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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_extraction_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Classification of extraction technologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_extraction_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ex_situ_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ex_situ_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Ex situ technologies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ex_situ_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ex situ technologies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ex_situ_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_combustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_combustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Internal combustion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_combustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hot_recycled_solids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hot_recycled_solids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Hot recycled solids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hot_recycled_solids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conduction_through_a_wall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conduction_through_a_wall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Conduction through a wall </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conduction_through_a_wall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Externally_generated_hot_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Externally_generated_hot_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Externally generated hot gas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Externally_generated_hot_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactive_fluids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactive_fluids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Reactive fluids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactive_fluids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plasma_gasification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plasma_gasification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Plasma gasification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plasma_gasification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_situ_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_situ_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In situ technologies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_situ_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In situ technologies subsection </button> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volumetric_heating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Volumetric heating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volumetric_heating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shale_oil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shale_oil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Shale oil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shale_oil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Environmental considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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<div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process for extracting oil from oil shale</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about production of synthetic oil from <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a>. For production of crude oil trapped in oil-bearing shales (tight oil), see <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Shale oil extraction</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Shell_insitu.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of Shell Oil's experimental in situ shale oil extraction facility in the Piceance Basin of northwestern Colorado. In the center of the photo, a number of oil recovery pipes lie on the ground. Several oil pumps are visible in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/290px-Shell_insitu.gif" decoding="async" width="290" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/435px-Shell_insitu.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Shell_insitu.gif/580px-Shell_insitu.gif 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="367" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Shell's experimental in situ shale oil facility, <a href="/wiki/Piceance_Basin" title="Piceance Basin">Piceance Basin</a>, Colorado, United States</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Process type</th><td class="infobox-data">Chemical</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Industrial sector(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemical industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil industry">oil industry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main technologies or sub-processes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kiviter_process" title="Kiviter process">Kiviter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galoter_process" title="Galoter process">Galoter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fushun_process" title="Fushun process">Fushun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shell_ICP" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell ICP">Shell ICP</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Feedstock</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Product(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">Shale oil</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leading companies</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eesti_Energia" title="Eesti Energia">Eesti Energia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viru_Keemia_Grupp" title="Viru Keemia Grupp">Viru Keemia Grupp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fushun_Mining_Group" title="Fushun Mining Group">Fushun Mining Group</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main facilities</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fushun_Mining_Group#Oil_shale_industry" title="Fushun Mining Group">Fushun Shale Oil Plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narva_Oil_Plant" title="Narva Oil Plant">Narva Oil Plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Oil_Shale_Project" title="Stuart Oil Shale Project">Stuart Shale Oil Plant</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Shale oil extraction is an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">industrial process</a> for <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a> production. This process converts <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a> into <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">shale oil</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_dissolution" title="Thermal dissolution">thermal dissolution</a>. The resultant shale oil is used as <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oil</a> or <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">upgraded</a> to meet <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refinery</a> feedstock specifications by adding <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and removing <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> impurities.<a href="#cite_note-purga-1">[1]</a> Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground (ex situ processing) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">processing facilities</a>. Other modern technologies perform the processing underground (on-site or <a href="/wiki/In_situ#Petroleum_production" title="In situ">in situ</a> processing) by applying heat and extracting the oil via <a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">oil wells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century. In 1684, England granted the first formal extraction process patent. Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">reserves of conventional oil</a>, but high <a href="/wiki/Price_of_petroleum" class="mw-redirect" title="Price of petroleum">petroleum prices</a> at the beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest, accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies. As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PRC" class="mw-redirect" title="PRC">China</a>. Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil. National <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> issues have also played a role in its development. Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">environmental management</a> issues, such as waste disposal, extensive water use, waste water management, and air pollution. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="History of the oil shale industry">History of the oil shale industry</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kirk%27s_Retort.