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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>In <a href="/wiki/Forensic_entomology" title="Forensic entomology">forensic entomology</a>, <b>entomotoxicology</b> is the analysis of toxins in <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beetles">beetles</a>) that feed on <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>. Using arthropods in a corpse or at a crime scene, investigators can determine whether toxins were present in a body at the time of death. This technique is a major advance in forensics; previously, such determinations were impossible in the case of severely decomposed bodies devoid of intoxicated tissue and bodily fluids. Ongoing research into the effects of toxins on arthropod development has also allowed better estimations of <a href="/wiki/Postmortem_intervals" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmortem intervals">postmortem intervals</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_toxins_on_arthropods">Effects of toxins on arthropods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Effects of toxins on arthropods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Drugs can have a variety of effects on development rates of arthropods. <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a> are commonly involved in cases where forensic entomology is used. The stages of growth for insects provides a basis for determining a cause in altered cycles in a specific species. An altered stage in development can often indicate toxins in the <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a> on which the insects are feeding. Beetles (Order: <a href="/wiki/Coleoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleoptera">Coleoptera</a>) and beetle feces are often used in entomotoxicology, but the presence of toxins is often the result of the beetles' feeding on fly larvae that have been feeding on the carrion containing toxic substances. Flies (Order: <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">Diptera</a>) are the most commonly used insect in entomotoxicology.<sup id="cite_ref-gagliano_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gagliano-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through the study of <i>Sarcophaga (Curranea) tibialis</i> larvae, <a href="/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">barbiturates</a> were found to increase the length of the larval stage of the fly, which will ultimately cause an increase in the time it takes to reach the stage of <a href="/wiki/Pupation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pupation">pupation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-musvasva_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-musvasva-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morphine and heroin were both believed to slow down the rate of fly development.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, closer examination of the effects of heroin on fly development has shown that it actually speeds up larval growth and then decreases the development rate of the pupal stage. This actually increases the overall timing of development from egg to adult. Research of <i><a href="/wiki/Lucilia_sericata" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucilia sericata">Lucilia sericata</a></i> (Diptera: <a href="/wiki/Calliphoridae" title="Calliphoridae">Calliphoridae</a>), reared on various concentrations of morphine injected meat, found higher concentrations of morphine in shed pupal casings than in adults.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cocaine and methamphetamine also accelerate the rate of fly development.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some effects depend on the concentration of the toxin while others simply depend on its presence. For example, cocaine (at the lethal dose) causes larvae to “develop more rapidly 36 (to 76) hours after hatching”.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of growth depends on the concentration of cocaine in the area being fed upon. The amount of methamphetamine, on the other hand, affects the rate of pupal development. A lethal dose of methamphetamine increases larval development through approximately the first two days and afterwards the rate drops if exposure remains at the median lethal dosage. The presence of methamphetamine was also found to cause a decrease in the maximum length of the larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with changes in development rates, extended periods of insect feeding refrain and variation in the size of the insect during any stage of development, can also indicate the presence of toxic substances in the insect's food source.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_use">Examples of use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples of use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since J.C. Beyer and his partners first demonstrated the ability of toxins to be recovered from <a href="/wiki/Maggots" class="mw-redirect" title="Maggots">maggots</a> feeding on human remains in 1980, the use of entomotoxicology in investigations has made an emergence into the field of forensic entomology.<sup id="cite_ref-pounder_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pounder-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of one such case involved the discovery of a 22-year-old female with a history of suicide attempts found 14 days after her death. Due to the body's advanced stage of <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a>, no organ or tissue samples were viable to screen for toxins. Through <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">gas chromatography</a> (GC) and <a href="/wiki/Thin-layer_chromatography" title="Thin-layer chromatography">thin-layer chromatography</a> (TLC) analysis of <i>Cochliomyia macellaria</i> (Diptera: Calliphoridae) larvae found feeding on the woman's body, <a href="/wiki/Phenobarbital" title="Phenobarbital">phenobarbital</a> was detected and perceived to have been in the woman's system upon death.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_abuse_detected">Drug abuse detected</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Drug abuse detected"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In France, Pascal Kintz and his colleagues were able to demonstrate the use of entomotoxicology to detect toxins that were not discovered during the analysis of body tissues and fluids of a body found roughly two months after death. A liquid chromatography analysis on organ tissue and Calliphoridae larvae found at the scene revealed the existence of five prescription medications. <a href="/wiki/Triazolam" title="Triazolam">Triazolam</a>, however, was only detected in the analysis of maggots and not in organ tissue samples. Comparative research showed increased sensitivity of toxicological analysis of Diptera samples over decomposed body tissues. A similar case involved the discovery of the remains of a 29-year-old known to abuse drugs, last seen alive five months prior. Through the use of GC and GC-MS techniques, Nolte and his partners discovered the presence of cocaine in decomposed muscle tissue and in maggots found on the body. However, due to the severity of decomposition of the muscle tissue, more suitable drug samples (devoid of decomposition byproducts) were reared from the maggots.