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<span>Basic principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testing_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testing_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Testing methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Testing_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Testing methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Testing_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_vivo_model_organism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_vivo_model_organism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>In vivo</i> model organism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_vivo_model_organism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_vitro_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_vitro_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>In vitro</i> methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_vitro_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dose_response_complexities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dose_response_complexities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dose response complexities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dose_response_complexities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicology_as_a_profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicology_as_a_profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Toxicology as a profession</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Toxicology_as_a_profession-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Toxicology as a profession subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Toxicology_as_a_profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Requirements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Compensation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologie" title="Toksikologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Toksikologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85" title="علم السموم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم السموم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicolox%C3%ADa" title="Toxicoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Toxicoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologiya" title="Toksikologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Toksikologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বিষবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিষবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%CC%8Dk-s%C3%A8ng-ha%CC%8Dk" title="To̍k-sèng-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="To̍k-sèng-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Таксікалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Таксікалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologija" title="Toksikologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Toksikologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologia" title="Toxicologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Toxicologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikologie" title="Toxikologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Toxikologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocsicoleg" title="Tocsicoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tocsicoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologi" title="Toksikologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Toksikologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikologie" title="Toxikologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Toxikologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikoloogia" title="Toksikoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Toksikoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Τοξικολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τοξικολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicolog%C3%ADa" title="Toxicología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Toxicología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksologio" title="Toksologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Toksologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikologia" title="Toxikologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Toxikologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="سم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologie" title="Toxicologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Toxicologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocsaineola%C3%ADocht" title="Tocsaineolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tocsaineolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicolox%C3%ADa" title="Toxicoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Toxicoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%85%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="독물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="독물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Թունագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թունագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="विषविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विषविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologija" title="Toksikologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Toksikologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikologio" title="Toxikologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Toxikologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologi" title="Toksikologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Toksikologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tossicologia" title="Tossicologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tossicologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="טוקסיקולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טוקסיקולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ವಿಷವೈದ್ಯ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಷವೈದ್ಯ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტოქსიკოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტოქსიკოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehrnas%C3%AE" title="Jehrnasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jehrnasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologia" title="Toxicologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Toxicologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikolo%C4%A3ija" title="Toksikoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Toksikoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologija" title="Toksikologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Toksikologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikol%C3%B3gia" title="Toxikológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Toxikológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Токсикологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Токсикологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="ടോക്സിക്കോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ടോക്സിക്കോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologi" title="Toksikologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Toksikologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologie" title="Toxicologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Toxicologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E6%80%A7%E5%AD%A6" title="毒性学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="毒性学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologi" title="Toksikologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Toksikologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologia" title="Toxicologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Toxicologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologiya" title="Toksikologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toksikologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksykologia" title="Toksykologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Toksykologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologia" title="Toxicologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Toxicologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologie" title="Toxicologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Toxicologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologjia" title="Toksikologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Toksikologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Toxicology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikol%C3%B3gia" title="Toxikológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Toxikológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologija" title="Toksikologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Toksikologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Токсикологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Токсикологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologija" title="Toksikologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Toksikologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikologia" title="Toksikologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Toksikologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxikologi" title="Toxikologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Toxikologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நச்சியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நச்சியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Токсикология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Токсикология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="พิษวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พิษวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksikoloji" title="Toksikoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toksikoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Токсикологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Токсикологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99c_ch%E1%BA%A5t_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Độc