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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>By period and geography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_period_and_geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By period and geography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_period_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stone_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Stone Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stone_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Copper_and_Bronze_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper_and_Bronze_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Copper and Bronze Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper_and_Bronze_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Mesopotamia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indus_Valley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indus_Valley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Indus Valley</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indus_Valley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.7</span> <span>Hellenistic Mediterranean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.8</span> <span>Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inca,_Maya,_and_Aztec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inca,_Maya,_and_Aztec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.9</span> <span>Inca, Maya, and Aztec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inca,_Maya,_and_Aztec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_to_early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_to_early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Medieval to early modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_to_early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Indian subcontinent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Renaissance technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Age of Exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre–Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre–Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Pre–Industrial Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre–Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution_(1760–1830s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution_(1760–1830s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Industrial Revolution (1760–1830s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution_(1760–1830s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Industrial_Revolution_(1860s–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Industrial_Revolution_(1860s–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Second Industrial Revolution (1860s–1914)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Industrial_Revolution_(1860s–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>By type</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_type-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By type subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biotechnology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotechnology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Biotechnology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biotechnology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Civil engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Computing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consumer_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consumer_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Consumer technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumer_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Electrical engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Materials science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Nuclear</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Science and technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Related history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Related disciplines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Related subjects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of technology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_tegnologie" title="Geskiedenis van tegnologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van tegnologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Technik" title="Geschichte der Technik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geschichte der Technik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="تاريخ التقانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ التقانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_teunolox%C3%ADa" title="Historia de la teunoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la teunoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="প্রযুক্তির ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রযুক্তির ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Технология тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Технология тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_tehnologije" title="Historija tehnologije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija tehnologije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_tecnologia" title="Història de la tecnologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la tecnologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_techniky" title="Dějiny techniky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny techniky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologihistorie" title="Teknologihistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Teknologihistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technikgeschichte" title="Technikgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Technikgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της τεχνολογίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της τεχνολογίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_tecnolog%C3%ADa" title="Historia de la tecnología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la tecnología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_teknologio" title="Historio de teknologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de teknologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologiaren_historia" title="Teknologiaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Teknologiaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تاریخ فناوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ فناوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_techniques" title="Histoire des techniques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des techniques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_tecnolox%C3%ADa" title="Historia da tecnoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da tecnoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E5%97%B0%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="技術嗰歷史 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="技術嗰歷史" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="기술의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기술의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="प्रौद्योगिकी का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रौद्योगिकी का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_tehnologije" title="Povijest tehnologije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest tehnologije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_teknologi" title="Sejarah teknologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah teknologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_technologia" title="Historia del technologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del technologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A6knisaga" title="Tæknisaga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tæknisaga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_tecnologia" title="Storia della tecnologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della tecnologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של הטכנולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של הטכנולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_teknolojia" title="Historia ya teknolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya teknolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_d%C3%A9_t%C3%A8knik" title="Istwè dé tèknik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè dé tèknik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സാങ്കേതികവിദ്യാചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാങ്കേതികവിദ്യാചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_technologie" title="Geschiedenis van de technologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de technologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%86%E3%82%AF%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BC%E5%8F%B2" title="テクノロジー史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="テクノロジー史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologihistorie" title="Teknologihistorie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Teknologihistorie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texnologiyalar_tarixi" title="Texnologiyalar tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Texnologiyalar tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AA%DB%90%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8D_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="د تېکنالوژۍ تاریخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د تېکنالوژۍ تاریخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_teknalaji" title="Ischri a teknalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a teknalaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_techniki" title="Historia techniki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia techniki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_tecnologia" title="História da tecnologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da tecnologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_tehnologiei" title="Istoria tehnologiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria tehnologiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="История технологии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История технологии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of technology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_tehnologije" title="Istorija tehnologije – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija tehnologije" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_tehnologije" title="Historija tehnologije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija tehnologije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekniikan_historia" title="Tekniikan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tekniikan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknikhistoria" title="Teknikhistoria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Teknikhistoria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_teknolohiya" title="Kasaysayan ng teknolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng teknolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="தொழில்நுட்ப வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொழில்நுட்ப வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B5" title="ประวัติศาสตร์เทคโนโลยี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์เทคโนโลยี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknoloji_tarihi" title="Teknoloji tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Teknoloji tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%97" title="Історія технології – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія технології" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_c%C3%B4ng_ngh%E1%BB%87" title="Lịch sử công nghệ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử công nghệ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="היסטאריע פון טעכנאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע פון טעכנאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2" title="技术史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="技术史" data-language-autonym="中文" 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navigation-not-searchable">For the book series, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Technology_(book_series)" title="History of Technology (book series)"><i>History of Technology</i> (book series)</a>. For the academic discipline, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ur_chariot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg/280px-Ur_chariot.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg/420px-Ur_chariot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg/560px-Ur_chariot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2660" data-file-height="1356" /></a><figcaption>The wheel, invented sometime before the 4th millennium BC, is one of the most ubiquitous and important technologies. This detail of the "<a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a>", c. 2500 BCE., displays a Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By technological eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Premodern / <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Modern</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">Standardization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination Age</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Future</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Ancient Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Hellenistic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By type of technology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">History of computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="History of manufacturing">History of manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">History of maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">History of simple machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technology timelines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_timelines" title="Category:Technology timelines">Complete list by category</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Article indices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of technology</b> is the history of the invention of tools and techniques by humans. Technology includes methods ranging from simple <a href="/wiki/Stone_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone tools">stone tools</a> to the complex <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> and information technology that has emerged since the 1980s. The term <i>technology</i> comes from the Greek word <i>techne</i>, meaning art and craft, and the word <i>logos</i>, meaning word and speech. It was first used to describe <a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">applied arts</a>, but it is now used to describe advancements and changes that affect the environment around us.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New knowledge has enabled people to create new tools, and conversely, many scientific endeavors are made possible by new <a href="/wiki/Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Technologies">technologies</a>, for example <a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instruments</a> which allow us to study nature in more detail than our natural senses. </p><p>Since much of technology is <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>, technical history is connected to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>. Since technology uses resources, technical history is tightly connected to <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>. From those resources, technology produces other resources, including <i>technological artifacts</i> used in everyday life. <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a> affects, and is affected by, a society's cultural traditions. It is a force for economic growth and a means to develop and project economic, political, military power and wealth. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_technological_progress">Measuring technological progress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measuring technological progress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Sociologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologists">sociologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropologists">anthropologists</a> have created <a href="/wiki/Social_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Social theories">social theories</a> dealing with <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">cultural evolution</a>. Some, like <a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Lenski" title="Gerhard Lenski">Gerhard Lenski</a> have declared technological progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan's concept of three major stages of social evolution (savagery, <a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">barbarism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>) can be divided by technological milestones, such as fire. White argued the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture is energy.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For White, "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." White differentiates between five stages of <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(humanity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (humanity)">human development</a>: In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use the energy of <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestication of animals">domesticated animals</a>. In the third, they use the energy of plants (<a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">agricultural revolution</a>). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a>: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a>. White introduced the formula P=E/T, where P is the development index, E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of the efficiency of technical factors using the energy. In his own words, "culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased". <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kardashev" title="Nikolai Kardashev">Nikolai Kardashev</a> extrapolated his theory, creating the <a href="/wiki/Kardashev_scale" title="Kardashev scale">Kardashev scale</a>, which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations. </p><p> Lenski's approach focuses on information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a>) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">history of communication</a>. In the first stage, information is passed by <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. In the second, when humans gain <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentience</a>, they can learn and pass information through experience. In the third, the humans start using signs and develop <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. In the fourth, they can create symbols, develop language and writing. Advancements in <a href="/wiki/Communications_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications technology">communications technology</a> translate into advancements in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economic system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">distribution of wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy:</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg/220px-Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg/330px-Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg/440px-Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Agriculture preceded writing in the history of technology.