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aid_determination_of_origin">Aid determination of origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aid determination of origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pekka Nuorteva presented the case of a young woman found severely decomposed in Ingå, Finland. Diptera larvae recovered from the body were reared to adulthood and found to contain low levels of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, indicating that the woman came from an area of comparatively low mercury pollution. This assumption was proven correct once the woman was identified and found to have been a student in Turku, Finland. This case demonstrated the ability of toxicological analysis to help determine origin.<sup id="cite_ref-goff-lord_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goff-lord-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This case applied Nuorteva's research involving mercury and its effect on maggots. Through experimentation, it was determined that maggots (fed on <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> containing mercury) possessed levels of mercury in their tissue of even greater concentration than in the tissue of the fish. Nuorteva also discovered that the presence of mercury in the maggots systems hindered their ability to enter into the pupal stage.<sup id="cite_ref-goff_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goff-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxin_confounding_of_postmortem_interval_estimate">Toxin confounding of postmortem interval estimate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Toxin confounding of postmortem interval estimate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through the analysis of specific cases, it was revealed that toxins present in a person's body upon death can confound <a href="/wiki/Postmortem_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmortem interval">postmortem interval</a> estimations. An example of such a case, reported by Gunatilake and Goff, concerned the discovery of a 58-year-old male with a history of attempted suicides found dead in a crawl space in Honolulu, Hawaii last seen eight days prior. Two species of Diptera (Calliphoridae), <i>Chrysomya megacephala</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chrysomya_rufifacies" title="Chrysomya rufifacies">Chrysomya rufifacies</a></i>, found on the corpse and tissue samples from the body revealed <a href="/wiki/Malathion" title="Malathion">malathion</a>. Investigators found it abnormal that, given the conditions, there were only two fly species found on the body and that these species revealed a postmortem interval of five days. Thus it was determined that the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphate</a> malathion in the man's system delayed oviposition for a few days.<sup id="cite_ref-goff-lord_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goff-lord-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paul Catts analyzed a case in Spokane, Washington where maggots rendered differing postmortem estimations. A 20-year-old female victim was found stabbed to death and laying in an open environment surrounded by trees. Most of the oldest maggots found on the body were approximately 6–7 mm long which suggested that they were roughly seven days old. There was, however, a very strange exception which was the retrieval of a 17.7 mm maggot which suggested an age of 3 weeks. After ruling out the possibility that the maggot had traveled onto the corpse from carrion nearby, it was assumed that there was no conceivable way a 3-week-old maggot could have been present on the corpse. Later investigations revealed that the woman had snorted cocaine shortly before her death and that the 17.7 mm maggot must have fed in the woman's nasal cavity. Research revealed that maggot development can be sped up by the ingestion of cocaine.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_shed_casings_and_insect_faeces">Use of shed casings and insect faeces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Use of shed casings and insect faeces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Not only are tissues from maggots used to detect toxins, shed casings and insect faeces have also been used to detect and identify toxins present in corpses upon death. An instance of this finding was demonstrated by Edward McDonough, a <a href="/wiki/Medical_examiner" title="Medical examiner">medical examiner</a> in Connecticut. A mummified corpse of a middle-aged woman was found inside of her home. Prescription medicine bottles were found with labels identifying the following drugs: <a href="/wiki/Ampicillin" title="Ampicillin">ampicillin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceclor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceclor">Ceclor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erythromycin" title="Erythromycin">erythromycin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elavil" class="mw-redirect" title="Elavil">Elavil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lomotil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lomotil">Lomotil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">pentazocine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tylenol_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Tylenol 3">Tylenol 3</a>. McDonough performed toxicological analyses on stomach contents and dried sections of brain and found lethal levels of <a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">amitriptyline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nortriptyline" title="Nortriptyline">nortriptyline</a>. Insect feces, shed pupal cases of <i><a href="/wiki/Megaselia_scalaris" title="Megaselia scalaris">Megaselia scalaris</a></i> (Diptera: <a href="/wiki/Phoridae" title="Phoridae">Phoridae</a>), and shed larval skins of <i>Dermestes maculates</i> (Coleoptera: <a href="/wiki/Dermestidae" title="Dermestidae">Dermestidae</a>) were gathered from the corpse at the scene. McDonough sent these to an <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> lab which broke down the complex structures of the samples using strong acids and bases and freed the toxins for analysis. The cast pupal cases and larval skins were also found to contain amitriptyline and nortriptyline. Larger concentrations were discovered in the pupal cases because phorid flies prefer to feed on softer tissues. The hide beetle larval skins revealed lower concentrations of the drugs because these beetles prefer to feed on dry, mummified bodies. The use of pupal cases and larval skins allows investigators to detect toxins in a body years after <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-goff_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goff-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Further research should be conducted in order to fill the gaps in entomotoxicology. Such areas as <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulation</a>, insect <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of drugs, and quantitative analyses of insect evidence have only begun to be researched. Because it is a relatively new branch of forensic entomology, entomotoxicology has its limitations. According to Pounder's research, there is no correlation between the drug concentration in tissue and the larvae feeding on that tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-pounder_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pounder-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Entomological specimens make for excellent qualitative toxicological specimens. There is, however, a lack of research in the way of developing an assessment that can quantify the concentration of a drug in tissue using entomological evidence. One reason for this is that a drug can only be detected in larvae when the rate of absorption exceeds the rate of elimination.