chất học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Độc chất học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicolohiya" title="Toxicolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Toxicolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="毒理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="毒理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="毒理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="毒理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="毒理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="毒理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7218#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of substances harmful to living organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Toxicology_(journal)" title="Toxicology (journal)">Toxicology (journal)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_(NCTR_1193)_(6009043040).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg/255px-Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="255" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg/383px-Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg/510px-Toxicology_Research_at_FDA_%28NCTR_1193%29_%286009043040%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3573" data-file-height="2373" /></a><figcaption>A toxicologist working in a lab (<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, 2008)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Toxicology</b> is a scientific <a href="/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discipline (academia)">discipline</a>, overlapping with <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, that involves the study of the <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">adverse effects</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substances</a> on living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">treating</a> exposures to <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toxicant" title="Toxicant">toxicants</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism</a> is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> include the dosage, duration of exposure (whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. <b>Toxicologists</b> are experts on <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">poisoning</a>. There is a movement for <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology" title="Evidence-based toxicology">evidence-based toxicology</a> as part of the larger movement towards <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">evidence-based practices</a>. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is <a href="/wiki/Ribosome-inactivating_protein" title="Ribosome-inactivating protein">ribosome-inactivating proteins</a>, tested in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MercatelliBortolotti2020_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MercatelliBortolotti2020-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>toxicology</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Classical_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical compound">neoclassical compound</a> from <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a>, first attested <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1799</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-MWU_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWU-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the combining forms <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/toxico-#Prefix" class="extiw" title="wikt:toxico-">toxico-</a></i> + <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logy#Suffix" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logy">-logy</a></i>, which in turn come from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:τοξικός">τοξικός</a> <i>toxikos</i>, "poisonous", and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:λόγος">λόγος</a> <i>logos</i>, "subject matter"). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/92/Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg/220px-Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/92/Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg/330px-Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/92/Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg/440px-Susruta-manuscript-folio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4149" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>Folio from the <i>Kalpasthāna</i> (<i>Dundhubhisvanīya</i> chapter), from a manuscript of the <i>Śuśrutasaṃhitā</i>, Nepal, 878 CE.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest treatise dedicated to the general study of plant and animal poisons, including their classification, recognition, and the treatment of their effects is the <i>Kalpasthāna</i>, one of the major sections of the <a href="/wiki/Su%C5%9Brutasa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Suśrutasaṃhitā">Suśrutasaṃhitā</a>, a Sanskrit work composed before ca. 300 CE and perhaps in part as early as the fourth century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Kalpasthāna</i> was influential on many later Sanskrit medical works and was translated into Arabic and other languages, influencing South East Asia, the Middle East, Tibet and eventually Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>, a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, made an early attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A work attributed to the 10th century author <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Wahshiyya</a> called the <i>Book on Poisons</i> describes various toxic substances and poisonous recipes that can be made using <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">magic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 14th century <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a> poetic work attributed to the Jain prince Mangarasa, <i>Khagendra Mani Darpana</i>, describes several poisonous plants.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg/220px-Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg/330px-Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg/440px-Mathieu_Joseph_Bonaventure_Orfila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lithograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithograph">Lithograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mathieu_Orfila" title="Mathieu Orfila">Mathieu Orfila</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The 16th-century Swiss physician <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> is considered "the father" of modern toxicology, based on his rigorous (for the time) approach to understanding the effects of substances on the body.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is credited with the classic toxicology maxim, "<i>Alle Dinge sind Gift und nichts ist ohne Gift; allein die Dosis macht, dass ein Ding kein Gift ist.</i>" which translates as, "All things are poisonous and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a thing not poisonous." This is often condensed to: "<a href="/wiki/The_dose_makes_the_poison" title="The dose makes the poison">The dose makes the poison</a>" or in Latin "Sola dosis facit venenum".<sup id="cite_ref-Ottoboni_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottoboni-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_Orfila" title="Mathieu Orfila">Mathieu Orfila</a> is also considered the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his <i>Traité des poisons</i>, also called <i>Toxicologie générale</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In 1850, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Stas" title="Jean Stas">Jean Stas</a> became the first person to successfully isolate plant poisons from human tissue. This allowed him to identify the use of <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> as a poison in the Bocarmé murder case, providing the evidence needed to convict the Belgian Count <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Visart_de_Bocarm%C3%A9" title="Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé">Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé</a> of killing his brother-in-law.