bard". Important positivist writers include <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus" title="Bolesław Prus">Bolesław Prus</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Doll_(Prus_novel)" title="The Doll (Prus novel)">The Doll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_(Prus_novel)" title="Pharaoh (Prus novel)">Pharaoh</a>), <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz">Henryk Sienkiewicz</a> (author of numerous historical novels the most internationally acclaimed of which is <a href="/wiki/Quo_Vadis_(novel)" title="Quo Vadis (novel)">Quo Vadis</a>), <a href="/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka" title="Maria Konopnicka">Maria Konopnicka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rota_(poem)" title="Rota (poem)">Rota</a>), <a href="/wiki/Eliza_Orzeszkowa" title="Eliza Orzeszkowa">Eliza Orzeszkowa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nad_Niemnem" title="Nad Niemnem">Nad Niemnem</a>), <a href="/wiki/Adam_Asnyk" title="Adam Asnyk">Adam Asnyk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Zapolska" title="Gabriela Zapolska">Gabriela Zapolska</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Morality_of_Mrs._Dulska" title="The Morality of Mrs. Dulska">The Morality of Mrs. Dulska</a>). The period known as <a href="/wiki/Young_Poland" title="Young Poland">Young Poland</a> produced such renowned literary figures as <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski" title="Stanisław Wyspiański">Stanisław Wyspiański</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Wedding_(1901_play)" title="The Wedding (1901 play)">The Wedding</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stefan_%C5%BBeromski" title="Stefan Żeromski">Stefan Żeromski</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ludzie_bezdomni" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludzie bezdomni">Homeless People</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Spring_to_Come" title="The Spring to Come">The Spring to Come</a>), <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Peasants" title="The Peasants">The Peasants</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Staff" title="Leopold Staff">Leopold Staff</a>. The prominent interbellum period authors include <a href="/wiki/Maria_D%C4%85browska" title="Maria Dąbrowska">Maria Dąbrowska</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nights_and_Days" title="Nights and Days">Nights and Days</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ignacy_Witkiewicz" title="Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz">Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Insatiability" title="Insatiability">Insatiability</a>), <a href="/wiki/Julian_Tuwim" title="Julian Tuwim">Julian Tuwim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Schulz" title="Bruno Schulz">Bruno Schulz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Le%C5%9Bmian" title="Bolesław Leśmian">Bolesław Leśmian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witold_Gombrowicz" title="Witold Gombrowicz">Witold Gombrowicz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zuzanna_Ginczanka" title="Zuzanna Ginczanka">Zuzanna Ginczanka</a>. Other notable writers and poets from Poland active during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and after are <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Kami%C5%84ski" title="Aleksander Kamiński">Aleksander Kamiński</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Herbert" title="Zbigniew Herbert">Zbigniew Herbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem" title="Stanisław Lem">Stanisław Lem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zofia_Na%C5%82kowska" title="Zofia Nałkowska">Zofia Nałkowska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Borowski" title="Tadeusz Borowski">Tadeusz Borowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C5%82awomir_Mro%C5%BCek" title="Sławomir Mrożek">Sławomir Mrożek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Kamil_Baczy%C5%84ski" title="Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński">Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Hartwig" title="Julia Hartwig">Julia Hartwig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marek_Krajewski" title="Marek Krajewski">Marek Krajewski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Bator" title="Joanna Bator">Joanna Bator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Sapkowski" title="Andrzej Sapkowski">Andrzej Sapkowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Zagajewski" title="Adam Zagajewski">Adam Zagajewski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorota_Mas%C5%82owska" title="Dorota Masłowska">Dorota Masłowska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Pilch" title="Jerzy Pilch">Jerzy Pilch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ryszard_Kapu%C5%9Bci%C5%84ski" title="Ryszard Kapuściński">Ryszard Kapuściński</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Stasiuk" title="Andrzej Stasiuk">Andrzej Stasiuk</a>. Five people writing in the Polish language have been awarded the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="List of Nobel laureates in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz">Henryk Sienkiewicz</a> (1905), <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a> (1924), <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a> (1980), <a href="/wiki/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska" title="Wisława Szymborska">Wisława Szymborska</a> (1996) and <a href="/wiki/Olga_Tokarczuk" title="Olga Tokarczuk">Olga Tokarczuk</a> (2018). <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275594942">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center .gallery{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left .gallery{justify-content:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right .gallery{justify-content:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery.gallery.gallery{line-height:1.35em;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{outline:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Notable Polish language authors</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Mikołaj Rej (1505–1569)"><img alt="Mikołaj, Rej," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG/120px-Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG" decoding="async" width="120" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG/180px-Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG/240px-Miko%C5%82aj_Rej.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="2287" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Rej" title="Mikołaj Rej">Mikołaj Rej</a> (1505–1569)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Kochanowski.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584)"><img alt="Jan, Kochanowski," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Jan_Kochanowski.png/120px-Jan_Kochanowski.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Jan_Kochanowski.png/180px-Jan_Kochanowski.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Jan_Kochanowski.png/240px-Jan_Kochanowski.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2390" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Kochanowski" title="Jan Kochanowski">Jan Kochanowski</a> (1530–1584)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855)"><img alt="Adam, Mickiewicz," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg/120px-Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg/180px-Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg/240px-Adam_Mickiewicz_wed%C5%82ug_dagerotypu_paryskiego_z_1842_roku.jpg 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="740" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</a> (1798–1855)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_(53054489)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916)"><img alt="Henryk, Sienkiewicz," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-Henryk_Sienkiewicz_post_1892_%2853054489%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3885" data-file-height="4839" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz">Henryk Sienkiewicz</a> (1846–1916)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Władysław Reymont (1867–1925)"><img alt="Władysław, Reymont," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg/120px-Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg/180px-Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg/240px-Wladyslaw_Reymont_1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a> (1867–1925)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004)"><img alt="Czesław, Miłosz," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif/lossy-page1-118px-Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif/lossy-page1-177px-Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif/lossy-page1-236px-Czeslaw_Milosz_3_ap.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1654" data-file-height="2524" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a> (1911–2004)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stanisław Lem (1921–2006)"><img alt="Stanisław, Lem," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg/120px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg/180px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg/240px-Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1364" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lem" title="Stanisław Lem">Stanisław Lem</a> (1921–2006)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012)"><img alt="Wisława, Szymborska," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg/120px-Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg/180px-Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg/240px-Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska_2009.10.23_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska" title="Wisława Szymborska">Wisława Szymborska</a> (1923–2012)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Andrzej Sapkowski (born 1948)"><img alt="Andrzej, Sapkowski," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG/120px-Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG/180px-Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG/240px-Andrzej_Sapkowski_-_Lucca_Comics_%26_Games_2015.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="2188" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Sapkowski" title="Andrzej Sapkowski">Andrzej Sapkowski</a> (born 1948)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olga Tokarczuk (born 1962)"><img alt="Olga, Tokarczuk," src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg/120px-Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg/180px-Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg/240px-Olga_Tokarczuk-9739.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="1500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Olga_Tokarczuk" title="Olga Tokarczuk">Olga Tokarczuk</a> (born 1962)</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sample text">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="14" data-mwtitle="Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_-_pl_-_km_-_Art1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_-_pl_-_km_-_Art1.