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="In this vertical retort, oil shale is processed in a cast iron vessel which is broader at the bottom and narrow at the top. Lines on the left point to and describe its major components. From bottom to top, they consist of a water seal, coal-fired furnaces flanking a cast iron retort, a hopper receiving the shale, and a valve system. Arrows and text on the right show process inputs and outputs: steam is injected near the bottom of the retort; near its top, oil vapors and gases are drawn off and collected; a wheeled container delivers oil shale to the hopper." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kirk%27s_Retort.png/250px-Kirk%27s_Retort.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kirk%27s_Retort.png/375px-Kirk%27s_Retort.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kirk%27s_Retort.png/500px-Kirk%27s_Retort.png 2x" data-file-width="3283" data-file-height="2706" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Carnegie_Kirk" title="Alexander Carnegie Kirk">Alexander C. Kirk's</a> <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retort</a>, used in the mid-to-late 19th century, was one of the first vertical oil shale retorts. Its design is typical of retorts used in the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-iom-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 10th century, the Assyrian physician <a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih al-Mardini</a> (Mesue the Younger) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".<a href="#cite_note-art-4">[4]</a> The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the English Crown in 1684 to three people who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone".<a href="#cite_note-iom-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-moody-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-yen-6">[6]</a> Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> with the implementation of a process invented by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Selligue" title="Alexander Selligue">Alexander Selligue</a> in 1838, improved upon a decade later in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> using a process invented by <a href="/wiki/James_Young_(Scottish_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Young (Scottish chemist)">James Young</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iom-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kansas-7">[7]</a> During the late 19th century, plants were built in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-wec-8">[8]</a> The 1894 invention of the <a href="/wiki/Pumpherston_retort" title="Pumpherston retort">Pumpherston retort</a>, which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors, marked the separation of the <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">oil shale industry</a> from the coal industry.<a href="#cite_note-iom-3">[3]</a> China (<a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>), Estonia, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century. However, crude oil discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> during the 1920s and in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt.<a href="#cite_note-wec-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-yen2-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-eu-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a> In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_Liquid_Fuels_Program" title="Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program">Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program</a>. These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-yen2-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by <a href="/wiki/Unocal_Corporation" title="Unocal Corporation">Unocal Corporation</a>, closed in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> The US program was restarted in 2003, followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005" title="Energy Policy Act of 2005">Energy Policy Act of 2005</a>.<a href="#cite_note-blm-14">[14]</a> As of 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit">[update]</a>, shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China.<a href="#cite_note-symposium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-aarna2-17">[17]</a> In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> (17,700 <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(unit)#Oil_barrel" title="Barrel (unit)">barrels</a> per day) of shale oil.<a href="#cite_note-wec-8">[8]</a> Australia, the US, and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation; <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> have announced their intent to do the same.<a href="#cite_note-wec-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-aarna2-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-jordantimes2-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-oilvoice-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-colorado-20">[20]</a> Only four processes are in commercial use: <a href="/wiki/Kiviter_process" title="Kiviter process">Kiviter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galoter_process" title="Galoter process">Galoter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fushun_process" title="Fushun process">Fushun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-qian-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processing_principles">Processing principles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Processing principles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vertical flowchart begins with an oil shale deposit and follows two major branches. Conventional ex situ processes, shown on the right, proceed through mining, crushing, and retorting. Spent shale output is noted. In situ process flows are shown in the left branch of the flowchart. The deposit may or may not be fractured; in either case, the deposit is retorted and the oil is recovered. The two major branches converge at the bottom of the chart, indicating that extraction is followed by refining, which involves thermal and chemical treatment and hydrogenation, yielding liquid fuels and useful byproducts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/300px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/450px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png/600px-Oil_shale_extraction_overview.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption>Overview of shale oil extraction</figcaption></figure> Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> into shale oil—a <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_crude" title="Synthetic crude">synthetic crude</a> oil. The process is conducted by <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_dissolution" title="Thermal dissolution">thermal dissolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-koel-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-luik-22">[22]</a> The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a <a href="/wiki/Fischer_Assay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer Assay">Fischer Assay</a> performed on a sample of the shale.<a href="#cite_note-handbook2-23">[23]</a> The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as retorting or <a href="/wiki/Destructive_distillation" title="Destructive distillation">destructive distillation</a>). In this process, oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable <a href="/wiki/Combustibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Combustibility">combustible</a> <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">oil shale gas</a>. Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condense</a>. In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compounds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Char_(chemistry)" title="Char (chemistry)">char</a>—a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-koel-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian3-24">[24]</a> The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_compound" title="Aromatic compound">aromatic compounds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing the <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a> kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy. Some technologies burn other <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> such as natural gas, oil, or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity, <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactive</a> fluids for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> Two strategies are used to reduce, and even eliminate, external heat energy requirements: the oil shale gas and char by-products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as a source of energy, and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to pre-heat the raw oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-koel-21">[21]</a> For ex situ processing, oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for better extraction. The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time-scale of the process. In ex situ retorting processes, it begins at 300 °C (570 °F) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. The amount of oil produced is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F). The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-koel-21">[21]</a> For a modern in situ process, which might take several months of heating, decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 °C (480 °F). Temperatures below 600 °C (1,110 °F) are preferable, as this prevents the decomposition of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a> in the rock and thereby limits <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> emissions and energy consumption.