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_principles">Basic principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Basic principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The goal of <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> assessment is to identify <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse effects">adverse effects</a> of a substance.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adverse effects depend on two main factors: i) routes of exposure (oral, inhalation, or dermal) and ii) dose (duration and concentration of exposure). To explore dose, substances are tested in both acute and chronic models.<sup id="cite_ref-d1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, different sets of experiments are conducted to determine whether a substance causes cancer and to examine other forms of toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-d1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Factors that influence chemical toxicity:<sup id="cite_ref-Ottoboni_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottoboni-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Dosage <ul><li>Both large single exposures (acute) and continuous small exposures (chronic) are studied.</li></ul></li> <li>Route of exposure <ul><li>Ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption</li></ul></li> <li>Other factors <ul><li>Species</li> <li>Age</li> <li>Sex</li> <li>Health</li> <li>Environment</li> <li>Individual characteristics</li></ul></li></ul> <p>The discipline of <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology" title="Evidence-based toxicology">evidence-based toxicology</a> strives to transparently, consistently, and objectively assess available scientific evidence in order to answer questions in toxicology,<sup id="cite_ref-hoff06_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoff06-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment, including the prevention and amelioration of such effects.<sup id="cite_ref-sot_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sot-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence-based toxicology has the potential to address concerns in the toxicological community about the limitations of current approaches to assessing the state of the science.<sup id="cite_ref-stephens13_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stephens13-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mandrioli_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mandrioli-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include concerns related to transparency in decision-making, synthesis of different types of evidence, and the assessment of bias and credibility.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adami_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adami-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-conrad_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conrad-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence-based toxicology has its roots in the larger movement towards <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">evidence-based practices</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Testing_methods">Testing methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Testing methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Toxicity experiments may be conducted <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> (using the whole animal) or <i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i> (testing on isolated cells or tissues), or <i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i> (in a computer simulation).<sup id="cite_ref-a1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_vivo_model_organism"><i>In vivo</i> model organism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In vivo model organism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Ottoboni_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottoboni-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of model organisms are <i><a href="/wiki/Galleria_mellonella" title="Galleria mellonella">Galleria mellonella</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can replace small mammals, <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a> (<i>Danio rerio</i>), which allow for the study of toxicology in a lower order vertebrate <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2014, such <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animal testing</a> provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism.<sup id="cite_ref-SocTox2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SocTox2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances in certain regions, such as the testing of cosmetics in the European Union.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_vitro_methods"><i>In vitro</i> methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In vitro methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While testing in animal models remains as a method of estimating human effects, there are both ethical and technical concerns with animal testing.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the late 1950s, the field of toxicology has sought to reduce or eliminate animal testing under the rubric of "<a href="/wiki/Three_Rs_(animal_research)" title="Three Rs (animal research)">Three Rs</a>" – reduce the number of experiments with animals to the minimum necessary; refine experiments to cause less suffering, and replace <i>in vivo</i> experiments with other types, or use more simple forms of life when possible.<sup id="cite_ref-b1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historical development of alternative testing methods in toxicology has been published by Balls.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computer modeling is an example of an alternative <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">in vitro toxicology</a> testing method; using computer models of chemicals and proteins, <a href="/wiki/Structure%E2%80%93activity_relationship" title="Structure–activity relationship">structure-activity relationships</a> can be determined, and chemical structures that are likely to bind to, and interfere with, proteins with essential functions, can be identified.<sup id="cite_ref-c1_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c1-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work requires expert knowledge in molecular modeling and statistics together with expert judgment in chemistry, biology and toxicology.<sup id="cite_ref-c1_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c1-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007 the American NGO <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> published a report called "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy" which opened with a statement: "Change often involves a pivotal event that builds on previous history and opens the door to a new era. Pivotal events in science include the discovery of penicillin, the elucidation of the DNA double helix, and the development of computers. ... Toxicity testing is approaching such a scientific pivot point. It is poised to take advantage of the revolutions in biology and biotechnology. Advances in toxicogenomics, bioinformatics, systems biology, epigenetics, and computational toxicology could transform toxicity testing from a system based on whole-animal testing to one founded primarily on in vitro methods that evaluate changes in biologic processes using cells, cell lines, or cellular components, preferably of human origin."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2014 that vision was still unrealized.<sup id="cite_ref-SocTox2014_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SocTox2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the <a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Chemicals Dashboard</a>) using <i>in silica</i> modelling and a human <a href="/wiki/Pluripotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotent">pluripotent</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a>-based assay to predict <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_toxicity" title="Developmental toxicity">developmental toxicity</a>, (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with <i>in vivo</i> animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some cases shifts away from animal studies have been mandated by law or regulation; the European Union (EU) prohibited use of animal testing for cosmetics in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dose_response_complexities">Dose response complexities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dose response complexities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most chemicals display a classic dose response curve – at a low dose (below a threshold), no effect is observed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ottoboni_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottoboni-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 80">: 80 </span></sup> Some show a phenomenon known as sufficient challenge – a small exposure produces animals that "grow more rapidly, have better general appearance and coat quality, have fewer tumors, and live longer than the control