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_-_pl_-_km_-_Art1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d2/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_-_pl_-_km_-_Art1.ogg/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_-_pl_-_km_-_Art1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Polish pronunciation</figcaption></figure> Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in Polish:<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> <dl><dd>Wszyscy ludzie rodzą się wolni i równi pod względem swej godności i swych praw. Są oni obdarzeni rozumem i sumieniem i powinni postępować wobec innych w duchu braterstwa.</dd></dl> Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <dl><dd>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Polish_origin" title="List of English words of Polish origin">Polonism</a> (words of Polish origin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz_Institute" title="Adam Mickiewicz Institute">Adam Mickiewicz Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Translation_Guide_to_19th-Century_Polish-Language_Civil-Registration_Documents" title="A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents">A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BABEL_Speech_Corpus" title="BABEL Speech Corpus">BABEL Speech Corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Cross_Sermons" title="Holy Cross Sermons">Holy Cross Sermons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_School_of_Polish_for_Foreigners" title="University of Łódź School of Polish for Foreigners">University of Łódź School of Polish for Foreigners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Slavs" title="West Slavs">West Slavs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-silesian-6"><a href="#cite_ref-silesian_6-0">^</a> Also considered a separate language, see <a href="/wiki/Silesian_language#Dialect_vs._language" title="Silesian language">Silesian language#Dialect vs. language</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-chip-95"><a href="#cite_ref-chip_95-0">^</a> However, the word chip (or in the Polish spelling: czip; in the plural – chipy or czipy) in Polish means only an <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pol">Polish</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (27th ed., 2024) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Gwara Śląska – świadectwo kultury, narzędzie komunikacji. Jolanta Tambor (eds.); Aldona Skudrzykowa. 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Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120420130305/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/335581/Lekhitic-languages">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lekhitic+languages&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2015-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F335581%2FLekhitic-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnologue-15"><a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/">"What are the top 200 most spoken languages?"</a>. 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Forbes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607135739/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davekeating/2020/02/06/despite-brexit-english-remains-the-eus-most-spoken-language-by-far/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Despite+Brexit%2C+English+Remains+The+EU%27s+Most+Spoken+Language+By+Far&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fdavekeating%2F2020%2F02%2F06%2Fdespite-brexit-english-remains-the-eus-most-spoken-language-by-far%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWierzbickaWinter2020" class="citation book cs1">Wierzbicka, Anna; Winter, Werner (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hiMTEAAAQBAJ">Cross-Cultural Pragmatics</a>. De Gruyter. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783112329764" title="Special:BookSources/9783112329764"><bdi>9783112329764</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517045632/https://books.google.com/books?id=hiMTEAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross-Cultural+Pragmatics&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9783112329764&rft.aulast=Wierzbicka&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Winter%2C+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhiMTEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sjp.pwn.pl-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sjp.pwn.pl_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sjp.pwn.pl_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sjp.pwn.pl/poradnia/haslo/Q-V-X;10937.html">"Q, V, X – Poradnia językowa PWN"</a>. sjp.pwn.pl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731002935/https://sjp.pwn.pl/poradnia/haslo/Q-V-X;10937.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 20 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sjp.pwn.pl&rft.atitle=Q%2C+V%2C+X+%E2%80%93+Poradnia+j%C4%99zykowa+PWN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsjp.pwn.pl%2Fporadnia%2Fhaslo%2FQ-V-X%3B10937.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKappenbergSchlobinski2015" class="citation book cs1">Kappenberg, Bernard; Schlobinski, Peter (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w7c-DQAAQBAJ">Setting Signs for Europe; Why Diacritics Matter for European Integration</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783838267036" title="Special:BookSources/9783838267036"><bdi>9783838267036</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517045630/https://books.google.com/books?id=w7c-DQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Setting+Signs+for+Europe%3B+Why+Diacritics+Matter+for+European+Integration&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783838267036&rft.aulast=Kappenberg&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft.au=Schlobinski%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw7c-DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoland-Kugler2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Foland-Kugler, Magdalena (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_WMpAQAAIAAJ&q=siedem%20przypadk%C3%B3w%20ma%20j%C4%99zyk%20polski">W gaju słów, czyli, Polszczyzna znana i nieznana</a> (in Polish). Ex Libris. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788389913876" title="Special:BookSources/9788389913876"><bdi>9788389913876</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517045630/https://books.google.com/books?id=_WMpAQAAIAAJ&q=siedem%20przypadk%C3%B3w%20ma%20j%C4%99zyk%20polski">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W+gaju+s%C5%82%C3%B3w%2C+czyli%2C+Polszczyzna+znana+i+nieznana&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Ex+Libris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9788389913876&rft.aulast=Foland-Kugler&rft.aufirst=Magdalena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_WMpAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dsiedem%2520przypadk%25C3%25B3w%2520ma%2520j%25C4%2599zyk%2520polski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151207160058/http://wals.info/chapter/14">"WALS Online – Chapter Fixed Stress Locations"</a>. wals.info. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wals.info/chapter/14">the original</a> on 7 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wals.info&rft.atitle=WALS+Online+%E2%80%93+Chapter+Fixed+Stress+Locations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Fchapter%2F14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDługosz-KurczabowaDubisz2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Długosz-Kurczabowa, Krystyna; Dubisz, Stanisław (2006). Gramatyka historyczna języka polskiego (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. pp. 56, 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-235-0118-1" title="Special:BookSources/83-235-0118-1"><bdi>83-235-0118-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gramatyka+historyczna+j%C4%99zyka+polskiego&rft.place=Warszawa+%28Warsaw%29&rft.pages=56%2C+57&rft.pub=wydawnictwa+Uniwersytetu+Warszawskiego&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=83-235-0118-1&rft.aulast=D%C5%82ugosz-Kurczabowa&rft.aufirst=Krystyna&rft.au=Dubisz%2C+Stanis%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroińskaAndrews2018" class="citation book cs1">Stroińska, Magda; Andrews, Ernest (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319709253">"The Polish Language Act: Legislating a Complicated Linguistic-Political Landscape"</a>. In Andrews, Ernest (ed.). Language planning in the post-communist era: the struggles for language control in the new order in Eastern Europe, Eurasia and China. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-70926-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-70926-0"><bdi>978-3-319-70926-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022080518">1022080518</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190826112513/https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783319709253">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Polish+Language+Act%3A+Legislating+a+Complicated+Linguistic-Political+Landscape&rft.btitle=Language+planning+in+the+post-communist+era%3A+the+struggles+for+language+control+in+the+new+order+in+Eastern+Europe%2C+Eurasia+and+China&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1022080518&rft.isbn=978-3-319-70926-0&rft.aulast=Stroi%C5%84ska&rft.aufirst=Magda&rft.au=Andrews%2C+Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.palgrave.com%2Fgp%2Fbook%2F9783319709253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swan-2002-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swan-2002_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swan-2002_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swan-2002_24-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwan2002" class="citation book cs1">Swan, Oscar E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarcontempor00swan">A grammar of contemporary Polish</a>. Bloomington, Ind.: Slavica. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarcontempor00swan/page/n6">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9"><bdi>0-89357-296-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50064627">50064627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+grammar+of+contemporary+Polish&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Slavica&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50064627&rft.isbn=0-89357-296-9&rft.aulast=Swan&rft.aufirst=Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarcontempor00swan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y_lgAAAAMAAJ&q=wplyw+francuskiego+na+j%C4%99zyk+polski">"Język polski"</a>. Towarzystwo Miłośników Języka Polskiego. 