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a>,</li> <li>simple agricultural,</li> <li>advanced agricultural,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">industrial</a>,</li> <li>special (such as fishing societies).</li></ul> <p>In economics, productivity is a measure of technological progress. Productivity increases when fewer inputs (classically labor and capital but some measures include energy and materials) are used in the production of a unit of output. Another indicator of technological progress is the development of new products and services, which is necessary to offset unemployment that would otherwise result as labor inputs are reduced. In developed countries productivity growth has been slowing since the late 1970s; however, productivity growth was higher in some economic sectors, such as manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, employment in manufacturing in the United States declined from over 30% in the 1940s to just over 10% 70 years later. Similar changes occurred in other developed countries. This stage is referred to as <i>post-industrial</i>. </p><p>In the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Toffler" title="Alvin Toffler">Alvin Toffler</a> (author of <i><a href="/wiki/Future_Shock" title="Future Shock">Future Shock</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Daniel Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Naisbitt" title="John Naisbitt">John Naisbitt</a> have approached the theories of <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial societies</a>, arguing that the current era of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">industrial society</a> is coming to an end, and <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> and information are becoming more important than industry and goods. Some extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in <a href="/wiki/Fictional_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional technology">fiction</a>, are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post-<a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">singularity</a> societies.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_period_and_geography">By period and geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: By period and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a summary of the history of technology by time period and geography: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge" title="Olduvai Gorge">Olduvai</a> <a href="/wiki/Stone_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone technology">stone technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a>) 2.5 million years ago (scrapers; to butcher dead animals)</li> <li>Huts, 2 million years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a> stone technology 1.6 million years ago (hand axe)</li> <li>Fire creation and manipulation, used since the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, possibly by <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a> as early as <a href="/wiki/1_E13_s" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E13 s">1.5 Million years ago</a></li> <li>Cooking, 500,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">Javelins</a>, 400,000 years ago.</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens sapiens">Homo sapiens sapiens</a> – modern human anatomy arises, around 100,000 years ago.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Glue</a>, 200,000 years ago.</li> <li>Clothing possibly 170,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tools</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a>, possibly <a href="/wiki/1_E12_s" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E12 s">100,000 years ago</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">Harpoons</a>, 90,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrows</a>, 70,000–60,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needles</a>, 60,000 – 50,000 BC</li> <li>Flutes, 43,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_net" title="Fishing net">Fishing nets</a>, 43,000 years ago.</li> <li>Ropes, 40,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microliths</a> c. 35,000 – 23,000 years ago</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramics</a> c. 25,000 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_hook" title="Fish hook">Fishing hooks</a>, C. 23,000 years ago.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a> of animals, c. 15,000 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">Sling (weapon)</a> c. 9th millennium BC</li> <li>Boats, 8,000 years ago.</li> <li>Brick used for construction in the Middle East c. 6000 BC</li> <li>Agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> c. 4000 BC</li> <li>Wheel c. 4000 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a> c. 4000 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a> c. 3500 BC</li> <li>Copper c. 3200 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a> c. 2500 BC</li> <li>Salt c. 2500 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a> c. 2000 BC</li> <li>Iron c. 1500 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">Sundial</a> c. 800 BC</li> <li>Glass ca. 500 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a> c. 400 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> c. 400 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">Horseshoe</a> c. 300 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">Stirrup</a> first few centuries AD</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stone_Age">Stone Age</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stone Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg/220px-Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg/330px-Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg/440px-Prehistoric_Tools_-_Les_Combarelles_-_Les_Eyzies_de_Tayac_-_MNP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3290" data-file-height="2468" /></a><figcaption>A variety of stone tools</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>During most of the <b><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></b> – the bulk of the Stone Age – all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited tools and few permanent settlements. The first major technologies were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation. Stone tools and weapons, <a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">fire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">clothing</a> were technological developments of major importance during this period. </p><p>Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> approximately 300,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest direct evidence of tool usage was found in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley,_Kenya" title="Great Rift Valley, Kenya">Great Rift Valley</a>, dating back to 2.5 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest methods of <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tool</a> making, known as the <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This era of stone tool use is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></i>, or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago. </p><p>To make a stone tool, a "<a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">core</a>" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a>) was struck with a <a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">hammerstone</a>. This flaking produced sharp edges which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of <a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">choppers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">scrapers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ea_archaeology_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ea_archaeology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tools greatly aided the early humans in their <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones to get at the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">marrow</a>); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its hide, and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest stone tools were irrelevant, being little more than a fractured rock. In the <a href="/wiki/Acheulian" class="mw-redirect" title="Acheulian">Acheulian</a> era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stones into specific shapes, such as <a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">hand axes</a> emerged. This early Stone Age is described as the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a>, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">prepared-core technique</a>, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.<sup id="cite_ref-ea_archaeology_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ea_archaeology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Pressure_flaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure flaking">pressure flaking</a>, where a wood, bone, or antler <a href="/wiki/Punch_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch (engineering)">punch</a> could be used to shape a stone very finely.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of the last Ice Age about 10,000 years ago is taken as the end point of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Epipaleolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipaleolithic">Epipaleolithic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>. The Mesolithic technology included the use of <a href="/wiki/Microliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Microliths">microliths</a> as composite stone tools, along with wood, bone, and antler tools. </p><p>The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period. During this period, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greenschist" title="Greenschist">greenstone</a>, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunneling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared. These stone axes were used alongside a continued use of stone tools such as a range of <a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">projectiles</a>, knives, and <a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">scrapers</a>, as well as tools, made from organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stone Age cultures developed <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">music</a> and engaged in organized <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">warfare</a>. Stone Age humans developed ocean-worthy <a href="/wiki/Outrigger_canoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Outrigger canoe">outrigger canoe</a> technology, leading to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="History of Papua New Guinea">migration</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>, across the Indian Ocean to <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and also across the Pacific Ocean, which required knowledge of the ocean currents, weather patterns, sailing, and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a>. </p><p>Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">prehistoric art</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Willendorf" title="Venus of Willendorf">Venus of Willendorf</a>. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a>. Scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and especially their technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copper_and_Bronze_Ages">Copper and Bronze Ages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Copper and Bronze Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sword_bronze_age_(2nd_version).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/170px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/255px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg/340px-Sword_bronze_age_%282nd_version%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_sword" title="Bronze Age sword">Bronze Age sword</a> or dagger blade</figcaption></figure> <p>Metallic copper occurs on the surface of weathered copper ore deposits and copper was used before copper <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> was known. Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a> allowed sufficiently high temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields <a href="/wiki/Arsenical_bronze" title="Arsenical bronze">arsenical bronze</a>, which can be sufficiently <a href="/wiki/Work_hardening" title="Work hardening">work hardened</a> to be suitable for making tools.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a> is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter being found in relatively few deposits globally caused a long time to elapse before true tin bronze became widespread. (See: <a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin sources and trade in ancient times</a>) Bronze was a major advancement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails. Bronze nails replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Better ships enabled long-distance trade and the advance of civilization. </p><p>This technological trend apparently began in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> and spread outward over time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These developments were not, and still are not, universal. The <a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">three-age system</a> does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Spinifex_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinifex People">Spinifex People</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentinelese people">Sentinelese</a>, and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology. These villages preserve traditional customs in the face of global modernity, exhibiting a remarkable resistance to the rapid advancement of technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iron_Age">Iron Age</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age,_found_at_Gotland,_Sweden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg/170px-Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg/255px-Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axehead</a> made of iron, dating from the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before iron smelting was developed the only iron was obtained from meteorites and is usually identified by having nickel content. <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">Meteoric iron</a> was rare and valuable, but was sometimes used to make tools and other implements, such as fish hooks. </p><p>The <b><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></b> involved the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">iron smelting</a> technology. It generally replaced bronze and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger, lighter and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. The raw materials to make iron, such as ore and limestone, are far more abundant than copper and especially tin ores. Consequently, iron was produced in many areas. </p><p>It was not possible to mass manufacture steel or pure iron because of the high temperatures required. Furnaces could reach melting temperature but the crucibles and molds needed for melting and casting had not been developed. Steel could be produced by <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forging</a> bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a somewhat controllable way, but steel produced by this method was not homogeneous. </p><p>In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case. </p><p>In Europe, large <a href="/wiki/Hill_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Hill fort">hill forts</a> were built either as a refuge in time of war or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (modern Iraq) and its peoples (<a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkadians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>) lived in cities from c. 4000 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed a sophisticated architecture in mud-brick and stone,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the use of the <a href="/wiki/True_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="True arch">true arch</a>. The walls of Babylon were so massive they were quoted as a <a href="/wiki/Wonder_of_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Wonder of the World">Wonder of the World</a>. They developed extensive water systems; canals for transport and irrigation in the alluvial south, and catchment systems stretching for tens of kilometers in the hilly north. Their palaces had sophisticated drainage systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Dalley2013_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalley2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, using the <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> script. Many records on clay tablets and stone inscriptions have survived. These civilizations were early adopters of bronze technologies which they used for tools, weapons and monumental statuary. By 1200 BC they could cast objects 5 m long in a single piece. </p><p>Several of the six classic <a href="/wiki/Simple_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple machines">simple machines</a> were invented in Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The <a href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle" title="Wheel and axle">wheel and axle</a> mechanism first appeared with the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a>, invented in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Wheeled_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheeled vehicle">wheeled vehicle</a> in Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium BC. Depictions of wheeled <a href="/wiki/Wagon" title="Wagon">wagons</a> found on <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablet</a> <a href="/wiki/Pictographs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographs">pictographs</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Uruk#Eanna_District" title="Uruk">Eanna district</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> are dated between 3700 and 3500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a> was used in the <a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">shadoof</a> water-lifting device, the first <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">crane</a> machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">ancient Egyptian technology</a> circa 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulleys</a> date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Screw_(simple_machine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw (simple machine)">screw</a>, the last of the simple machines to be invented,<sup id="cite_ref-Woods_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first appeared in Mesopotamia during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> period (911–609) BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Assyrian King <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> (704–681 BC) claims to have invented automatic sluices and to have been the first to use water <a href="/wiki/Screw_pump" title="Screw pump">screw pumps</a>, of up to 30 tons weight, which were cast using two-part clay molds rather than by the '<a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost wax</a>' process.