animals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOttoboni199183–85_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOttoboni199183–85-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few chemicals have no well-defined safe level of exposure. These are treated with special care. Some chemicals are subject to bioaccumulation as they are stored in rather than being excreted from the body;<sup id="cite_ref-Ottoboni_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ottoboni-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 85–90">: 85–90 </span></sup> these also receive special consideration. </p><p>Several measures are commonly used to describe toxic dosages according to the degree of effect on an organism or a population, and some are specifically defined by various laws or organizational usage. These include: </p> <ul><li>LD50 or LD<sub>50</sub> = <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">Median lethal dose</a>, a dose that will kill 50% of an exposed population</li> <li>NOEL = No-Observed-Effect-Level, the highest dose known to show no effect</li> <li>NOAEL = <a href="/wiki/No-observed-adverse-effect_level" title="No-observed-adverse-effect level">No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level</a>, the highest dose known to show no adverse effects</li> <li>PEL = Permissible Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted under US <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">OSHA</a> regulations</li> <li>STEL = Short-Term Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted for short periods of time, in general 15–30 minutes</li> <li>TWA = Time-Weighted Average, the average amount of an agent's concentration over a specified period of time, usually 8 hours</li> <li>TTC = The Threshold of Toxicological Concern concept<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been applied to low-level contaminants, such as the constituents of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoke" title="Tobacco smoke">tobacco smoke</a><sup id="cite_ref-TalhoutSchulz2011_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TalhoutSchulz2011-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Clinical toxicology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Clinical_Toxicology" title="Clinical Toxicology">Clinical Toxicology</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-220px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-330px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf/page1-440px-CDC_Division_of_Laboratory_Sciences_Brochure.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Brochure illustrating the work of the CDC Division of Laboratory Sciences</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Medical toxicology</a> is the discipline that requires <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> status (MD or DO degree plus specialty education and experience). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Clinical_toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical toxicology">Clinical toxicology</a> is the discipline that can be practiced not only by physicians but also other <a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">health professionals</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> in clinical toxicology: physician extenders (<a href="/wiki/Physician_assistant" title="Physician assistant">physician assistants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurse_practitioner" title="Nurse practitioner">nurse practitioners</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">allied health professionals</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a> is the discipline that makes use of toxicology and other disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">clinical chemistry</a> to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computational toxicology is a discipline that develops <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_model" title="Computational model">computer-based models</a> to better understand and predict adverse health effects caused by chemicals, such as environmental pollutants and pharmaceuticals.<sup id="cite_ref-Reisfeld2012_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reisfeld2012-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the <i>Toxicology in the 21st Century</i> project,<sup id="cite_ref-Hartung2009_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartung2009-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hartung2011_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartung2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the best predictive models were identified to be <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">Deep Neural Networks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Random_forest" title="Random forest">Random Forest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Support_Vector_Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Support Vector Machines">Support Vector Machines</a>, which can reach the performance of <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-TOX21_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TOX21-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TOX21Data_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TOX21Data-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unterthiner2014_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unterthiner2014-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Unterthiner2015_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unterthiner2015-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a> is the application of toxicology to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_hazard" title="Chemical hazard">chemical hazards</a> in the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicology_as_a_profession">Toxicology as a profession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Toxicology as a profession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Toxicology" title="Special:EditPage/Toxicology">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>toxicologist</b> is a scientist or medical personnel who specializes in the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>; especially the <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisoning</a> of people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Requirements">Requirements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To work as a toxicologist one should obtain a degree in toxicology or a related degree like <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Bachelor's degree programs in toxicology cover the chemical makeup of toxins and their effects on biochemistry, physiology and ecology. After introductory life science courses are complete, students typically enroll in labs and apply toxicology principles to research and other studies. Advanced students delve into specific sectors, like the pharmaceutical industry or law enforcement, which apply methods of toxicology in their work. The <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Toxicology" title="Society of Toxicology">Society of Toxicology</a> (SOT) recommends that undergraduates in postsecondary schools that do not offer a bachelor's degree in toxicology consider attaining a degree in biology or chemistry. Additionally, the SOT advises aspiring toxicologists to take statistics and mathematics courses, as well as gain laboratory experience through lab courses, student research projects and internships. To become Medical Toxicologists, physicians in the United States complete residency training such as in Emergency Medicine, Pediatrics or Internal Medicine, followed by fellowship in Medical Toxicology and eventual certification by the <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Medical_Toxicology" title="American College of Medical Toxicology">American College of Medical Toxicology</a> (ACMT). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duties">Duties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Duties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Toxicologists perform many different duties including research in the academic, nonprofit and industrial fields, product safety evaluation, consulting, public service and legal regulation. In order to research and assess the effects of chemicals, toxicologists perform carefully designed studies and experiments. These experiments help identify the specific amount of a chemical that may cause harm and potential risks of being near or using products that contain certain chemicals. Research projects may range from assessing the effects of toxic pollutants on the environment to evaluating how the human immune system responds to chemical compounds within pharmaceutical drugs. While the basic duties of toxicologists are to determine the effects of chemicals on organisms and their surroundings, specific job duties may vary based on industry and employment. For example, forensic toxicologists may look for toxic substances in a crime scene, whereas aquatic toxicologists may analyze the toxicity level of water bodies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compensation">Compensation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The salary for jobs in toxicology is dependent on several factors, including level of schooling, specialization, experience. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) notes that jobs for biological scientists, which generally include toxicologists, were expected to increase by 21% between 2008 and 2018. The BLS notes that this increase could be due to research and development growth in biotechnology, as well as budget increases for basic and medical research in biological science.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatism_(toxicology)" title="Automatism (toxicology)">Automatism (toxicology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certain_safety_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Certain safety factor">Certain safety factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Environmental_Exposure_Research_Study" title="Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study">Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study</a> (CHEERS) (in the US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomotoxicology" title="Entomotoxicology">Entomotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_science" title="Exposure science">Exposure science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposome" title="Exposome">Exposome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_poison" title="History of poison">History of poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">In vitro toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indicative_limit_value" title="Indicative limit value">Indicative limit value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_toxic_action" title="Modes of toxic action">Modes of toxic action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">Nanotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdose" class="mw-redirect" title="Overdose">Overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_Information_Exchange" title="Risk Information Exchange">Risk Information Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toxicology_Mechanisms_and_Methods" title="Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods">Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods</a></i> (journal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxinology" title="Toxinology">Toxinology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unacceptable_Levels" title="Unacceptable Levels">Unacceptable Levels</a></i> (2013 documentary film)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchrager2006" class="citation web cs1">Schrager TF (October 4, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070310233247/http://www.toxicologysource.com/whatistoxicology.html">"What is Toxicology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toxicologysource.com/whatistoxicology.html">the original</a> on March 10, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Toxicology&rft.date=2006-10-04&rft.aulast=Schrager&rft.aufirst=TF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toxicologysource.com%2Fwhatistoxicology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MercatelliBortolotti2020-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MercatelliBortolotti2020_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMercatelliBortolottiGiorgi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mercatelli D, Bortolotti M, Giorgi FM (August 2020). "Transcriptional network inference and master regulator analysis of the response to ribosome-inactivating proteins in leukemia cells". <i>Toxicology</i>. <b>441</b>: 152531. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Toxgy.44152531M">2020Toxgy.44152531M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tox.2020.152531">10.1016/j.tox.2020.152531</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32593706">32593706</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220255474">220255474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toxicology&rft.atitle=Transcriptional+network+inference+and+master+regulator+analysis+of+the+response+to+ribosome-inactivating+proteins+in+leukemia+cells&rft.volume=441&rft.pages=152531&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tox.2020.152531&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220255474%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32593706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Toxgy.44152531M&rft.aulast=Mercatelli&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Bortolotti%2C+M&rft.au=Giorgi%2C+FM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MWU-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MWU_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerriam-Webster" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200525084504/https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/subscriber/login?redirect_to=%2Funabridged%2F"><i>Merriam-Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</i></a>, Merriam-Webster, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/">the original</a> on 2020-05-25<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Unabridged+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.au=Merriam-Webster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funabridged.merriam-webster.com%2Funabridged%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeulenbeld1999" class="citation book cs1">Meulenbeld GJ (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm42207455"><i>A history of Indian medical literature</i></a>. Groningen Oriental studies. Vol. IA. Groningen: E. Forsten. pp. 289–299. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-124-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-124-7"><bdi>978-90-6980-124-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42207455">42207455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Indian+medical+literature&rft.place=Groningen&rft.series=Groningen+Oriental+studies&rft.pages=289-299&rft.pub=E.+Forsten&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Focm42207455&rft.isbn=978-90-6980-124-7&rft.aulast=Meulenbeld&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm42207455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWujastyk2003" class="citation book cs1">Wujastyk D, ed. 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American Chemical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Toxicology+Overview&rft.pub=American+Chemical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acs.org%2Fcontent%2Facs%2Fen%2Fcareers%2Fcollege-to-career%2Fchemistry-careers%2Ftoxicology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes191029.htm">"Biological Scientists"</a>. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 Dec</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biological+Scientists&rft.pub=U.S.+Bureau+of+Labor+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Foes%2Fcurrent%2Foes191029.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxicology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaitoLopesPaolielloAschner2017" class="citation book cs1">Caito S, Lopes AC, Paoliello MM, Aschner M (2017). "Chapter 16. Toxicology of Lead and Its Damage to Mammalian Organs". In Astrid S, Helmut S, Sigel RK (eds.). <i>Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 17. de Gruyter. pp. 501–534. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110434330-016">10.1515/9783110434330-016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-043433-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-043433-0"><bdi>978-3-11-043433-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28731309">28731309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+16.+Toxicology+of+Lead+and+Its+Damage+to+Mammalian+Organs&rft.btitle=Lead%3A+Its+Effects+on+Environment+and+Health&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=501-534&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28731309&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110434330-016&rft.isbn=978-3-11-043433-0&rft.aulast=Caito&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Lopes%2C+AC&rft.au=Paoliello%2C+MM&rft.au=Aschner%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndresenKüpper2013" class="citation book cs1">Andresen E, Küpper H (2013). "Cadmium Toxicity in Plants". In Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK (eds.). <i>Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 11. Springer. pp. 395–413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-5179-8_13">10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5178-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5178-1"><bdi>978-94-007-5178-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23430780">23430780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cadmium+Toxicity+in+Plants&rft.btitle=Cadmium%3A+From+Toxicity+to+Essentiality&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=395-413&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23430780&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-5179-8_13&rft.isbn=978-94-007-5178-1&rft.aulast=Andresen&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=K%C3%BCpper%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxicology" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThévenodLee2013" class="citation book cs1">Thévenod F, Lee WK (2013). "Toxicology of Cadmium and Its Damage to Mammalian Organs". In Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK (eds.). <i>Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 11. Springer. pp. 415–490. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-5179-8_14">10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5178-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5178-1"><bdi>978-94-007-5178-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23430781">23430781</a>.</cite><span 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomotoxicology" title="Entomotoxicology">Entomotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Medical toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">In vitro toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">Acute toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-dose_procedure" title="Fixed-dose procedure">Fixed-dose procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">Lethal dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_capacity" title="Toxic capacity">Toxic capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity_class" title="Toxicity class">Toxicity class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">Venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">Antidote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathartic" title="Cathartic">Cathartic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_lavage" title="Gastric lavage">Gastric lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">Hemodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoperfusion" title="Hemoperfusion">Hemoperfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">Whole bowel irrigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">2007 pet food recalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niigata_Minamata_disease" title="Niigata Minamata disease">Niigata Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko" title="Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko">Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seveso_disaster" title="Seveso disaster">Seveso disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods" title="Consumption of Tide Pods">Consumption of Tide Pods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak" title="Visakhapatnam gas leak">Visakhapatnam gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak" title="2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak">2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of poisonings">List of poisonings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">Hazard symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extremely hazardous substances">List of extremely hazardous substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">Mutagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template talk:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="*_Poisoning_*_Toxicity_*_Overdose" class="hlist" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Overdose</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_poison" title="History of poison">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxic_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic metal">Toxic metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beryllium_poisoning" title="Beryllium poisoning">Beryllium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_poisoning" title="Cadmium poisoning">Cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel#Toxicity" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_poisoning" title="Thallium poisoning">Thallium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_poisoning" title="Tin poisoning">Tin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dietary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary mineral">Dietary minerals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_toxicity" title="Chromium toxicity">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_poisoning" title="Cobalt poisoning">Cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_toxicity" title="Copper toxicity">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_poisoning" title="Iron poisoning">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganism" title="Manganism">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_toxicity" title="Zinc toxicity">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other non-toxic metals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">Silver</a><sup>1</sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonmetal (chemistry)">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid_poisoning" title="Sulfuric acid poisoning">Sulfuric acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium#Toxicity" title="Selenium">Selenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine_gas_poisoning" title="Chlorine gas poisoning">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoride_toxicity" title="Fluoride toxicity">Fluoride</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide_poisoning" title="Pesticide poisoning">Pesticides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphide_poisoning" title="Aluminium phosphide poisoning">Aluminium phosphide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate_poisoning" title="Organophosphate poisoning">Organophosphates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide_poisoning" title="Cyanide poisoning">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_poisoning" title="Nicotine poisoning">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide_poisoning" title="Nitrogen dioxide poisoning">Nitrogen dioxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">CHO</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Short-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption#Excessive_doses" title="Short-term effects of alcohol consumption">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol_poisoning" title="Ethylene glycol poisoning">Ethylene glycol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_toxicity" title="Methanol toxicity">Methanol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluene_toxicity" title="Toluene toxicity">Toluene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">Pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_overdoses" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticholinesterase_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticholinesterase poisoning">Anticholinesterase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspirin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspirin poisoning">Aspirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate_overdose" title="Barbiturate overdose">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_toxicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine toxicity">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_toxicity" title="Lithium toxicity">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_overdose" title="Opioid overdose">Opioids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracetamol_poisoning" title="Paracetamol poisoning">Paracetamol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_syndrome" title="Serotonin syndrome">Serotonergic substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant_overdose" title="Tricyclic antidepressant overdose">Tricyclic antidepressants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">Cardiovascular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digoxin_toxicity" title="Digoxin toxicity">Digoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipyridamole#Overdose" title="Dipyridamole">Dipyridamole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin poisoning">Vitamin poisoning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_A" title="Hypervitaminosis A">Vitamin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">Vitamin D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_E" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis E">Vitamin E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavitamin-B6_syndrome" title="Megavitamin-B6 syndrome">Megavitamin-B<sub>6</sub> syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological<sup>2</sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Venomous_fish" title="Venomous fish">Fish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Seafood" title="Seafood">Seafood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haff_disease" title="Haff disease">Haff disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoallyeinotoxism" title="Ichthyoallyeinotoxism">Ichthyoallyeinotoxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scombroid_food_poisoning" title="Scombroid food poisoning">Scombroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Amnesic shellfish poisoning">Amnesic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhetic_shellfish_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning">Diarrhetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning">Neurotoxic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralytic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Paralytic shellfish poisoning">Paralytic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisonous_amphibian" title="Poisonous