27 July 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230927201922/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_lgAAAAMAAJ&q=wplyw+francuskiego+na+j%C4%99zyk+polski">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=J%C4%99zyk+polski&rft.pub=Towarzystwo+Mi%C5%82o%C5%9Bnik%C3%B3w+J%C4%99zyka+Polskiego.&rft.date=2000-07-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy_lgAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dwplyw%2Bfrancuskiego%2Bna%2Bj%25C4%2599zyk%2Bpolski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMańczak-Wohlfeld1995" class="citation book cs1">Mańczak-Wohlfeld, Elżbieta (27 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hjq2AAAAIAAJ&q=wp%C5%82yw+jezyka+niemieckiego+na+polski">Tendencje rozwojowe współczesnych zapożyczeń angielskich w języku polskim</a>. Universitas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7052-347-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7052-347-3"><bdi>978-83-7052-347-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230927201924/https://books.google.com/books?id=hjq2AAAAIAAJ&q=wp%C5%82yw+jezyka+niemieckiego+na+polski">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tendencje+rozwojowe+wsp%C3%B3%C5%82czesnych+zapo%C5%BCycze%C5%84+angielskich+w+j%C4%99zyku+polskim&rft.pub=Universitas&rft.date=1995-07-27&rft.isbn=978-83-7052-347-3&rft.aulast=Ma%C5%84czak-Wohlfeld&rft.aufirst=El%C5%BCbieta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhjq2AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dwp%25C5%2582yw%2Bjezyka%2Bniemieckiego%2Bna%2Bpolski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JENHAAAAcAAJ&q=wp%C5%82yw+jezyka+niemieckiego+na+polski&pg=PA69">"Rok ... pod względem oświaty, przemysłu i wypadków czasowych"</a>. Nakł. N. Kamieńskiego i Spólki. 27 July 1844 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rok+...+pod+wzgl%C4%99dem+o%C5%9Bwiaty%2C+przemys%C5%82u+i+wypadk%C3%B3w+czasowych&rft.pub=Nak%C5%82.+N.+Kamie%C5%84skiego+i+Sp%C3%B3lki&rft.date=1844-07-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJENHAAAAcAAJ%26q%3Dwp%25C5%2582yw%2Bjezyka%2Bniemieckiego%2Bna%2Bpolski%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezina1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brzezina, Maria (1986). Polszczyzna Żydów (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. pp. 31, 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-01-06611-3" title="Special:BookSources/83-01-06611-3"><bdi>83-01-06611-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polszczyzna+%C5%BByd%C3%B3w&rft.place=Warszawa+%28Warsaw%29&rft.pages=31%2C+46&rft.pub=Pa%C5%84stwowe+Wydawnictwo+Naukowe&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=83-01-06611-3&rft.aulast=Brzezina&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProkop-Janiec2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prokop-Janiec, Eugenia (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/item/11953/prokop-janiec_pogranicze_polsko-zydowskie_2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Pogranicze Polsko-żydowskie</a> (PDF) (in Polish). Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-233-3507-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-233-3507-8"><bdi>978-83-233-3507-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121212928/https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/item/11953/prokop-janiec_pogranicze_polsko-zydowskie_2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pogranicze+Polsko-%C5%BCydowskie&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Uniwersytetu+Jagiello%C5%84skiego&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-83-233-3507-8&rft.aulast=Prokop-Janiec&rft.aufirst=Eugenia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruj.uj.edu.pl%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2Fitem%2F11953%2Fprokop-janiec_pogranicze_polsko-zydowskie_2013.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaráczRosello2012" class="citation book cs1">Marácz, László; Rosello, Mireille, eds. (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yRz0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">Multilingual Europe, Multilingual Europeans</a>. BRILL. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-012-0803-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-012-0803-1"><bdi>978-94-012-0803-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 November 2018 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multilingual+Europe%2C+Multilingual+Europeans&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft.isbn=978-94-012-0803-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyRz0DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoyama2007" class="citation book cs1">Koyama, Satoshi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/08_koyama.pdf">"Chapter 8: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Political Space: Its Unity and Complexity"</a> (PDF). In Hayashi, Tadayuki; Fukuda, Hiroshi (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/contents.html">Regions in Central and Eastern Europe: Past and Present</a>. Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University. pp. 137–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-938637-43-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-938637-43-9"><bdi>978-4-938637-43-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200225015447/http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/contents.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+The+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth+as+a+Political+Space%3A+Its+Unity+and+Complexity&rft.btitle=Regions+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E153&rft.pub=Slavic+Research+Center%2C+Hokkaido+University&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-4-938637-43-9&rft.aulast=Koyama&rft.aufirst=Satoshi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsrc-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp%2Fcoe21%2Fpublish%2Fno15_ses%2F08_koyama.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDejna1973" class="citation book cs1">Dejna, Karol (1973). Dialekty polskie. Wrocław. p. 235.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialekty+polskie&rft.place=Wroc%C5%82aw&rft.pages=235&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Dejna&rft.aufirst=Karol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.todaytranslations.com/language-history/polish/">"Polish Language History and Facts"</a>. Today Translations. 20 June 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140816122217/http://www.todaytranslations.com/language-history/polish/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Today+Translations&rft.atitle=Polish+Language+History+and+Facts&rft.date=2014-06-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.todaytranslations.com%2Flanguage-history%2Fpolish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kolaczyk-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kolaczyk_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolaczyk_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolaczyk_34-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDziubalska-KołaczykWalczak" class="citation web cs1">Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, Katarzyna; Walczak, Bogdan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tf.edu.pl/t/WA_Dziubalska-Ko%C5%82aczyk_Walczak_Polish.pdf">"Polish"</a> (PDF). repozytorium.amu.edu.pl. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam Mickiewicz University">Adam Mickiewicz University</a>. pp. 1, 5. Retrieved 12 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=repozytorium.amu.edu.pl&rft.atitle=Polish&rft.pages=1%2C+5&rft.aulast=Dziubalska-Ko%C5%82aczyk&rft.aufirst=Katarzyna&rft.au=Walczak%2C+Bogdan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftf.edu.pl%2Ft%2FWA_Dziubalska-Ko%25C5%2582aczyk_Walczak_Polish.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wroclaw.pl/en/the-book-of-henrykow-on-unescos-list-01">"The Book of Henryków on UNESCO's list!"</a>. Wroclaw.pl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608161043/https://www.wroclaw.pl/en/the-book-of-henrykow-on-unescos-list-01">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wroclaw.pl&rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Henryk%C3%B3w+on+UNESCO%27s+list%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wroclaw.pl%2Fen%2Fthe-book-of-henrykow-on-unescos-list-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.fides.org.pl/publication/834">"FIDES Digital Library – Liber fundationis claustri Sancte Marie Virginis in Henrichow = Księga henrykowska"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715025221/https://digital.fides.org.pl/publication/834">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2017 – via digital.fides.org.pl.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIDES+Digital+Library+%E2%80%93+Liber+fundationis+claustri+Sancte+Marie+Virginis+in+Henrichow+%3D+Ksi%C4%99ga+henrykowska&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.fides.org.pl%2Fpublication%2F834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Barbara i Adam Podgórscy: Słownik gwar śląskich. Katowice: Wydawnictwo KOS, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-60528-54-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-60528-54-9">978-83-60528-54-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Bogdan Walczak: Zarys dziejów języka polskiego. 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Grammars and Dictionaries of the Slavic Languages from the Middle Ages up to 1850: An Annotated Bibliography. <a href="/wiki/Mouton_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouton Publishers">Mouton Publishers</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3110097788" title="Special:BookSources/3110097788"><bdi>3110097788</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammars+and+Dictionaries+of+the+Slavic+Languages+from+the+Middle+Ages+up+to+1850%3A+An+Annotated+Bibliography&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Mouton+Publishers&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=3110097788&rft.aulast=Stankiewicz&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190616103432/http://krakowcityofliterature.com/city-of-literature/the-history-of-literature-in-krakow/">"The history of literature in Krakow"</a>. krakowcityofliterature.com. 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Hampton Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57273-177-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-57273-177-X"><bdi>1-57273-177-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+European+Journalism%3A+Before%2C+During+and+After+Communism&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Hampton+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-57273-177-X&rft.aulast=Aumente&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16111-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-16111-8"><bdi>0-415-16111-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Eastern+Europe%3A+Crisis+and+Change&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-415-16111-8&rft.aulast=Bideleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009111-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009111_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamusella2009111_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKamusella2009">Kamusella 2009</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamusella2009" class="citation book cs1">Kamusella, Tomasz (2009). 