<sup id="cite_ref-Dalley2013_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalley2013-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jerwan Aqueduct (c. 688 BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a> spanned 800 years. They enabled meticulous astronomers to plot the motions of the planets and to predict eclipses.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg/220px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg/330px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg/440px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>The compartmented <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a>, here its overshot version</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> date back to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> in the 4th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> specifically in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a> before 350 BC, in the regions of Mesopotamia (Iraq) and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (Iran).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pioneering use of <a href="/wiki/Water_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Water power">water power</a> constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle power (besides the <a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">sail</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>, known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools, invented and used many simple machines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">ramp</a> to aid construction processes. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramids</a> were built using three of what is called the <a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">Six Simple Machines</a>, from which all machines are based. These machines are the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">inclined plane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">wedge</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a>, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>, which is 481 feet (147 meters) high.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They also made writing medium similar to paper from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, which Joshua Mark states is the foundation for modern paper. Papyrus is a plant (cyperus papyrus) which grew in plentiful amounts in the Egyptian Delta and throughout the Nile River Valley during ancient times. The papyrus was harvested by field workers and brought to processing centers where it was cut into thin strips. The strips were then laid-out side by side and covered in plant resin. The second layer of strips was laid on perpendicularly, then both pressed together until the sheet was dry. The sheets were then joined to form a roll and later used for writing.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egyptian society made several significant advances during dynastic periods in many areas of technology. According to Hossam Elanzeery, they were the first civilization to use timekeeping devices such as sundials, shadow clocks, and obelisks and successfully leveraged their knowledge of astronomy to create a calendar model that society still uses today. They developed shipbuilding technology that saw them progress from papyrus reed vessels to cedar wood ships while also pioneering the use of rope trusses and stem-mounted rudders. The Egyptians also used their knowledge of anatomy to lay the foundation for many modern medical techniques and practiced the earliest known version of neuroscience. Elanzeery also states that they used and furthered mathematical science, as evidenced in the building of the pyramids.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Egyptians also invented and pioneered many food technologies that have become the basis of modern food technology processes. Based on paintings and reliefs found in tombs, as well as archaeological artifacts, scholars like Paul T Nicholson believe that the Ancient Egyptians established systematic farming practices, engaged in cereal processing, brewed beer and baked bread, processed meat, practiced viticulture and created the basis for modern wine production, and created condiments to complement, preserve and mask the flavors of their food.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indus_Valley">Indus Valley</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Indus Valley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>, situated in a resource-rich area (in modern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and northwestern India), is notable for its early application of city planning, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation">sanitation technologies</a>, and plumbing.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indus Valley construction and architecture, called '<a href="/wiki/Vaastu_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaastu Shastra">Vaastu Shastra</a>', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">technological contributions from China</a> include the earliest known form of the <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a> and epigenetic sequencing,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> early <a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">seismological detectors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Match" title="Match">matches</a>, paper, <a href="/wiki/Helicopter_rotor" title="Helicopter rotor">Helicopter rotor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raised-relief_map" title="Raised-relief map">Raised-relief map</a>, the double-action piston pump, <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, water powered blast furnace <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a>, the iron <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a>, the multi-tube <a href="/wiki/Seed_drill" title="Seed drill">seed drill</a>, the wheelbarrow, the parachute, the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">rudder</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>, the <a href="/wiki/South_Pointing_Chariot" class="mw-redirect" title="South Pointing Chariot">South Pointing Chariot</a> and gunpowder. China also developed deep well drilling, which they used to extract brine for making salt. Some of these wells, which were as deep as 900 meters, produced natural gas which was used for evaporating brine.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period include <a href="/wiki/Block_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Block printing">block printing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type printing</a>, phosphorescent paint, endless power <a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive">chain drive</a> and the clock escapement mechanism. The solid-fuel <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a> was invented in China about 1150, nearly 200 years after the invention of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> (which acted as the rocket's fuel). Decades before the West's age of exploration, the Chinese emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> also sent <a href="/wiki/Treasure_voyages" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasure voyages">large fleets</a> on maritime voyages, some reaching Africa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenistic_Mediterranean">Hellenistic Mediterranean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hellenistic Mediterranean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean history</a> began in the 4th century BC with <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander's conquests">Alexander's conquests</a>, which led to the emergence of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a> representing a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Near-East" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-East">Near-Eastern</a> cultures in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> region, including the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Greeks in Egypt">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a>, Jewish, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">inventions and improvements</a> to existing technology. The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> saw a sharp increase in technological advancement, fostered by a climate of openness to new ideas, the blossoming of a mechanistic philosophy, and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> and its close association with the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Museion" class="mw-redirect" title="Museion">museion</a>. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventors of earlier ages, ingenious minds such as <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantium" title="Philo of Byzantium">Philo of Byzantium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a> remain known by name to posterity. </p><p>Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods, were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water-lifting devices, such as the vertical <a href="/wiki/Water-wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-wheel">water-wheel</a>, the compartmented wheel, the water <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a>, the bucket-chain and pot-garland, the <a href="/wiki/Force_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Force pump">force pump</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Suction_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Suction pump">suction pump</a>, the double-action <a href="/wiki/Piston_pump" title="Piston pump">piston pump</a> and quite possibly the <a href="/wiki/Chain_pump" title="Chain pump">chain pump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_2000_356f._39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis_2000_356f.-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In music, the <a href="/wiki/Water_organ" title="Water organ">water organ</a>, invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved, constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument. In time-keeping, the introduction of the inflow <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">clepsydra</a> and its mechanization by the dial and pointer, the application of a <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement">escapement</a> mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra. </p><p>Innovations in mechanical technology included the newly devised right-angled <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gear</a>, which would become particularly important to the operation of mechanical devices. Hellenistic engineers also devised <a href="/wiki/Automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Automata">automata</a> such as suspended ink pots, automatic <a href="/wiki/Washstand" title="Washstand">washstands</a>, and doors, primarily as toys, which however featured new useful mechanisms such as the <a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">cam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gimbal" title="Gimbal">gimbals</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analogous computer</a> working with a <a href="/wiki/Differential_gear" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential gear">differential gear</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> both show great refinement in astronomical science. </p><p>In other fields, ancient Greek innovations include the <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gastraphetes" title="Gastraphetes">gastraphetes</a> crossbow in warfare, hollow bronze-casting in metallurgy, the <a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">dioptra</a> for surveying, in infrastructure the <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">central heating</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Diolkos" title="Diolkos">ship trackway</a>. In transport, great progress resulted from the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Winch" title="Winch">winch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Odometer" title="Odometer">odometer</a>. </p><p>Further newly created techniques and items were <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_spiral_stairs" title="List of ancient spiral stairs">spiral staircases</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive">chain drive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caliper" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliper">sliding calipers</a> and showers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/280px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/420px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/560px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in France, a Roman aqueduct</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> expanded from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a> across the entire <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean region">Mediterranean region</a> between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Its most advanced and economically productive provinces outside of Italia were the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman</a> provinces in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> in particular being the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italia.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman Empire developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">laws</a> providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">road-building</a> (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the <a href="/wiki/Reaper" title="Reaper">Gallic reaper</a> that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Roman engineers</a> were the first to build monumental arches, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres" title="List of Roman amphitheatres">amphitheatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">true arch bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbour">harbours</a>, reservoirs and dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">book (Codex)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_blowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass blowing">glass blowing</a> and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. </p><p>In Roman Egypt, the inventor <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> was the first to experiment with a <a href="/wiki/Wind-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind-power">wind-powered</a> mechanical device (see <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron</a>'s windwheel) and even created the earliest <a href="/wiki/Steam-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-power">steam-powered</a> device (the <a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a>), opening up new possibilities in harnessing natural forces. He also devised a <a href="/wiki/Vending_machine" title="Vending machine">vending machine</a>. However, his inventions were primarily toys, rather than practical machines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inca,_Maya,_and_Aztec"><span id="Inca.2C_Maya.2C_and_Aztec"></span>Inca, Maya, and Aztec</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Inca, Maya, and Aztec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg/280px-Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg/420px-Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg/560px-Walls_at_Sacsayhuaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1874" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Walls at Sacsayhuaman</figcaption></figure> <p>The engineering skills of the <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya</a> were great, even by today's standards. An example of this exceptional engineering is the use of pieces weighing upwards of one ton in their stonework placed together so that not even a blade can fit into the cracks. Inca villages used irrigation canals and <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of <a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">hydroponics</a>, their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. </p><p>Though the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> did not incorporate metallurgy or wheel technology in their architectural constructions, they developed complex writing and astronomical systems, and created beautiful sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. The Maya are also responsible for creating the first pressurized water system in Mesoamerica, located in the Maya site of <a href="/wiki/Palenque" title="Palenque">Palenque</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main contribution of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities and the ubiquity of the ingenious agricultural technology of <a href="/wiki/Chinampas" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinampas">chinampas</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just as in the Inca and Mayan civilizations. The Aztec, subsequently to the Maya, inherited many of the technologies and intellectual advancements of their predecessors: the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Native_American_inventions_and_innovations" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American inventions and innovations">Native American inventions and innovations</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_to_early_modern">Medieval to early modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Medieval to early modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most significant developments of the medieval were economies in which water and wind power were more significant than animal and human muscle power.