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated this theory using <i><a href="/wiki/Calliphora_vicina" title="Calliphora vicina">Calliphora vicina</a></i> larvae reared on human skeletal muscle obtained from cases of <a href="/wiki/Co-proxamol" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-proxamol">co-proxamol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">amitriptyline</a> overdose. Samples of pupae and third <a href="/wiki/Instar" title="Instar">instar</a> larvae no longer contained concentrations of the drugs, suggesting that drugs do not bioaccumulate over the entire life-cycle of larvae. This leads entomologists to theorize that toxins are eliminated from the larvae's system over time if they are not receiving a constant supply of the toxin.<sup id="cite_ref-introna_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introna-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entomotoxicology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-gagliano-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gagliano_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gagliano-Candela, R. and Aventaggiato, L. "The detection of toxic substances in entomological specimens." <i>International Journal of Legal Medicine</i> 114 (2001): 197-203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-musvasva-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-musvasva_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musvasva, E. and others. "Preliminary observations of the effects of hydrocortisone and sodium methohexital on development of Sarcophaga (Curranea) tibialis Macquart (Diptera: <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagidae">Sarcophagidae</a>), and implications for estimating post mortem interval.” <i>Forensic Science International</i> 120 (2001): 37-41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-introna-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-introna_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Introna, Francesco and others. ”Entomotoxicology.” <i>Forensic Science International</i> 120 (2001): 42-47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carvalho, Lucila M.L.; Linhares, Arício X.; and Trigo, José Roberto. "Determination of drug levels and effect of diazepam on the growth of necrophagous flies of forensic importance in southeastern Brazil." <i>Forensic Science International</i> 120 (2001): 140-144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourel, Benoit and others. “Morphine extraction in necrophagous insects remains for determining ante-mortem opiate intoxication.” <i>Forensic Science International</i> 120 (2001): 127-131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pounder-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pounder_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pounder_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounder, Derrick J. "Forensic entomo-toxicology." <i>Journal of the Forensic Science Society</i> 31 (1991): 469-472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goff-lord-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goff-lord_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goff-lord_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goff, M. Lee and Lord, Wayne D. "Entomotoxicology- A New Area for Forensic Investigation." <i>The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology</i> 15 (1994): 51-57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goff-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goff_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goff_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goff, M. Lee. A Fly for the Prosecution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catts, E. Paul, and Neal H. Haskell. Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide. Clemson: Joyce's Print Shop, Inc., 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, Z.; Hubbard, S.; Pounder, D.J. "Drug analysis in fly larvae." <i>The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology</i> 14 (1993): 118-120.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Entomotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Medical toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">In vitro toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">Acute toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-dose_procedure" title="Fixed-dose procedure">Fixed-dose procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">Lethal dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_capacity" title="Toxic capacity">Toxic capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity_class" title="Toxicity class">Toxicity class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">Venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">Antidote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathartic" title="Cathartic">Cathartic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_lavage" title="Gastric lavage">Gastric lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">Hemodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoperfusion" title="Hemoperfusion">Hemoperfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">Whole bowel irrigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">2007 pet food recalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niigata_Minamata_disease" title="Niigata Minamata disease">Niigata Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko" title="Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko">Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seveso_disaster" title="Seveso disaster">Seveso disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods" title="Consumption of Tide Pods">Consumption of Tide Pods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak" title="Visakhapatnam gas leak">Visakhapatnam gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak" title="2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak">2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of poisonings">List of poisonings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">Hazard symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extremely hazardous 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