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PNC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012044/https://www.pnc.com/en/personal-banking/banking/services/atm-layouts.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PNC&rft.atitle=PNC+ATM+Banking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnc.com%2Fen%2Fpersonal-banking%2Fbanking%2Fservices%2Fatm-layouts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-census-53"><a href="#cite_ref-census_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527030141/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">"Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data"</a>. 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Retrieved 30 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rusyn+Question&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Magosic%2C+Paul+Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flitopys.org.ua%2Frizne%2Fmagocie.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mling-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mling_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mling_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiklós_Kontra2000" class="citation journal cs1">Miklós Kontra, ed. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/mult.2000.19.issue-1-2/mult.2000.19.1-2.169/mult.2000.19.1-2.169.xml">"Special issue book reviews"</a>. Multilingua. 19 (1–2 Language contact in East–Central Europe). 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Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=polskiwdwunastce.edu.pl&rft.atitle=Historia+zapo%C5%BCycze%C5%84&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolskiwdwunastce.edu.pl%2F12-wiedza-o-jezyku%2F99-historia-zapozyczen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRak" class="citation journal cs1">Rak, Maciej. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/31283378">"Kilka uwag o socjolekcie przestępczym polszczyzny przedwojennego Lwowa, "Socjolingwistyka" XXX, 2016"</a>. Socjolingwistyka. 30: 133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17651%2FSOCJOLING.30.11">10.17651/SOCJOLING.30.11</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728035745/https://www.academia.edu/31283378/Kilka_uwag_o_socjolekcie_przest%C4%99pczym_polszczyzny_przedwojennego_Lwowa_Socjolingwistyka_XXX_2016">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Socjolingwistyka&rft.atitle=Kilka+uwag+o+socjolekcie+przest%C4%99pczym+polszczyzny+przedwojennego+Lwowa%2C+%22Socjolingwistyka%22+XXX%2C+2016&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=133&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17651%2FSOCJOLING.30.11&rft.aulast=Rak&rft.aufirst=Maciej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F31283378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDziubalska-KołaczykWalczak2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, Katarzyna; Walczak, Bogdan (28 November 2018). "Polish". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire. 88 (3): 817–840. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frbph.2010.7805">10.3406/rbph.2010.7805</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240815177">240815177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+belge+de+philologie+et+d%27histoire&rft.atitle=Polish&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E817-%3C%2Fspan%3E840&rft.date=2018-11-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frbph.2010.7805&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240815177%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dziubalska-Ko%C5%82aczyk&rft.aufirst=Katarzyna&rft.au=Walczak%2C+Bogdan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190424171100/https://realpoland.eu/polish-language/">"Polish Language"</a>. RealPoland. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://realpoland.eu/polish-language/">the original</a> on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RealPoland&rft.atitle=Polish+Language&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frealpoland.eu%2Fpolish-language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timothy_Shopen-1987-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Timothy_Shopen-1987_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timothy_Shopen-1987_91-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_Shopen1987" class="citation book cs1">Timothy Shopen (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIJu4xAFcIwC">Languages and Their Status</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1249-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1249-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-1249-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240427103922/https://books.google.com/books?id=zIJu4xAFcIwC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages+and+Their+Status&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1249-5&rft.au=Timothy+Shopen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzIJu4xAFcIwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_D._Joseph1999" class="citation book cs1">Brian D. Joseph (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VqIbAQAAIAAJ">Historical Linguistics</a>. Ohio State University, Department of Linguistics. p. 165. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240427103948/https://books.google.com/books?id=VqIbAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Linguistics&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University%2C+Department+of+Linguistics&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Brian+D.+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVqIbAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGliński2015" class="citation web cs1">Gliński, Mikołaj (7 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/how-much-polish-is-there-in-yiddish-and-how-much-yiddish-is-there-in-polish">"How Much Polish Is There in Yiddish (and How Much Yiddish Is There in Polish)?"</a>. Culture.pl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181128164732/https://culture.pl/en/article/how-much-polish-is-there-in-yiddish-and-how-much-yiddish-is-there-in-polish">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture.pl&rft.atitle=How+Much+Polish+Is+There+in+Yiddish+%28and+How+Much+Yiddish+Is+There+in+Polish%29%3F&rft.date=2015-12-07&rft.aulast=Gli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Miko%C5%82aj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fculture.pl%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fhow-much-polish-is-there-in-yiddish-and-how-much-yiddish-is-there-in-polish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2017" class="citation web cs1">Peterson, Lucas (27 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eater.com/2015/2/17/8055779/paczki-fat-tuesday-detroit-chicago">"What Are Paczki and Why Is Everyone Freaking Out About Them?"</a>. Eater. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181128210628/https://www.eater.com/2015/2/17/8055779/paczki-fat-tuesday-detroit-chicago">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eater&rft.atitle=What+Are+Paczki+and+Why+Is+Everyone+Freaking+Out+About+Them%3F&rft.date=2017-02-27&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eater.com%2F2015%2F2%2F17%2F8055779%2Fpaczki-fat-tuesday-detroit-chicago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymonline-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/spruce">"spruce – Origin and meaning of spruce"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181128164546/https://www.etymonline.com/word/spruce">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=spruce+%E2%80%93+Origin+and+meaning+of+spruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fspruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=pql">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>. ohchr.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120154358/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=pql">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ohchr.org&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEN%2FUDHR%2FPages%2FLanguage.aspx%3FLangID%3Dpql&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>. United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fabout-us%2Funiversal-declaration-of-human-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisko1966" class="citation book cs1">Bisko, Wacław (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mwimypopolskub00bisk">Mówimy po polsku. A beginner's course of Polish</a> (<a href="/wiki/DTBook" title="DTBook">DTBook</a>). translated and adapted by Stanisław Kryński. Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Wiedza_Powszechna" title="Wiedza Powszechna">Wiedza Powszechna</a> (<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiedza_Powszechna" class="extiw" title="pl:Wiedza Powszechna">pl</a>).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%B3wimy+po+polsku.+A+beginner%27s+course+of+Polish&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Wiedza+Powszechna+%28pl%29&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Bisko&rft.aufirst=Wac%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmwimypopolskub00bisk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGussmann2007" class="citation book cs1">Gussmann, Edmund (2007). The Phonology of Polish. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926747-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926747-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926747-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/320907619">320907619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonology+of+Polish&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F320907619&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926747-7&rft.aulast=Gussmann&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubisz2020" class="citation book cs1">Dubisz, Stanisław (2020). Najnowsze dzieje języka polskiego. Rozwój polszczyzny w latach 1918-2018. Warsaw: Dom Wydawniczy Elipsa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-8017-348-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-8017-348-4"><bdi>978-83-8017-348-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Najnowsze+dzieje+j%C4%99zyka+polskiego.+Rozw%C3%B3j+polszczyzny+w+latach+1918-2018&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Dom+Wydawniczy+Elipsa&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-83-8017-348-4&rft.aulast=Dubisz&rft.aufirst=Stanis%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadowska2012" class="citation book cs1">Sadowska, Iwona (2012). Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>; <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47541-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47541-9"><bdi>978-0-415-47541-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish%3A+A+Comprehensive+Grammar&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-47541-9&rft.aulast=Sadowska&rft.aufirst=Iwona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwan2002" class="citation book cs1">Swan, Oscar E. (2002). A Grammar of Contemporary Polish. Bloomington, IN: Slavica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89357-296-9"><bdi>0-89357-296-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Contemporary+Polish&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=Slavica&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-89357-296-9&rft.aulast=Swan&rft.aufirst=Oscar+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolish+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. 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(March 2015) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Polish language at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Polish_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Polish language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Polish_language" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Polish language">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/pl:Main_Page" class="extiw" title="s:pl:Main Page">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Polish" class="extiw" title="b:Polish">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Polish_language" class="extiw" title="v:Polish language">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Polish_phrasebook" class="extiw" title="voy:Polish phrasebook">Phrasebook</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="pl:">Polish edition</a> of Wikipedia</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lingoput.com/learn-polish">Comprehensible Input Videos in Polish</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/the-polish-language-a-cheatsheet-for-beginners">The Polish Language: A Cheatsheet for Beginners</a> from Culture.pl</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://startpolish.pl/podreczniki-do-jezyka-polskiego/">Podręczniki języka polskiego dla obcokrajowców</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211023151528/https://startpolish.pl/podreczniki-do-jezyka-polskiego/">Archived</a> 2021-10-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.surfacelanguages.com/language/Polish.html">Basic Polish Phrases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140716084912/http://www.kurspl.com/">Basic Polish Phrases Audio Course</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120629231024/http://www.polish-translators.com/grammar.html">Polish Pronunciation Audio and Grammar Charts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/artshums/depts/mlc/lrc/language-resources/polish.aspx">King's College London: Polish Language Resources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141205020905/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/artshums/depts/mlc/lrc/language-resources/polish.aspx">Archived</a> 2014-12-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://polish.slavic.pitt.edu">University of Pittsburgh: Polish Language Website</a></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/polish/soap/">A Touch of Polish</a>", <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/compgrammar_polish.pdf">A Concise Polish Grammar, by Ronald F. Feldstein (110-page 600-KB pdf)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131123031658/http://polish.slavic.pitt.edu/polish/">Oscar Swan's Electronic Polish-English, English-Polish dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131217103006/http://hablaa.com/english-polish/">English-Polish Online Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polish-dictionary.com/">Basic English-Polish Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glosbe.com/en/pl">Big English-Polish Dictionary</a> with example sentences from translation memories</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Polish_Swadesh_list">Polish Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words</a> from Wiktionary's <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learnpolish-online.com">Learn Polish</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225011311/http://www.learnpolish-online.com/">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>—List of Online Polish Courses</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.personal.ceu.hu/students/97/Roman_Zakharii/polski.htm">Polish English wordlist, 600 terms</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131008043213/http://www.personal.ceu.hu/students/97/Roman_Zakharii/polski.htm">Archived</a> 2013-10-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.pl/en/article/languages-you-never-knew-existed">A taste of the linguistic diversity of contemporary Poland</a> from Culture.pl</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141128233029/http%3A//www.kellyproject.eu/wp%2Dcontent/uploads/2012/07/Polish_M3.xls">KELLY Project word list</a> 9000 most useful words for learners of Polish</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionaries24.com/english,polish,dictionary">Dictionaries24.com</a> Online dictionary with English-Polish and Polish-English translations</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/polszczyzna-and-the-revolutionary-feminine-suffix">'Polszczyzna' & the Revolutionary Feminine Suffix</a> from Culture.pl</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omniglot.com/conscripts/glagolicy.htm">Głagolicy</a>, a way to write Polish with the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic script</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polish_language159" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polish_language" title="Template:Polish language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polish_language" title="Template talk:Polish language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polish_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polish language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polish_language159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Polish">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Polish" title="Old Polish">Old Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish" title="Middle Polish">Middle Polish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazuration" title="Mazuration">Mazuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szadzenie" title="Szadzenie">Szadzenie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Sign_Language" title="Polish Sign Language">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_manual_alphabet" title="Polish manual alphabet">manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Polish" title="Cyrillization of Polish">cyrillization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">Spelling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish_orthography" title="History of Polish orthography">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_morphology" title="Polish morphology">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_mixed_dialects" title="New mixed dialects">New mixed dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_dialect_group" title="Greater Poland dialect group">Greater Poland dialect group</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kociewie_dialect" title="Kociewie dialect">Kociewie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bory_Tucholskie_dialect" title="Bory Tucholskie dialect">Bory Tucholskie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bydgoszcz_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bydgoszcz dialect (page does not exist)">Bydgoszcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krajna_dialect" title="Krajna dialect">Krajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno-Dobrzy%C5%84_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chełmno-Dobrzyń dialect">Chełmno-Dobrzyń</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pozna%C5%84_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poznań dialect (page does not exist)">Poznań</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuyavian_dialect" title="Kuyavian dialect">Kujawy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Greater Polish dialect">Northern Greater Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Greater Polish dialect">Western Greater Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Greater Polish dialect">Central Greater Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Greater Polish dialect">Eastern Greater Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Greater_Polish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Greater Polish dialect">Southern Greater Polish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Masovian_dialect_group" title="Masovian dialect group">Masovian dialect group</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lubawa_dialect" title="Lubawa dialect">Lubawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3da_dialect" title="Ostróda dialect">Ostróda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warmia_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Warmia dialect">Warmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masurian_dialects" title="Masurian dialects">Masurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki_dialect" title="Suwałki dialect">Suwałki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81owicz_dialect" title="Łowicz dialect">Łowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Mazovian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Near Mazovian dialect">Near Mazovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_Mazovian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Far Mazovian dialect">Far Mazovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurpie_dialect" title="Kurpie dialect">Kurpie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podlachia_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Podlachia dialect">Podlachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_dialect" title="Białystok dialect">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_dialect" title="Warsaw dialect">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_dialect_group" title="Lesser Poland dialect group">Lesser Poland dialect group</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C4%99czyca_dialect" title="Łęczyca dialect">Łęczyca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieradz_dialect" title="Sieradz dialect">Sieradz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masovian_Borderland_dialect" title="Masovian Borderland dialect">Masovian Borderland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kielce_dialect" title="Kielce dialect">Kielce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_dialect" title="Kraków dialect">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasovia_dialect" title="Lasovia dialect">Lasovia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Krakow_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Krakow dialect">Eastern