<sup id="cite_ref-Stark_2005_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stark_2005-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38">: 38 </span></sup> Most water and wind power was used for milling grain. Water power was also used for blowing air in <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>, pulping rags for paper making and for felting wool. The <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> recorded 5,624 water mills in Great Britain in 1086, being about one per thirty families.<sup id="cite_ref-Stark_2005_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stark_2005-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">History of science and technology in Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="Science and technology in Japan">Science and technology in Japan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Song dynasty">Science and technology of the Song dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Japanese inventions and discoveries">List of Japanese inventions and discoveries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Indian subcontinent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">List of Indian inventions and discoveries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Science and technology in Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></div> <p>The Muslim <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphates</a> united in trade large areas that had previously traded little, including the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The science and technology of previous empires in the region, including the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic and Roman empires, were inherited by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, where Arabic replaced Syriac, Persian and Greek as the lingua franca of the region. Significant advances were made in the region during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> (8th–16th centuries). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a> occurred during this period. It was a transformation in agriculture from the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Islam">8th to the 13th century in the Islamic region</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>. The economy established by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">Muslim traders</a> across the Old World enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques throughout the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops and techniques from and to regions outside it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances were made in <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, and farming, with the help of new technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>. These changes made agriculture much more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and increased stratification of society. </p><p>Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made wide use of <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, along with early uses of <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> such as petroleum, and large factory complexes (<i>tiraz</i> in Arabic).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of industrial mills were employed in the Islamic world, including <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fulling</a> mills, <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice_huller" title="Rice huller">hullers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ship_mill" title="Ship mill">ship mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">stamp mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">steel mills</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">tide mills</a>. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim engineers also employed <a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine">water turbines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a> in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of <a href="/wiki/Dams" class="mw-redirect" title="Dams">dams</a> as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> and water-raising machines.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these technologies were transferred to medieval Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wind-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind-power">Wind-powered</a> machines used to grind grain and pump water, the windmill and <a href="/wiki/Wind_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind pump">wind pump</a>, first appeared in what are now <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and Pakistan by the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane_mill" title="Sugarcane mill">Sugar mills</a> first appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-10_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-10-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were first driven by watermills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in what are today <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, Pakistan and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-65_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-65-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crops such as <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> fruit were brought to Europe through <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted across Europe. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. </p><p>The Muslim world adopted <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> from China.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a> appeared in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Dynasty">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> during 794–795.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where formulas for pure <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">potassium nitrate</a> were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gunpowder_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunpowder-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</a> was invented in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> by the early 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Pacey_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacey-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was later widely adopted in Europe, where it was adapted into the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a>, a key device during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">crankshaft</a> was invented by <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazari">Al-Jazari</a> in 1206,<sup id="cite_ref-Hill1979_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill1979-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sally_Ganchy_2009_41_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sally_Ganchy_2009_41-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is central to modern machinery such as the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automatic_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic control">automatic controls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vallely_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vallely-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Camshaft" title="Camshaft">camshaft</a> was also first described by Al-Jazari in 1206.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)">programmable machines</a> were also invented in the Muslim world. The first <a href="/wiki/Music_sequencer" title="Music sequencer">music sequencer</a>, a programmable <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instrument</a>, was an automated flute player invented by the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Musa">Banu Musa</a> brothers, described in their <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices" title="Book of Ingenious Devices">Book of Ingenious Devices</a></i>, in the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Koetsier_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable <a href="/wiki/Automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Automata">automata</a>/<a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>. He described four <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automaton</a> musicians, including two drummers operated by a programmable <a href="/wiki/Drum_machine" title="Drum machine">drum machine</a>, where the drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharkey_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Castle_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle clock">castle clock</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropowered</a> mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clock</a> invented by Al-Jazari, was an early <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a> <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancient_Discoveries_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_Discoveries-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, a practical impulse <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> was invented in 1551 by <a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a>. He described a method for rotating a <a href="/wiki/Rotisserie" title="Rotisserie">spit</a> by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. Known as a <a href="/wiki/Steam_jack" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam jack">steam jack</a>, a similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">John Wilkins</a> in 1648.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salisbury_Cathedral,_medieval_clock.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG/170px-Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG/255px-Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG/340px-Salisbury_Cathedral%2C_medieval_clock.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2405" data-file-height="3591" /></a><figcaption>Clock from <a href="/wiki/Salisbury_Cathedral" title="Salisbury Cathedral">Salisbury Cathedral</a>, ca. 1386</figcaption></figure> <p>While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backward in the evolution of Western technology, a generation of medievalists (like the American historian of science <a href="/wiki/Lynn_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynn White">Lynn White</a>) stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Genuine medieval contributions include for example <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical clock">mechanical clocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectacles">spectacles</a> and vertical <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a>. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of seemingly inconspicuous items like the <a href="/wiki/Watermark" title="Watermark">watermark</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Push_button" class="mw-redirect" title="Push button">functional button</a>. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Age_of_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of exploration">age of exploration</a> was laid by the introduction of pintle-and-gudgeon <a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">rudders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateen_sail" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateen sail">lateen sails</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dry_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry compass">dry compass</a>, the horseshoe and the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>. </p><p>Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a>, steel <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a>. The Middle Ages are perhaps best known for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Rib_vault" title="Rib vault">rib vault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">pointed arch</a> gave rise to the high rising <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic style</a>, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">Papermaking</a>, a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White_Jr." title="Lynn Townsend White Jr.">Lynn Townsend White Jr.</a> credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renaissance_technology">Renaissance technology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Renaissance technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricola1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/170px-Agricola1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/255px-Agricola1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/340px-Agricola1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1221" /></a><figcaption>A water-powered <a href="/wiki/Mine_hoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine hoist">mine hoist</a> used for raising ore, ca. 1556</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as <a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">millwrights</a>, clock makers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Munson_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Munson-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32">: 32 </span></sup> </p><p>A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i> (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining and chemistry. <i>De re metallica</i> was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Munson_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Munson-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the water powered mechanical devices in use were <a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">ore stamping mills</a>, forge hammers, blast bellows, and suction pumps. </p> <table class="floatright" style="border:1px solid darkgrey; background:#f9f9f9;"> <tbody><tr> <td><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Filippo_Brunelleschi,_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_(Santa_Maria_del_Fiore).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Dome of Florence Cathedral"><img alt="Dome of Florence Cathedral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG/180px-Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG/271px-Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG/361px-Filippo_Brunelleschi%2C_cutaway_of_the_Dome_of_Florence_Cathedral_%28Santa_Maria_del_Fiore%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="542" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dome of <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cathedral" title="Florence Cathedral">Florence Cathedral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 308px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 306px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by da Vinci"><img alt="Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by da Vinci" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/459px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg" decoding="async" width="306" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/690px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg/918px-Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Drawing_of_a_flying_machine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="604" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by <a href="/wiki/Da_Vinci" class="mw-redirect" title="Da Vinci">da Vinci</a></div> </li> </ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Due to the casting of cannon, the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the movable cast metal type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, whose pressing mechanism was adapted from an olive screw press, (c. 1441) lead to a tremendous increase in the number of books and the number of titles published. Movable ceramic type had been used in China for a few centuries and woodblock printing dated back even further.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">linear perceptivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_del_Fiore" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Maria del Fiore">double shell domes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bastion_fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastion fortress">Bastion fortresses</a>. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Taccola" title="Taccola">Taccola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>, and men like <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a> created the large dome of <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cathedral" title="Florence Cathedral">Florence Cathedral</a> as a result. He was awarded one of the first patents ever issued to protect an ingenious <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">crane</a> he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Cross-bow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-bow">cross-bow</a> and ever more powerful <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>, as the city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> were strong patrons of the arts and sciences. <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance science</a> spawned the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Age_of_Exploration">Age of Exploration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Age of Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a></div> <p>An improved sailing ship, the nau or <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a>, enabled the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a> with the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Bacon (philosopher)">Francis Bacon</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/New_Atlantis" title="New Atlantis">New Atlantis</a></i>. Pioneers like <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Cabral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa, India and China to shorten the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult, however, owing to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_longitude" title="History of longitude">problem of longitude</a> and the absence of accurate <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">chronometers</a>. European powers rediscovered the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">civil code</a>, lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre–Industrial_Revolution"><span id="Pre.E2.80.93Industrial_Revolution"></span>Pre–Industrial Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pre–Industrial Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newcomen_Figuier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcomen_Figuier.jpg/220px-Newcomen_Figuier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcomen_Figuier.jpg/330px-Newcomen_Figuier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcomen_Figuier.jpg/440px-Newcomen_Figuier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1354" data-file-height="1369" /></a><figcaption>Newcomen steam engine for pumping mines</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stocking_frame" title="Stocking frame">stocking frame</a>, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mines were becoming increasingly deep and were expensive to drain with horse powered bucket and chain pumps and wooden piston pumps. Some mines used as many as 500 horses. Horse-powered pumps were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery#First_steam_engine_mechanism" title="Thomas Savery">Savery steam pump</a> (1698) and the <a href="/wiki/Newcomen_atmospheric_engine" title="Newcomen atmospheric engine">Newcomen steam engine</a> (1712).