amphibian">Amphibian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin" title="Bombesin">Bombesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physalaemin" title="Physalaemin">Physalaemin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_bird" title="Toxic bird">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coturnism" title="Coturnism">Coturnism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_mammal" title="Venomous mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">Snakes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Bungarotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Bungarotoxin">Alpha-Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancrod" title="Ancrod">Ancrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batroxobin" title="Batroxobin">Batroxobin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_bites_and_stings" title="Arthropod bites and stings">Arthropod bites and stings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_sting" title="Bee sting">Bee sting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apitoxin" title="Apitoxin">Bee venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apamin" title="Apamin">Apamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittin" title="Melittin">Melittin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_venom" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorpion venom">Scorpion venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">spider venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrotoxin" title="Latrotoxin">Latrotoxin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Latrodectism" title="Latrodectism">Latrodectism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxoscelism" title="Loxoscelism">Loxoscelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick_paralysis" title="Tick paralysis">Tick paralysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_plants" title="List of poisonous plants">Plants</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_fungus_species" title="List of poisonous fungus species">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinchonism" title="Cinchonism">Cinchonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">Ergotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_toxins" title="Fish toxins">Fish toxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathyrism" title="Lathyrism">Lathyrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locoweed" title="Locoweed">Locoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">Mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine_poisoning" title="Strychnine poisoning">Strychnine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Bite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stinger" title="Stinger">Stinger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stinging_plant" title="Stinging plant">plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_venomous_animals" title="List of venomous animals">Venomous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_animals" title="List of poisonous animals">Poisonous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deadly_fungus_species" title="List of deadly fungus species">Deadly fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" title="EPA list of extremely hazardous substances">EPA list of hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_poisonings" title="Lists of poisonings">Lists of poisonings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_poison" title="List of types of poison">List of types of poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="1Silver_is_generally_non-toxic_metal,_but_in_large_doses_it_can_lead_to_argyria,_which_is_rare._2_including_venoms,_toxins,_foodborne_illnesses."><sup>1</sup><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> is generally non-toxic metal, but in large doses it can lead to <a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">argyria</a>, which is rare.<br /> <sup>2</sup> including <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">foodborne illnesses</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharmacology" title="Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharmacology" title="Template talk:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharmacology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">Ligand (biochemistry)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Excitatory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Excitatory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">Agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_agonist" title="Endogenous agonist">Endogenous agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_agonist" title="Irreversible agonist">Irreversible agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_agonist" title="Partial agonist">Partial agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superagonist" title="Superagonist">Superagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological agonist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inhibitory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Inhibitory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive antagonist">Competitive antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_antagonist" title="Irreversible antagonist">Irreversible antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism" title="Physiological agonism and antagonism">Physiological antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">Inverse agonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agonist-antagonist" title="Agonist-antagonist">Agonist-antagonist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">Pharmacophore</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Activity_at_receptor" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Activity at receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">Mechanism of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_action" title="Mode of action">Mode of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_binding" title="Molecular binding">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">Receptor (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desensitization_(medicine)" title="Desensitization (medicine)">Desensitization (medicine)</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_effects_of_ligand" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other effects of ligand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Selectivity (<a href="/wiki/Binding_selectivity" title="Binding selectivity">Binding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_selectivity" title="Functional selectivity">Functional</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy_(drugs)" title="Pleiotropy (drugs)">Pleiotropy (drugs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-specific_effect_of_vaccines" title="Non-specific effect of vaccines">Non-specific effect of vaccines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">Adverse effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Analysis" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">Dose–response relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_equation_(biochemistry)" title="Hill equation (biochemistry)">Hill equation (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schild_plot" class="mw-redirect" title="Schild plot">Schild plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Castillo_Katz_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Del Castillo Katz model">Del Castillo Katz model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Prussoff_Equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheng-Prussoff Equation">Cheng-Prussoff Equation</a></li> <li>Methods (<a href="/wiki/Organ_bath" title="Organ bath">Organ bath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligand_binding_assay" title="Ligand binding assay">Ligand binding assay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patch_clamp" title="Patch clamp">Patch clamp</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficacy#Pharmacology" title="Efficacy">Efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_activity" title="Intrinsic activity">Intrinsic activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potency_(pharmacology)" title="Potency (pharmacology)">Potency</a> (<a href="/wiki/EC50" title="EC50">EC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/IC50" title="IC50">IC50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">ED50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_toxic_dose" title="Median toxic dose">TD50</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_index" title="Therapeutic index">Therapeutic index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_constant#Protein-ligand_binding" title="Dissociation constant">Affinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metrics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loading_dose" title="Loading dose">Loading dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution">Volume of distribution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Initial_volume_of_distribution" title="Initial volume of distribution">Initial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rate_of_infusion" title="Rate of infusion">Rate of infusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onset_of_action" title="Onset