Krakow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podegrodzie_dialect" title="Podegrodzie dialect">Podegrodzie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limanowa_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limanowa dialect (page does not exist)">Limanowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lublin_dialect" title="Western Lublin dialect">Western Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lublin_dialect" title="Eastern Lublin dialect">Eastern Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl_dialect" title="Przemyśl dialect">Przemyśl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_dialect" title="Lwów dialect">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biecz_dialect" title="Biecz dialect">Biecz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goral_ethnolect" title="Goral ethnolect">Goral ethnolect</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBywiec_dialect" title="Żywiec dialect">Żywiec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orawa_dialect" title="Orawa dialect">Orawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podhale_dialect" title="Podhale dialect">Podhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spisz_dialect" title="Spisz dialect">Spisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babia_G%C3%B3ra_dialect" title="Babia Góra dialect">Babia Góra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kliszczak_dialect" title="Kliszczak dialect">Kliszczak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieniny_dialect" title="Pieniny dialect">Pieniny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C4%85cko_dialect" title="Łącko dialect">Łącko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piwniczna_dialect" title="Piwniczna dialect">Piwniczna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zag%C3%B3rze_dialect" title="Zagórze dialect">Zagórze</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kysuce_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kysuce dialect (page does not exist)">Kysuce</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ochotnica_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ochotnica dialect (page does not exist)">Ochotnica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liptov_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liptov dialect (page does not exist)">Liptov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Borderlands_dialect" title="Northern Borderlands dialect">Northern Borderlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Borderlands_dialect" title="Southern Borderlands dialect">Southern Borderlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_dialect" title="Lwów dialect">Lwów</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%C5%82ak_jargon" title="Bałak jargon">Bałak jargon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Urban dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bydgoszcz_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bydgoszcz dialect (page does not exist)">Bydgoszcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_dialect" title="Kraków dialect">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_dialect" title="Lwów dialect">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pozna%C5%84_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poznań dialect (page does not exist)">Poznań</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_dialect" title="Warsaw dialect">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Poland187" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Poland" title="Template:Languages of Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Poland" title="Template talk:Languages of Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Poland187" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Poland" title="Languages of Poland">Languages of Poland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recognized</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Lemko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unrecognized</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Sign_Language" title="Polish Sign Language">Polish Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_manual_alphabet" title="Polish manual alphabet">Polish manual alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_communes_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual communes in Poland">Bilingual communes in Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Poland" title="Category:Languages of Poland">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavic_languages388" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slavic_languages" title="Template:Slavic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slavic_languages" title="Template talk:Slavic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slavic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavic_languages388" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Slavic_languages" title="History of the Slavic languages">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Proto-Slavic" title="History of Proto-Slavic">Up to Proto-Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_accent" title="Proto-Slavic accent">Accent</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic script</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Slavic_languages" title="History of the Slavic languages">Modern languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_speech" title="Simple speech">Simple speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old East Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Novgorod_dialect" title="Old Novgorod dialect">Old Novgorodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" title="Russian dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Russian" title="Alaskan Russian">Alaskan Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Doukhobor Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Rusyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_dialects" title="Ukrainian dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Canadian Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_speech" title="Simple speech">Simple speech</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Slavic" title="Eastern South Slavic">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages#Transitional_South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">Transitional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torlakian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Torlakian dialect">Torlakian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_South_Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western South Slavic">Western</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%8E%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Западные южнославянские языки">ru</a>]</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carantanians#Language" title="Carantanians">Alpine Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_language" title="Montenegrin language">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavomolisano_dialect" title="Slavomolisano dialect">Slavomolisano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Czech%E2%80%93Slovak_languages" title="Czech–Slovak languages">Czech–Slovak</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Czech_language" title="Biblical Czech language">Biblical Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_language" title="Czechoslovak language">Czechoslovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_dialects" title="Moravian dialects">Moravian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">White Croatian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camaldolese_Slovak" title="Camaldolese Slovak">Camaldolese Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slovak_dialects" title="Eastern Slovak dialects">Eastern Slovak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn" title="Pannonian Rusyn">Pannonian Rusyn</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lechitic_languages" title="Lechitic languages">Lechitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>East Lechitic <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masurian_dialects" title="Masurian dialects">Masurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Polish language">Old Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Polish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Polish language">Middle Polish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lach_dialects" title="Lach dialects">Lach</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_language" title="Pomeranian language">Pomeranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_language" title="Slovincian language">Slovincian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Lechitic_dialects" title="West Lechitic dialects">West Lechitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcho-Magdeburgian_dialect" title="Marcho-Magdeburgian dialect">Marcho-Magdeburgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polabian_language" title="Polabian language">Polabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rani_dialect" title="Rani dialect">Rani</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Sorbian_language" title="Upper Sorbian language">Upper Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sorbian_language" title="Lower Sorbian language">Lower Sorbian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleifer_dialect" title="Schleifer dialect">Schleifer</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_microlanguages" title="Slavic microlanguages">Microlanguages</a> and dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rusyn_language" title="Rusyn language">Carpathian Rusyn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lemkos#Language" title="Lemkos">Lemko</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podlachian_language" title="Podlachian language">Podlachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Polesian" title="West Polesian">West Polesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banat_Bulgarian_dialect" title="Banat Bulgarian dialect">Banat Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakavian" title="Chakavian">Chakavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burgenland_Croatian" title="Burgenland Croatian">Burgenland Croatian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kajkavian" title="Kajkavian">Kajkavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomak_language" title="Pomak language">Pomak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prekmurje_Slovene" title="Prekmurje Slovene">Prekmurje Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resian_dialect" title="Resian dialect">Resian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shtokavian" title="Shtokavian">Shtokavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavomolisano_dialect" title="Slavomolisano dialect">Slavomolisano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunjevac_dialect" title="Bunjevac