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_Revolution_(1760–1830s)"><span id="Industrial_Revolution_.281760.E2.80.931830s.29"></span>Industrial Revolution (1760–1830s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution (1760–1830s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></div> <p>The revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>. The British <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> is characterized by developments in the areas of textile machinery, mining, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, transport and the invention of <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/220px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/330px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/440px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before invention of machinery to spin yarn and weave cloth, spinning was done using the spinning wheel and weaving was done on a hand-and-foot-operated loom. It took from three to five spinners to supply one weaver.<sup id="cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landes_1969-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ayres_1989_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayres_1989-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">flying shuttle</a> in 1733 doubled the output of a weaver, creating a shortage of spinners. The <a href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">spinning frame</a> for wool was invented in 1738. The <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a>, invented in 1764, was a machine that used multiple spinning wheels; however, it produced low quality thread. The <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a> patented by Richard Arkwright in 1767, produced a better quality thread than the spinning jenny. The <a href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mule</a>, patented in 1779 by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a>, produced a high quality thread.<sup id="cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landes_1969-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ayres_1989_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayres_1989-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">power loom</a> was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landes_1969-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_Bridge.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Iron_Bridge.JPG/220px-Iron_Bridge.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Iron_Bridge.JPG/330px-Iron_Bridge.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Iron_Bridge.JPG/440px-Iron_Bridge.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>The Iron Bridge</figcaption></figure> <p>In the mid-1750s, the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> was applied to the water power-constrained iron, copper and lead industries for powering blast bellows. These industries were located near the mines, some of which were using steam engines for mine pumping. Steam engines were too powerful for leather bellows, so cast iron blowing cylinders were developed in 1768. Steam powered blast furnaces achieved higher temperatures, allowing the use of more lime in iron blast furnace feed. (Lime rich slag was not free-flowing at the previously used temperatures.) With a sufficient lime ratio, sulfur from coal or coke fuel reacts with the slag so that the sulfur does not contaminate the iron. Coal and coke were cheaper and more abundant fuel. As a result, iron production rose significantly during the last decades of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_1992_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote_1992-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coal converted to <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> fueled higher temperature <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> and produced cast iron in much larger amounts than before, allowing the creation of a range of structures such as <a href="/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge" title="The Iron Bridge">The Iron Bridge</a>. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg/220px-Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg/330px-Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg/440px-Stephenson%27s_Rocket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The preserved <i>Rocket</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The steam engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboat</a> and railway transportation. The <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Liverpool and Manchester Railway">Liverpool and Manchester Railway</a>, the first purpose-built railway line, opened in 1830, the <a href="/wiki/Rocket_locomotive" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket locomotive">Rocket locomotive</a> of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a> being one of its first working <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">locomotives</a> used. </p><p>Manufacture of ships' pulley <a href="/wiki/Block_and_tackle" title="Block and tackle">blocks</a> by all-metal machines at the <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a> in 1803 instigated the age of sustained <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>. <a href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">Machine tools</a> used by engineers to manufacture parts began in the first decade of the century, notably by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth" title="Joseph Whitworth">Joseph Whitworth</a>. The development of <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> through what is now called the <a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a> began in the firearms industry at the U.S. Federal arsenals in the early 19th century, and became widely used by the end of the century. </p><p>Until the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment era">Enlightenment era</a>, little progress was made in <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">water supply and sanitation</a> and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. The first documented use of <a href="/wiki/Sand_filter" title="Sand filter">sand filters</a> to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery in <a href="/wiki/Paisley,_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Paisley, Scotland">Paisley, Scotland</a>, John Gibb, installed an experimental filter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public. The first treated public water supply in the world was installed by engineer <a href="/wiki/James_Simpson_(engineer)" title="James Simpson (engineer)">James Simpson</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Chelsea_Waterworks_Company" title="Chelsea Waterworks Company">Chelsea Waterworks Company</a> in London in 1829.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first screw-down <a href="/wiki/Tap_(valve)" title="Tap (valve)">water tap</a> was patented in 1845 by Guest and Chrimes, a brass foundry in <a href="/wiki/Rotherham" title="Rotherham">Rotherham</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak" title="1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak">1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak</a> demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Industrial_Revolution_(1860s–1914)"><span id="Second_Industrial_Revolution_.281860s.E2.80.931914.29"></span>Second Industrial Revolution (1860s–1914)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Second Industrial Revolution (1860s–1914)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg/170px-Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg/255px-Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg/340px-Thomas_Edison_Lightbulbs_1879-1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption> Edison electric light bulbs 1879–80</figcaption></figure> <p>The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, manufacturing and communication technologies originating in Europe. After a recession at the end of the 1830s and a general slowdown in major inventions, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> was a period of rapid innovation and industrialization that began in the 1860s or around 1870 and lasted until <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. It included rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a> developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the development of telegraphy was the patenting of the first telephone. March 1876 marks the date that Alexander Graham Bell officially patented his version of an "electric telegraph". Although Bell is noted with the creation of the telephone, it is still debated about who actually developed the first working model.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulbs</a> became practical for general use in the late 1870s. Edison Electric Illuminating Company, a company founded by Thomas Edison with financial backing from <a href="/wiki/Spencer_Trask" title="Spencer Trask">Spencer Trask</a>, built and managed the first electricity network. Electrification was rated the most important technical development of the 20th century as the foundational infrastructure for modern civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass production of <a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">sewing machines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_machinery" title="Agricultural machinery">agricultural machinery</a> such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-hounshell-1984_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hounshell-1984-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in the 1880s.<sup id="cite_ref-hounshell-1984_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hounshell-1984-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg/220px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg/330px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg/440px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="3327" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> with his second <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonograph</a>, photographed by <a href="/wiki/Levin_Corbin_Handy" title="Levin Corbin Handy">Levin Corbin Handy</a> in Washington, April 1878</figcaption></figure> <p>Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship">Ironclad warships</a> were found in battle starting in the 1860s, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. </p><p>Between 1825 and 1840, the technology of <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a> was introduced. For much of the rest of the century, many engineers and inventors tried to combine it and the much older technique of <a href="/wiki/Projector" title="Projector">projection</a> to create a complete illusion or a complete documentation of reality. Colour photography was usually included in these ambitions and the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonograph</a> in 1877 seemed to promise the addition of <a href="/wiki/Sound_film" title="Sound film">synchronized sound recordings</a>. Between 1887 and 1894, the first successful short <a href="/wiki/Cinematography" title="Cinematography">cinematographic</a> presentations were established. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/220px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/330px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg/440px-Ford_assembly_line_-_1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3916" data-file-height="2826" /></a><figcaption>Ford assembly line, 1913. The <a href="/wiki/Ignition_magneto" title="Ignition magneto">magneto</a> assembly line was the first.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-swan_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swan-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">Mass production</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a> and other high-tech goods to masses of consumers. <a href="/wiki/Military_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Military research">Military research</a> and development sped advances including electronic <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>. Radio and <a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a> greatly improved and spread to larger populations of users, though near-universal access would not be possible until <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phones">mobile phones</a> became affordable to <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a> residents in the late 2000s and early 2010s. </p><p>Energy and engine technology improvements included <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>, developed after the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan project">Manhattan project</a> which heralded the new <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a> development led to long range missiles and the first <a href="/wiki/Space_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Space age">space age</a> that lasted from the 1950s with the launch of Sputnik to the mid-1980s. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> spread rapidly in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century electric power was for the most part only available to wealthy people in a few major cities. By 2019, an estimated 87 percent of the world's population had access to electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a> also became widespread during the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopes">Electron microscopes</a> were very powerful by the late 1970s and genetic theory and knowledge were expanding, leading to developments in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a>. </p><p>The first "<a href="/wiki/Test_tube_baby" class="mw-redirect" title="Test tube baby">test tube baby</a>" <a href="/wiki/Louise_Brown" title="Louise Brown">Louise Brown</a> was born in 1978, which led to the first successful <a href="/wiki/Gestational_surrogacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational surrogacy">gestational surrogacy</a> pregnancy in 1985 and the first pregnancy by <a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">ICSI</a> in 1991, which is the implanting of a single sperm into an egg. <a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> was first performed in late 1989 and led to successful births in July 1990. These procedures have become relatively common. </p><p>Computers were connected by means of local area, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">telecom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic network">fiber optic networks</a>, powered by the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a> that ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Optical_networking" title="Optical networking">optical networking</a> technology exploded the capacity of the Internet beginning in 1996 with the launch of the first high-capacity <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wave division multiplexing</a> (WDM) system by <a href="/wiki/Ciena" title="Ciena">Ciena Corp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> WDM, as the common basis for telecom backbone networks,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> increased transmission capacity by orders of magnitude, thus enabling the mass commercialization and popularization of the Internet and its widespread impact on culture, economics, business, and society. </p><p>The commercial availability of the first portable cell phone in 1981 and the first pocket-sized phone in 1985,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both developed by Comvik in Sweden, coupled with the first transmission of data over a cellular network by <a href="/wiki/Vodafone" title="Vodafone">Vodafone</a> (formerly <a href="/wiki/Racal-Millicom" class="mw-redirect" title="Racal-Millicom">Racal-Millicom</a>) in 1992 were the breakthroughs that led directly to the form and function of smartphones today. By 2014, there were more cell phones in use than people on Earth<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and The Supreme Court of the United States of America has ruled that a mobile phone was a private part of a person.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Providing consumers wireless access to each other and to the Internet, the mobile phone stimulated one of the most important technology revolutions in human history.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Human Genome Project sequenced and identified all three billion chemical units in human DNA with a goal of finding the genetic roots of disease and developing treatments. The project became feasible due to two technical advances made during the late 1970s: gene mapping by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers and DNA sequencing. Sequencing was invented by Frederick Sanger and, separately, by Dr. Walter Gilbert. Gilbert also conceived of the Human Genome Project on May 27, 1985, and first publicly advocated it in August 1985 at the first International Conference on Genes and Computers in August 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-Cook-Deegan,_Robert_M_1994_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-Deegan,_Robert_M_1994-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Federal Government sponsored Human Genome Project began October 1, 1990, and was declared complete in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-Cook-Deegan,_Robert_M_1994_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-Deegan,_Robert_M_1994-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The massive data analysis resources necessary for running transatlantic research programs such as the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">Large Electron–Positron Collider</a> led to a necessity for distributed communications, causing Internet protocols to be more widely adopted by researchers and also creating a justification for <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> to create the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> spread rapidly to the developing world from the 1980s onward due to many successful humanitarian initiatives, greatly reducing childhood mortality in many poor countries with limited medical resources. </p><p>The US <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering" title="National Academy of Engineering">National Academy of Engineering</a>, by expert vote, established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century:<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">Automobile</a></li> <li>Airplane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Water supply</a> and Distribution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a></li> <li>Radio and television</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanized agriculture">Mechanized agriculture</a></li> <li>Computers</li> <li>Telephone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Conditioning">Air Conditioning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways" class="mw-redirect" title="Highways">Highways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></li> <li>Internet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging technology">Imaging technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_appliances" class="mw-redirect" title="Household appliances">Household appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li>Petroleum and <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemical</a> technologies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiber_Optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber Optics">Fiber Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li></ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg/220px-NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg/330px-NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg/440px-NASA_Mars_Rover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rovers</a> provided huge amounts of information by functioning well beyond NASA's original lifespan estimates.