of action">Onset of action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Biological half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_protein_binding" title="Plasma protein binding">Plasma protein binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">Bioavailability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="LADME" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">LADME</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADME" title="ADME">(L)ADME</a>: (<a href="/wiki/Liberation_(pharmacology)" title="Liberation (pharmacology)">Liberation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_(pharmacology)" title="Absorption (pharmacology)">Absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(pharmacology)" title="Distribution (pharmacology)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">Excretion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clearance_(pharmacology)" title="Clearance (pharmacology)">Clearance</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compartment_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Compartment (pharmacokinetics)">Compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioequivalence" title="Bioequivalence">Bioequivalence</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related<br /> fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Neuroscience_and_psychology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychopharmacology" title="Neuropsychopharmacology">Neuropsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medicine" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacology" title="Clinical pharmacology">Clinical pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Biochemistry_and_genetics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoinformatics" title="Pharmacoinformatics">Pharmacoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Toxicology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Toxicology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacotoxicology" title="Pharmacotoxicology">Pharmacotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxicology">Neurotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_discovery" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_pharmacology" title="Classical pharmacology">Classical pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_pharmacology" title="Reverse pharmacology">Reverse pharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photopharmacology" title="Photopharmacology">Photopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopharmacology" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunopharmacology">Immunopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinduction_(anesthetics)" title="Coinduction (anesthetics)">Coinduction (anesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_analog_(chemistry)" title="Functional analog (chemistry)">Functional analog (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypharmacology" title="Polypharmacology">Polypharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Chemotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_drugs" title="Lists of drugs">Lists of drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_list_of_essential_medicines" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO list of essential medicines">WHO list of essential medicines</a></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tolerance_and_resistance" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Tolerance and resistance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">Drug tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyphylaxis" title="Tachyphylaxis">Tachyphylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_drug_resistance" title="Multiple drug resistance">Multiple drug resistance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Antimicrobial_pharmacology" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Antimicrobial pharmacology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics" title="Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics">Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_inhibitory_concentration" title="Minimum inhibitory concentration">Minimum inhibitory concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent" title="Bacteriostatic agent">Bacteriostatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_bactericidal_concentration" title="Minimum bactericidal concentration">Minimum bactericidal concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">Bactericide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pharmacy" title="Template:Pharmacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pharmacy" title="Template talk:Pharmacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pharmacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pharmacy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compounding" title="Compounding">Compounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">History of pharmacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug" title="Prescription drug">Prescription drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">Pharmacological activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_prescribing_and_dispensing" title="Separation of prescribing and dispensing">Separation of prescribing and dispensing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pharmaceutical sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacometrics" title="Pharmacometrics">Pharmacometrics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Toxicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical chemistry">Pharmaceutical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutics" title="Pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacognosy" title="Pharmacognosy">Pharmacognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacoepidemiology" title="Pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacocybernetics" title="Pharmacocybernetics">Pharmacocybernetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">Pharmacist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmacists" title="List of pharmacists">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaconomist" title="Pharmaconomist">Pharmaconomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_residency" title="Pharmacy residency">Pharmacy residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_technician" title="Pharmacy technician">Pharmacy technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_school" title="Pharmacy school">Pharmacy school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practice areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacy" title="Clinical pharmacy">Clinical pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Community pharmacy">Community pharmacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_(shop)" title="Pharmacy (shop)">shop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultant_pharmacist" title="Consultant pharmacist">Consultant pharmacist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_pharmacy" title="Hospital pharmacy">Hospital pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pharmacy" title="Nuclear pharmacy">Nuclear pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacist_prescriber" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacist prescriber">Pharmacist prescriber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacy informatics">Pharmacy informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_pharmacy" title="Specialty pharmacy">Specialty pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_pharmacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary pharmacy">Veterinary pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceutical industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_development" title="Drug development">Drug development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">Drug discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigational_New_Drug" title="Investigational New Drug">Investigational New Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management" title="Pharmacy benefit management">Pharmacy benefit management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharmaceutical_companies" title="List of pharmaceutical companies">List of pharmaceutical companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication_costs" title="Medication costs">Medication costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">Pharmacy in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_of_Norway" title="Pharmacies of Norway">Pharmacies of Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacies_in_the_United_States" title="Pharmacies in the United States">Pharmacies in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy_in_the_United_States" title="History of pharmacy in the United States">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pharmacy" title="Category:Pharmacy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a 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chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7218#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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