dialect">Bunjevac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_dialects_of_Greece" title="Slavic dialects of Greece">Slavic dialects of Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Slovak_dialects" title="Eastern Slovak dialects">Eastern Slovak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn" title="Pannonian Rusyn">Pannonian Rusyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goral_ethnolect" title="Goral ethnolect">Goral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lach_dialects" title="Lach dialects">Lach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_language" title="Silesian language">Silesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesian_dialect" title="Cieszyn Silesian dialect">Cieszyn Silesian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balachka" title="Balachka">Balachka</a></li> <li>20th century <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Romani" title="Bohemian Romani">Bohemian Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyakhta_Russian%E2%80%93Chinese_Pidgin" title="Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin">Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mednyj_Aleut_language" title="Mednyj Aleut language">Mednyj Aleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponaschemu" title="Ponaschemu">Ponaschemu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German-Russian_macaronic_language" title="German-Russian macaronic language">Quelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Serbian_language" title="Romano-Serbian language">Romano-Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runglish" title="Runglish">Runglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russenorsk" title="Russenorsk">Russenorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solombala_English" title="Solombala English">Solombala English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surzhyk" title="Surzhyk">Surzhyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taimyr_Pidgin_Russian" title="Taimyr Pidgin Russian">Taimyr Pidgin Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trasianka" title="Trasianka">Trasianka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavic_language" title="Pan-Slavic language">Pan-Slavic language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interslavic" title="Interslavic">Interslavic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydnevi" title="Lydnevi">Lydnevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Slavic" title="Army Slavic">Army Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iazychie" title="Iazychie">Iazychie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavonic-Serbian" title="Slavonic-Serbian">Slavonic-Serbian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_first_palatalization" title="Slavic first palatalization">Slavic first palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_second_palatalization" title="Slavic second palatalization">Slavic second palatalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_liquid_metathesis_and_pleophony" title="Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony">Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization_of_diphthongs_in_Proto-Slavic" title="Monophthongization of diphthongs in Proto-Slavic">Monophthongization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dybo%27s_law" title="Dybo's law">Dybo's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havl%C3%ADk%27s_law" title="Havlík's law">Havlík's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirt%27s_law" title="Hirt's law">Hirt's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illi%C4%8D-Svity%C4%8D%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Illič-Svityč's law">Illič-Svityč's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iv%C5%A1i%C4%87%27s_law" title="Ivšić's law">Ivšić's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meillet%27s_law" title="Meillet's law">Meillet's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedersen%27s_law" title="Pedersen's law">Pedersen's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruki_sound_law" title="Ruki sound law">Ruki sound law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Wijk%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Wijk's law">Van Wijk's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter%27s_law" title="Winter's law">Winter's law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Silesia_topics128" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Silesia_topics" title="Template:Silesia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Silesia_topics" title="Template talk:Silesia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Silesia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Silesia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Silesia_topics128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Silesia" title="History of Silesia">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Offensives" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian Offensives">Offensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Uprisings" title="Silesian Uprisings">Uprisings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Wars" title="Silesian Wars">Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Silesian_War" title="First Silesian War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Silesian_War" title="Second Silesian War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Silesian_War" title="Third Silesian War">Third</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Upper_Silesia_plebiscite" title="1921 Upper Silesia plebiscite">1921 Upper Silesia plebiscite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dresden" title="Treaty of Dresden">Treaty of Dresden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Teschen" title="Treaty of Teschen">Treaty of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Henryk%C3%B3w" title="Book of Henryków">Book of Henryków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Legnica" title="Battle of Legnica">Battle of Legnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuthen" title="Battle of Leuthen">Battle of Leuthen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Silesia" title="Category:History of Silesia">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Geography128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Silesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Silesia">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jelenia_G%C3%B3ra_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Jelenia Góra valley">Jelenia Góra valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%82odzko_Valley" title="Kłodzko Valley">Kłodzko Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_Wilderness" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Silesian Wilderness">Lower Silesian Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obni%C5%BCenie_Milicko-G%C5%82ogowskie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie (page does not exist)">Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrava_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrava Valley">Ostrava Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_Basin" title="Oświęcim Basin">Oświęcim Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Przedg%C3%B3rze_Sudeckie" class="mw-redirect" title="Przedgórze Sudeckie">Przedgórze Sudeckie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Walls" title="Silesian Walls">Silesian Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Foothills" title="Silesian Foothills">Silesian Foothills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Lowlands" title="Silesian Lowlands">Silesian Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Przesieka" title="Silesian Przesieka">Silesian Przesieka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Upland" title="Silesian Upland">Silesian Upland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian-Lusatian_Lowlands" title="Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands">Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian-Moravian_Foothills" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian-Moravian Foothills">Silesian-Moravian Foothills</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wa%C5%82_Trzebnicki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wał Trzebnicki (page does not exist)">Wał Trzebnicki</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zielona_G%C3%B3ra_Acclivity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zielona Góra Acclivity (page does not exist)">Zielona Góra Acclivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lakes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jezioro_Gocza%C5%82kowickie" class="mw-redirect" title="Jezioro Goczałkowickie">Jezioro Goczałkowickie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jezioro_Otmuchowskie" class="mw-redirect" title="Jezioro Otmuchowskie">Jezioro Otmuchowskie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jezioro_S%C5%82awskie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jezioro Sławskie (page does not exist)">Jezioro Sławskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyskie_Lake" title="Nyskie Lake">Nyskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slezsk%C3%A1_Harta_Reservoir" title="Slezská Harta Reservoir">Slezská Harta Reservoir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mountains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Beskids" title="Silesian Beskids">Silesian Beskids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian-Silesian_Beskids" title="Moravian-Silesian Beskids">Moravian-Silesian Beskids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudetes" title="Sudetes">Sudetes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudetes" title="Eastern Sudetes">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudetes" title="Central Sudetes">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sudetes" title="Western Sudetes">Western</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divok%C3%A1_Orlice" title="Divoká Orlice">Divoká Orlice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizera_(river)" title="Jizera (river)">Jizera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Apa" title="Úpa">Úpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barycz_(river)" title="Barycz (river)">Barycz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B3br" title="Bóbr">Bóbr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaczawa" title="Kaczawa">Kaczawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%82odnica" title="Kłodnica">Kłodnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwisa" title="Kwisa">Kwisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liswarta" title="Liswarta">Liswarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%C5%82a_Panew" title="Mała Panew">Mała Panew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nysa_K%C5%82odzka" class="mw-redirect" title="Nysa Kłodzka">Nysa Kłodzka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olza_(river)" title="Olza (river)">Olza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Al%C4%99za" title="Ślęza">Ślęza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82a_(Vistula)" title="Biała (Vistula)">Biała</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brynica" title="Brynica">Brynica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gostynia" title="Gostynia">Gostynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Przemsza" title="Przemsza">Przemsza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pszczynka" title="Pszczynka">Pszczynka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawa_(river)" title="Rawa (river)">Rawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png/55px-Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png/83px-Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png/110px-Lower_and_Upper_Silesia.png 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="319" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Politics128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Politics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchies_of_Silesia" title="Duchies of Silesia">Duchies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Piasts" title="Silesian Piasts">Piasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Silesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Silesia">dukes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_(1920%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)">Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Parliament" title="Silesian Parliament">parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politicians_of_the_Silesian_Voivodeship_(1920%E2%80%931939)" title="Category:Politicians of the Silesian Voivodeship (1920–1939)">politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Treasury" title="Silesian Treasury">treasury</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_country" title="State country">State country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesia Province">Silesia Province</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Silesia Province">Upper Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesia_Province_(Prussia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Silesia Province (Prussia)">Lower Silesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Silesia" title="New Silesia">New Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Silesia" title="Austrian Silesia">Austrian Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Silesia" title="Eastern Silesia">Eastern Silesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesen%C3%ADk_District" title="Jeseník District">Jeseník District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian%E2%80%93Silesian_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravian–Silesian Region">Moravian–Silesian Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niederschlesischer_Oberlausitzkreis" title="Niederschlesischer Oberlausitzkreis">Niederschlesischer Oberlausitzkreis</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6rlitz_(district)" title="Görlitz (district)">Görlitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">Voivodeships</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Lower Silesian Voivodeship">Lower Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubusz_Voivodeship" title="Lubusz Voivodeship">Lubusz Voivodeships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opole_Voivodeship" title="Opole Voivodeship">Opole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Silesian Voivodeship">Silesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">EP</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_constituency" title="European Parliament constituency">constituencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_and_Opole_(European_Parliament_constituency)" title="Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)">Lower Silesian and Opole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_(European_Parliament_constituency)" title="Silesian (European Parliament constituency)">Silesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg/55px-Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg/83px-Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg/110px-Generic_Silesia_CoA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="167" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Socioeconomics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Katowice_urban_area" title="Katowice urban area">Katowice urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolis_GZM" title="Metropolis GZM">Metropolis GZM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katowice-Ostrava_metropolitan_area" title="Katowice-Ostrava metropolitan area">Katowice-Ostrava metropolitan area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bielski_Okr%C4%99g_Przemys%C5%82owy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bielski Okręg Przemysłowy (page does not exist)">Bielski Okręg Przemysłowy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legnicko-G%C5%82ogowski_Okr%C4%99g_Miedziowy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legnicko-Głogowski Okręg Miedziowy (page does not exist)">Legnicko-Głogowski Okręg Miedziowy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lower_Silesian_Coal_Basin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lower Silesian Coal Basin (page does not exist)">Lower Silesian Coal Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Coal_Basin" title="Upper Silesian Coal Basin">Upper Silesian Coal Basin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Industrial_Region" title="Upper Silesian Industrial Region">Industrial Region</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ostrava-Karvin%C3%A1_Coal_Area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ostrava-Karviná Coal Area (page does not exist)">Ostrava-Karviná</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rybnik_Coal_Area" title="Rybnik Coal Area">Rybnik Coal Areas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tourism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tourism_in_Silesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tourism in Silesia (page does not exist)">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Society128" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_architecture" title="Silesian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Familok" title="Familok">Familŏk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_regional_costume" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian regional costume">Regional costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesian_Ethnographic_Park" title="Upper Silesian Ethnographic Park">Upper Silesian Ethnographic Park</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Silesian_Museum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Silesian Museum (page does not exist)">Upper Silesian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Museum_(Opava)" title="Silesian Museum (Opava)">Silesian Museum (Opava)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Silesian Museum">Silesian Museum (Katowice)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Theatre" title="Silesian Theatre">Silesian Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Opera" title="Silesian Opera">Silesian Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Library" title="Silesian Library">Silesian Library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Silesian_cuisine" title="Silesian cuisine">Cuisine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_noodles" class="mw-redirect" title="Black noodles">Black noodles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryja" title="Bryja">Bryja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Panczkraut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Panczkraut (page does not exist)">Panczkraut (ciapkapusta)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_dumplings" title="Silesian dumplings">Klōzki</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Galert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galert (page does not exist)">Galert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauskyjza" title="Hauskyjza">Hauskyjza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karminadle" title="Karminadle">Karminadle</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ko%C5%82%C5%8Fcz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kołŏcz (page does not exist)">Kołŏcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kopalnioki" title="Kopalnioki">Kopalnioki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kreple" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreple">Kreple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaszanka" title="Kaszanka">Krupniok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak%C3%B3wki" title="Makówki">Makōwki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moczka" title="Moczka">Moczka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modr%C5%8F_kapusta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Modrŏ kapusta (page does not exist)">Modrŏ kapusta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siemieniotka" title="Siemieniotka">Siymiyniotka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sza%C5%82ot" title="Szałot">Szałŏt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wodzionka" class="mw-redirect" title="Wodzionka">Wodziōnka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBur" class="mw-redirect" title="Żur">Żur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Church_in_Berlin,_Brandenburg_and_Silesian_Upper_Lusatia" title="Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia">Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Evangelical_Church_of_the_Augsburg_Confession" title="Silesian Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession">Silesian Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_Augsburg_Confession_in_Poland" title="Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland">Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostal_Church_in_Poland" title="Pentecostal Church in Poland">Pentecostal Church in Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silesian_Football_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silesian Football Association (page does not exist)">Football Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian%E2%80%93Silesian_Football_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Moravian–Silesian Football League">Moravian–Silesian Football League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia_national_football_team" title="Silesia national football team">National football team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Stadium" title="Silesian Stadium">Silesian Stadium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a 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data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Polish language</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> 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