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology" title="2000s in science and technology">2000s in science and technology</a></div> <p>In the early 21st century, research is ongoing into <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computers">quantum computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a> (introduced 1990), <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a> (introduced 1981), <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a> (introduced 1985), <a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">bioengineering</a>/<a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">advanced materials</a> (e.g., graphene), the <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_combat_air_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned combat air vehicle">drones</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/Railgun" title="Railgun">railguns</a> and high-energy laser beams for military uses), <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">memristor</a>, and green technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel" title="Alternative fuel">alternative fuels</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel cells">fuel cells</a>, self-driving electric and <a href="/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid" title="Plug-in hybrid">plug-in hybrid</a> cars), <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a> devices and <a href="/wiki/Wearable_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Wearable electronics">wearable electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, and more efficient and powerful <a href="/wiki/LEDs" class="mw-redirect" title="LEDs">LEDs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cells">solar cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless power">wireless power</a> devices, engines, and <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, the largest single machine ever built, was constructed between 1998 and 2008. The understanding of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> is expected to expand with better instruments including larger <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> such as the LHC<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and better <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">neutrino detectors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a> is sought via underground detectors and observatories like <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> have started to detect <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>. </p><p>Genetic engineering technology continues to improve, and the importance of <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a> on development and inheritance has also become increasingly recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> technology and <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> are also being developed, like the Boeing's <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> and SpaceX's <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2" title="SpaceX Dragon 2">Dragon 2</a>. New, more capable <a href="/wiki/Space_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Space observatory">space telescopes</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> which was launched to orbit in December, 2021, and the <a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope#Colossus_Telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Colossus Telescope</a>, have been designed. The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> was completed in the 2000s, and <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> plan a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a> in the 2030s. The <a href="/wiki/Variable_Specific_Impulse_Magnetoplasma_Rocket" title="Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket">Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket</a> (VASIMR) is an electro-magnetic thruster for spacecraft propulsion and is expected to be tested in 2015.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (May 2021)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Initiatives" title="Breakthrough Initiatives">Breakthrough Initiatives</a> project plans to send <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot" title="Breakthrough Starshot">the first ever spacecraft to visit another star</a>, which will consist of numerous super-light chips driven by <a href="/wiki/Electric_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a> in the 2030s, and receive images of the <a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri" title="Proxima Centauri">Proxima Centauri</a> system, along with, possibly, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">potentially habitable planet</a> <a href="/wiki/Proxima_Centauri_b" title="Proxima Centauri b">Proxima Centauri b</a>, by midcentury.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>2004 saw the <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne_flight_15P" title="SpaceShipOne flight 15P">first crewed commercial spaceflight</a> when <a href="/wiki/Mike_Melvill" title="Mike Melvill">Mike Melvill</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary of space">boundary of space</a> on June 21, 2004. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_type">By type</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: By type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Biotechnology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_agriculture_and_food_technology" title="Timeline of agriculture and food technology">Timeline of agriculture and food technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_engineering">Civil engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Civil engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="History of civil engineering">History of civil engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">History of construction</a></div> <ul><li>Civil engineering</li> <li>Architecture and building construction</li> <li>Bridges, <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbors</a>, tunnels, dams</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a>, instruments and maps, <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, urban engineering, water supply and <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewerage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication">Communication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li>Communications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li> <li>Telecommunications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">History of mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animation" title="History of animation">History of animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radar" title="History of radar">History of radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</a></li> <li>Printing</li> <li>Cinema</li> <li>Radio</li> <li>Television</li> <li>Internet</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computing">Computing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware before 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Eastern_Bloc_countries" title="History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries">History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">History of computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History of operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_engineering" title="History of software engineering">History of software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">History of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" title="History of the graphical user interface">History of the graphical user interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">History of the World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="Timeline of free and open-source software">Timeline of free and open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">History of video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Timeline of quantum computing and communication</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumer_technology">Consumer technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Consumer technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_lighting_technology" title="Timeline of lighting technology">Timeline of lighting technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">History of clothing and textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_and_consumer_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Family and consumer science">Family and consumer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_knitting" title="History of knitting">History of knitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lensmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="History of lensmaking">History of lensmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_chair" title="History of the chair">History of the chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_umbrella" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the umbrella">History of the umbrella</a></li> <li>Manufacturing</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_engineering">Electrical engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Electrical engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Energy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History of energy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li>Energy (History, Use by humans, See also)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining" title="History of coal mining">History of coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">History of perpetual motion machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_heat_engine_technology" title="Timeline of heat engine technology">Timeline of heat engine technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power" title="Timeline of steam power">Timeline of steam power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies" title="Timeline of hydrogen technologies">Timeline of hydrogen technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_alcohol_fuel" title="Timeline of alcohol fuel">Timeline of alcohol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_fusion" title="Timeline of nuclear fusion">Timeline of nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materials_science">Materials science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Materials science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurement">Measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_time_in_the_United_States" title="History of time in the United States">History of time in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices" title="History of timekeeping devices">History of timekeeping devices</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_military_technology" title="History of military technology">History of military technology</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history#Technological_evolution" title="Military history">Military history#Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history" title="Category:Military history">Category:Military history</a> – articles on history of specific technologies</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear">Nuclear</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Nuclear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology § History</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">Nuclear testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Science and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" title="List of years in science">List of years in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">History of the telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_telescopes,_observatories,_and_observing_technology" title="Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology">Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_microscope_technology" title="Timeline of microscope technology">Timeline of microscope technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology" title="Timeline of particle physics technology">Timeline of particle physics technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_low-temperature_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of low-temperature technology">Timeline of low-temperature technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology" title="Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology">Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_transportation_technology" title="Timeline of transportation technology">Timeline of transportation technology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_automobile" title="History of the automobile">History of the automobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle" title="History of the bicycle">History of the bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_aviation" title="Timeline of aviation">Timeline of aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_jet_power" title="Timeline of jet power">Timeline of jet power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline" title="Maritime timeline">Maritime timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_motor_and_engine_technology" title="Timeline of motor and engine technology">Timeline of motor and engine technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_motorized_bicycle_history" title="Timeline of motorized bicycle history">Timeline of motorized bicycle history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_railway_history" title="Timeline of railway history">Timeline of railway history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" title="Timeline of rocket and missile technology">Timeline of rocket and missile technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_history">Related history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Related history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">History of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_tourism" title="Science tourism">Science tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_disciplines">Related disciplines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Related disciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">Criticism of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual history</a> (field of study)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a> (field of study)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries" title="List of multiple discoveries">List of multiple discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li>Technical school</li> <li>Technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">Technology dynamics</a> (field of study)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_subjects">Related subjects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Related subjects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li>High technology</li> <li>Deindustrialization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of technologies">List of technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">Simple machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology">"history of technology – Summary & Facts"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=history+of+technology+%E2%80%93+Summary+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fhistory-of-technology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnightSmith" class="citation web cs1">Knight, Elliot; Smith, Karen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171002120827/http://anthropology.ua.edu/cultures/cultures.php?culture=American%20Materialism">"American Materialism"</a>. <i>The University of Alabama – Department of Anthropology</i>. 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Joseph (2000). <i>The Crest of the Peacock</i>, p. 7-8. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8">0-691-00659-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis_2000_356f.-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_2000_356f._39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOleson2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter Oleson</a> (2000). "Water-Lifting". In <a href="/wiki/%C3%96rjan_Wikander" title="Örjan Wikander">Wikander, Örjan</a> (ed.). <i>Handbook of Ancient Water Technology</i>. Technology and Change in History. Vol. 2. Leiden. pp. 217–302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3"><bdi>978-90-04-11123-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Water-Lifting&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Water+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=217-302&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11123-3&rft.aulast=Oleson&rft.aufirst=John+Peter+Oleson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2007), <i>Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History</i>, p. 55, table 1.14, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922721-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922721-1">978-0-19-922721-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHero1899" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero</a> (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/heronsvonalexandhero#page/228/mode/2up">"Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI"</a>. <i>Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater</i> (in Greek and German). Wilhelm Schmidt (translator). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. pp. 228–232.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pneumatika%2C+Book+%CE%99%CE%99%2C+Chapter+XI&rft.btitle=Herons+von+Alexandria+Druckwerke+und+Automatentheater&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=228-232&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Hero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fheronsvonalexandhero%23page%2F228%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amp.livescience.com/5959-ancient-mayans-fountains-toilets.html">"Ancient Mayans Likely Had Fountains and Toilets"</a>. <i>Live Science</i>. December 23, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Mayans+Likely+Had+Fountains+and+Toilets&rft.date=2009-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famp.livescience.com%2F5959-ancient-mayans-fountains-toilets.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stark_2005-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_2005_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_2005_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark2005" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victoryofreasonh00star"><i>The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success</i></a></span>. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-7233-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-7233-3"><bdi>0-8129-7233-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victory+of+Reason%3A+How+Christianity+Led+to+Freedom%2C+Capitalism+and+Western+Success&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House+Trade+Paperbacks&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8129-7233-3&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictoryofreasonh00star&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1974" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Andrew M. (1974). "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 8–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700079602">10.1017/S0022050700079602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116954">2116954</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154359726">154359726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Arab+Agricultural+Revolution+and+Its+Diffusion%2C+700%E2%80%931100&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-35&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154359726%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2116954%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700079602&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._al-Hassan" title="Ahmad Y. al-Hassan">Ahmad Y. al-Hassan</a> (1976). <i>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering</i>, pp. 34–35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Shatzmiller" title="Maya Shatzmiller">Maya Shatzmiller</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucas_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1), pp. 1–30 [10].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hassan-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hassan_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._al-Hassan" title="Ahmad Y. al-Hassan">Ahmad Y. al-Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm">Archived</a> 18 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1), pp. 1–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y Hassan">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Routledge Hill">Donald Routledge Hill</a> (1986). <i>Islamic Technology: An illustrated history</i>, p. 54. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6">0-521-42239-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2006" class="citation cs2">Lucas, Adam (2006), <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>, Brill Publishers, p. 65, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0"><bdi>90-04-14649-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wind%2C+Water%2C+Work%3A+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=90-04-14649-0&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldridge1980" class="citation book cs1">Eldridge, Frank (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15"><i>Wind Machines</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9"><bdi>0-442-26134-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wind+Machines&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=15&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Litton+Educational+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-442-26134-9&rft.aulast=Eldridge&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwindmachines00fran%2Fpage%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepherd2011" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, William (2011). <i>Electricity Generation Using Wind Power</i> (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9"><bdi>978-981-4304-13-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+Generation+Using+Wind+Power&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing+Co.+Pte.+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-981-4304-13-9&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", <i>Scientific American</i>, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm">Mechanical Engineering</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225091836/http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm">Archived</a> 25 December 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-10-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas-10_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>46</b> (1): 1–30 [10–1 & 27]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucas-65-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lucas-65_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Lucas (2006), <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>, p. 65, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004146490" title="Special:BookSources/9004146490">9004146490</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1996" class="citation cs2">Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800–1400", in <a href="/wiki/Uta_Lindgren" title="Uta Lindgren">Lindgren, Uta</a> (ed.), <i>Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation</i> (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422 (414), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9"><bdi>3-7861-1748-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paper+comes+to+the+West%2C+800%E2%80%931400&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A4ische+Technik+im+Mittelalter.+800+bis+1400.+Tradition+und+Innovation&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=413-422+%28414%29&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Gebr.+Mann+Verlag&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-7861-1748-9&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arming the Periphery. Emrys Chew, 2012. p. 1823.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._al-Hassan" title="Ahmad Y. al-Hassan">Ahmad Y. al-Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm">Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080226105129/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm">Archived</a> 26 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>History of Science and Technology in Islam</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunpowder-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gunpowder_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._al-Hassan" title="Ahmad Y. al-Hassan">Ahmad Y. al-Hassan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm">Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080226104140/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm">Archived</a> 26 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>History of Science and Technology in Islam</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacey-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pacey_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacey1991" class="citation book cs1">Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace"><i>Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History</i></a></span> (First MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace/page/23">23</a>–24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+World+Civilization%3A+A+Thousand-Year+History&rft.place=Cambridge+MA&rft.pages=23-24&rft.edition=First+MIT+Press+paperback&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Pacey&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftechnologyinworl0000pace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŽmolek2013" class="citation book cs1">Žmolek, Michael Andrew (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328"><i>Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Capitalism in England</i></a>. BRILL. p. 328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004251793" title="Special:BookSources/9789004251793"><bdi>9789004251793</bdi></a>. <q>The spinning jenny was basically an adaptation of its precursor the spinning wheel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Transition+from+Agrarian+to+Industrial+Capitalism+in+England&rft.pages=328&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789004251793&rft.aulast=%C5%BDmolek&rft.aufirst=Michael+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RKaAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill1979-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hill1979_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanu_Musa1979" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Banu_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Musa">Banu Musa</a> (1979), <i>The book of ingenious devices (Kitāb al-ḥiyal)</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Routledge Hill">Donald Routledge Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>, pp. 23–4, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-0833-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-277-0833-9"><bdi>90-277-0833-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+book+of+ingenious+devices+%28Kit%C4%81b+al-%E1%B8%A5iyal%29&rft.pages=23-4&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=90-277-0833-9&rft.au=Banu+Musa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sally_Ganchy_2009_41-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sally_Ganchy_2009_41_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSally_Ganchy2009" class="citation cs2">Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamsciencemedi0000ganc/page/41"><i>Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology</i></a>, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamsciencemedi0000ganc/page/41">41</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4358-5066-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4358-5066-8"><bdi>978-1-4358-5066-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Science%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Technology&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4358-5066-8&rft.aulast=Sally+Ganchy&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Gancher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamsciencemedi0000ganc%2Fpage%2F41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vallely-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vallely_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Vallely, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544">How Islamic Inventors Changed the World</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i>, 11 March 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Hill" title="Donald Hill">Hill, Donald</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxvbAAAAMAAJ"><i>Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology: From Philo to Al-Jazarī, from Alexandria to Diyār Bakr</i></a>. Ashgate. pp. 231–232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-606-1"><bdi>978-0-86078-606-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Medieval+Islamic+Technology%3A+From+Philo+to+Al-Jazar%C4%AB%2C+from+Alexandria+to+Diy%C4%81r+Bakr&rft.pages=231-232&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-606-1&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxxvbAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Ifrah (2001). <i>The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer</i>, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061008113946/http://www.banffcentre.ca/bnmi/programs/archives/2005/refresh/docs/conferences/Gunalan_Nadarajan.pdf">[1]</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koetsier-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koetsier_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoetsier2001" class="citation cs2">Koetsier, Teun (2001), "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", <i>Mechanism and Machine Theory</i>, <b>36</b> (5), Elsevier: 589–603, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2">10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mechanism+and+Machine+Theory&rft.atitle=On+the+prehistory+of+programmable+machines%3A+musical+automata%2C+looms%2C+calculators&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=589-603&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2&rft.aulast=Koetsier&rft.aufirst=Teun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapurCarnegieMurphyLong2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kapur, Ajay; Carnegie, Dale; Murphy, Jim; Long, Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103">"Loudspeakers Optional: A history of non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Organised_Sound" title="Organised Sound">Organised Sound</a></i>. <b>22</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 195–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103">10.1017/S1355771817000103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1355-7718">1355-7718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organised+Sound&rft.atitle=Loudspeakers+Optional%3A+A+history+of+non-loudspeaker-based+electroacoustic+music&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-205&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1355771817000103&rft.issn=1355-7718&rft.aulast=Kapur&rft.aufirst=Ajay&rft.au=Carnegie%2C+Dale&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jim&rft.au=Long%2C+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1355771817000103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharkey-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Professor Noel Sharkey, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html">A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive)</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ancient_Discoveries-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ancient_Discoveries_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8">"Episode 11: Ancient Robots"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Discoveries" title="Ancient Discoveries">Ancient Discoveries</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/History_Channel" title="History Channel">History Channel</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-09-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Discoveries&rft.atitle=Episode+11%3A+Ancient+Robots&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DrxjbaQl0ad8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard R. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cesaremarchetti.org/archive/scan/MARCHETTI-079.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-05-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technological+Forecasting+and+Social+Change&rft.atitle=A+postmortem+technology+assessment+of+the+spinning+wheel%3A+The+last+thousand+years&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=91-93&rft.date=1979-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0040-1625%2879%2990008-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154202306%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Marchetti&rft.aufirst=Cesare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cesaremarchetti.org%2Farchive%2Fscan%2FMARCHETTI-079.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-Munson-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Munson_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Munson_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMussonRobinson1969" class="citation book cs1">Musson; Robinson (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu"><i>Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution</i></a></span>. University of Toronto Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu/page/506">506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802016379" title="Special:BookSources/9780802016379"><bdi>9780802016379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pages=506&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780802016379&rft.au=Musson&rft.au=Robinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencetechnolog00aemu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerson1990" class="citation book cs1">Merson, John (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers"><i>The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World</i></a></span>. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9"><bdi>978-0-87951-397-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+That+Was+China%3A+East+and+West+in+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+NY&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=The+Overlook+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87951-397-9&rft.aulast=Merson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusthatwaschi0000mers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span> A companion to the PBS Series "The Genius That Was China"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemple1986" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert (1986). <i>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span>Based on the works of Joseph Needham</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2012" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, William (2012). <i>The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention</i>. University Of Chicago Press. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2"><bdi>978-0-226-72634-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Powerful+Idea+in+the+World%3A+A+Story+of+Steam%2C+Industry+and+Invention&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=University+Of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72634-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). <i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power</i>. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam+Power&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Landes_1969-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landes_1969_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David. S. (1969). <i>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</i>. Cambridge, NY: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+NY&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayres_1989-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ayres_1989_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayres_1989_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres1989" class="citation journal cs1">Ayres, Robert (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/3225/1/RR-89-001.pdf">"Technological Transformations and Long Waves"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IIASA Research Report</i>. Laxenburg, Austria: IIASA. RR-89-001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIASA+Research+Report&rft.atitle=Technological+Transformations+and+Long+Waves&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Ayres&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.iiasa.ac.at%2F3225%2F1%2FRR-89-001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin" class="citation web cs1">Griffin, Emma. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eastanglia.academia.edu/EmmaGriffin/Books">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Mechanical Age': technology, innovation and industrialisation"</a>. <i>Short History of the British Industrial Revolution</i>. Palgrave<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Short+History+of+the+British+Industrial+Revolution&rft.atitle=%27The+Mechanical+Age%27%3A+technology%2C+innovation+and+industrialisation&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feastanglia.academia.edu%2FEmmaGriffin%2FBooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/1859map/chelsea_waterworks_a2.html">"History of the Chelsea Waterworks"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230604/http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/1859map/chelsea_waterworks_a2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Chelsea+Waterworks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.ucla.edu%2Fepi%2Fsnow%2F1859map%2Fchelsea_waterworks_a2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140109195319/http://plumber.whangarei.biz/a-little-about-tap-history/">"A Little About Tap History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plumber.whangarei.biz/a-little-about-tap-history/">the original</a> on 9 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Little+About+Tap+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplumber.whangarei.biz%2Fa-little-about-tap-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1exE1cfKXIC&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+%22john+snow%22&pg=PA87"><i>Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine</i> (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-72263-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-72263-7">0-387-72263-7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NSHXLkgFBBQC&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+snow&pg=PA290">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1993" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan"><i>The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business</i></a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94052-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94052-9"><bdi>978-0-674-94052-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand%3A+The+Management+Revolution+in+American+Business&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-674-94052-9&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alfred+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvisiblehandmanag00chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-greatest-inventions-of-the-19th-century.php">"Top 10 Greatest Inventions of the 19th Century"</a>. <i>Toptenz.net</i>. 2010-08-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toptenz.net&rft.atitle=Top+10+Greatest+Inventions+of+the+19th+Century&rft.date=2010-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toptenz.net%2Ftop-10-greatest-inventions-of-the-19th-century.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/03/000303075501.htm">"National Academy Of Engineering Reveals Top Engineering Impacts Of The 20th Century: Electrification Cited As Most Important"</a>. March 3, 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Academy+Of+Engineering+Reveals+Top+Engineering+Impacts+Of+The+20th+Century%3A+Electrification+Cited+As+Most+Important&rft.date=2000-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2000%2F03%2F000303075501.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNye1990" class="citation book cs1">Nye, David E. (1990). <i>Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology</i>. Cambridge, MA, US and London, England: The MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrifying+America%3A+Social+Meanings+of+a+New+Technology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA%2C+US+and+London%2C+England&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1989" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Ross (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathtomechanized00thom"><i>The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1867-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1867-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-1867-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Mechanized+Shoe+Production+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1867-1&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathtomechanized00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hounshell-1984-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hounshell-1984_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hounshell-1984_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. 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"Measuring technological change through patents and innovation surveys." <i>Technovation</i> 16.9 (1996): 451–519. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/48926820/0166-4972_2896_2900031-420160918-22075-p76w5u.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Brush, S.G. (1988). <i>The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution 1800–1950</i>. Ames: Iowa State University Press.</li> <li>Bunch, Bryan and Hellemans, Alexander, (1993) <i>The Timetables of Technology</i>, New York, Simon & Schuster.</li> <li>Castro, J. Justin. "History of technology in nineteenth and twentieth century Latin America," <i>History Compass</i> 18#3 (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12609">https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12609</a></li> <li>Derry, Thomas Kingston and Williams, Trevor I., (1993) <i>A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900</i> New York: Dover Publications.</li> <li>Greenwood, Jeremy (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217025009/http://www.econ.rochester.edu/Faculty/GreenwoodPapers/third.pdf"><i>The Third Industrial Revolution: Technology, Productivity and Income Inequality</i></a> AEI Press.</li> <li>Kranzberg, Melvin and Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., eds. (1967) <i>Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century</i> New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Landa" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuel de Landa">Landa, Manuel de</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Age_of_Intelligent_Machines" title="War in the Age of Intelligent Machines">War in the Age of Intelligent Machines</a></i>, 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeil1990" class="citation book cs1">McNeil, Ian (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofh00mcne"><i>An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology</i></a></span>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14792-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14792-7"><bdi>978-0-415-14792-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14792-7&rft.aulast=McNeil&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopaediaofh00mcne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Olby, R.C. et al., eds. (1996). <i>Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York, Routledge.</li> <li>Pacey, Arnold, (1974, 2ed 1994), <i>The Maze of Ingenuity</i>, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass,</li> <li>Popplow, Marcus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/technology/marcus-popplow-technology?set_language=en&-C="><i>Technology</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a>, 2017, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1149290803/34">pdf</a>).</li> <li>Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A.R. and Williams, T.I. (eds.), (1954–59 and 1978) <cite>A History of Technology</cite>, 7 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press. (Vols 6 and 7, 1978, ed. T. I. Williams)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1855" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Wilson_(chemist)" title="George Wilson (chemist)">Wilson, George</a> (1855). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:What is Technology?"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/What_is_Technology%3F"><i>What is Technology?: an inaugural lecture delivered in the University of Edinburgh on November 7, 1855</i> </a></span> (1 ed.). Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Technology%3F%3A+an+inaugural+lecture+delivered+in+the+University+of+Edinburgh+on+November+7%2C+1855&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Sutherland+and+Knox&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/History_of_technology" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/History of technology">History of technology</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of technology">History of technology</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm"><i>Electropaedia on the History of Technology</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512173049/http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm">Archived</a> 2011-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080324124256/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/6-933JThe-Structure-of-Engineering-RevolutionsFall2001/CourseHome/index.htm">MIT 6.933J – The Structure of Engineering Revolutions</a>. From <a href="/wiki/MIT_OpenCourseWare" title="MIT OpenCourseWare">MIT OpenCourseWare</a>, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn-ian</a> lens.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060209071757/http://www.revisedhistory.org/civilevents.htm">Concept of Civilization Events</a>. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etrusia.co.uk/city_tech_1.php">Ancient and Medieval City Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyoftechnology.org/">Society for the History of Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gigancinauki.pl/ge/">Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology cultures</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Inventions" title="Template:Inventions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Inventions" title="Template talk:Inventions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Inventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discoveries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_inventions_or_discoveries" title="Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries">Lists of inventions or discoveries</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Australian_inventions" title="Timeline of Australian inventions">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Austrian inventions and discoveries">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Azerbaijani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bangladeshi_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Bangladeshi inventions and discoveries">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Brazilian inventions and discoveries">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of English inventions and discoveries">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Scottish inventions and discoveries">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Welsh inventions and discoveries">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Canadian inventions and discoveries">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Croatian inventions and discoveries">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Czech_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Czech inventions and discoveries">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of French inventions and discoveries">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of German inventions and discoveries">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Greek inventions and discoveries">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indonesian inventions and discoveries">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Timeline of Irish inventions and discoveries">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Israeli inventions and discoveries">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jamaican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Jamaican inventions and discoveries">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Japanese inventions and discoveries">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Korean inventions and discoveries">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Malaysian inventions and discoveries">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Mexican inventions and discoveries">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Netherlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_innovations" title="List of Dutch inventions and innovations">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_discoveries" title="List of Dutch discoveries">discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_explorations" title="List of Dutch explorations">explorations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Filipino_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Filipino inventions and discoveries">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" title="Timeline of Polish science and technology">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries">Portugal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_inventions" title="Portuguese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_maritime_exploration" title="Portuguese maritime exploration">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Serbian inventions and discoveries">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of South African inventions and discoveries">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Spanish inventions and discoveries">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Swiss inventions and discoveries">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thai_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Thai inventions and discoveries">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Vietnamese inventions and discoveries">Vietnam</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li>inventions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)">before 1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)">1890–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">after 1991</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries" title="List of multiple discoveries">multiple discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Historic inventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_inventions" title="List of military inventions">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_inventions_and_innovations_of_Indigenous_Americans" title="List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of Indigenous Americans">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_inventions" title="List of lost inventions">Lost inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spurious_inventions" title="List of spurious inventions">Spurious inventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Inventors_by_nationality" title="Category:Inventors by nationality">Lists of inventors or discoverers</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventors" title="List of inventors">Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_educators,_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of African educators, scientists and scholars">African</a></li> <li>American <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" title="List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Armenian inventors and discoverers">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Austrian inventors and discoverers">Austrian</a></li> <li>British <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers" title="List of English inventors and designers">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of German inventors and discoverers">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors" title="List of Italian inventors">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors" title="List of New Zealand inventors">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Polish inventors and discoverers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Romanian inventors and discoverers">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors" title="List of Russian inventors">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Serbian inventors and discoverers">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Spanish inventors and discoverers">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" title="List of Swedish inventors">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Swiss inventors and discoverers">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">Portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">Category</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population<br />biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and<br /> population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics"><i>Dys</i>genics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and<br />organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q465352#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4139574-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Technology--History"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2009102782">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="dějiny techniky"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph272099&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000201080&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007554636605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/045891">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&oldid=1252947758">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_technology&oldid=1252947758</a>"</div></div> <div 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