<a href="#cite_note-synthetic2-25">[25]</a> Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_donor" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen donor">hydrogen donors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>, or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">cracking</a> the dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties.<a href="#cite_note-luik-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-gorlov-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-koel2-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-baldwin-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_extraction_technologies">Classification of extraction technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification of extraction technologies">edit</a>]</div> Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">shale oil</a> from oil shale. By process principles: Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.<a href="#cite_note-luik-22">[22]</a> By location: A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ (displaced) or in situ (in place). In ex situ processing, also known as above-ground <a href="/wiki/Retorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Retorting">retorting</a>, the oil shale is mined either <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">underground</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">at the surface</a> and then transported to a processing facility. In contrast, in situ processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, following which it is then extracted via <a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">oil wells</a>, where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil.<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> Unlike ex situ processing, it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground.<a href="#cite_note-rand-29">[29]</a> By heating method: The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect. While methods that allow combustion products to contact the oil shale within the <a href="/wiki/Retort" title="Retort">retort</a> are classified as direct, methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect<a href="#cite_note-qian-16">[16]</a> By heat carrier: Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale, processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier, solid heat carrier, wall conduction, reactive fluid, and volumetric heating methods.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-handbook2-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-smith-30">[30]</a> Heat carrier methods can be sub-classified as direct or indirect. The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method, heat carrier and location (in situ or ex situ). <table class="wikitable" style="margin:left"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Classification of processing technologies by heating method and location (according to Alan Burnham)<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-handbook2-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-smith-30">[30]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Heating Method</th> <th>Above ground (ex situ)</th> <th>Underground (in situ) </th></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Internal combustion </th> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Gas_Combustion_Retort_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas Combustion Retort Process">Gas combustion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada%E2%80%93Texas%E2%80%93Utah_Retort" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada–Texas–Utah Retort">NTU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiviter_process" title="Kiviter process">Kiviter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fushun_process" title="Fushun process">Fushun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Union_process" title="Union process">Union A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraho_process" title="Paraho process">Paraho Direct</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superior_multimineral_process" title="Superior multimineral process">Superior Direct</a> </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum#Operations" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum MIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/LLNL_RISE_process" title="LLNL RISE process">LLNL RISE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geokinetics" title="Geokinetics">Geokinetics Horizontal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rio_Blanco_Oil_Shale_Company" title="Rio Blanco Oil Shale Company">Rio Blanco</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Hot recycled solids (inert or burned shale) </th> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Alberta_Taciuk_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta Taciuk Process">Alberta Taciuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galoter_process" title="Galoter process">Galoter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enefit_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Enefit process">Enefit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lurgi-Ruhrgas_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Lurgi-Ruhrgas process">Lurgi-Ruhrgas</a>, <a href="/wiki/TOSCO_II_process" title="TOSCO II process">TOSCO II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chevron_STB_process" title="Chevron STB process">Chevron STB</a>, <a href="/wiki/LLNL_HRS_process" title="LLNL HRS process">LLNL HRS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shell_Spher_process" title="Shell Spher process">Shell Spher</a>, <a href="/wiki/KENTORT_II" title="KENTORT II">KENTORT II</a> </td> <td align="left">– </td></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Conduction through a wall (various fuels) </th> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Pumpherston_retort" title="Pumpherston retort">Pumpherston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fischer_Assay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer Assay">Fischer Assay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambre_Energy#Oil-Tech_process" title="Ambre Energy">Oil-Tech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Leaf_Resources#Technology" title="Red Leaf Resources">EcoShale In-Capsule</a>, <a href="/wiki/Combustion_Resources#Shale_oil_extraction" title="Combustion Resources">Combustion Resources</a> </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Shell_in_situ_conversion_process" title="Shell in situ conversion process">Shell ICP</a> (primary method), <a href="/wiki/American_Shale_Oil#Operations" title="American Shale Oil">American Shale Oil CCR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Independent_Energy_Partners#Geothermic_Fuels_Cells_Process" title="Independent Energy Partners">IEP Geothermic Fuel Cell</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Externally generated hot gas </th> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">PetroSIX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Union_process" title="Union process">Union B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraho_process" title="Paraho process">Paraho Indirect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superior_multimineral_process" title="Superior multimineral process">Superior Indirect</a>, Syntec (Smith process) </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Chevron_CRUSH" title="Chevron CRUSH">Chevron CRUSH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnishale" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnishale">Omnishale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_West_Energy#Technology" title="Mountain West Energy">MWE IGE</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Reactive fluids </th> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Hytort_process" title="Hytort process">IGT Hytort</a> (high-pressure H2), donor solvent processes <a href="/wiki/Blue_Ensign_Technologies#Rendall_Process" title="Blue Ensign Technologies">Rendall Process</a> <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_Corporation#Chattanooga_Process" title="Chattanooga Corporation">Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor</a> </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Shell_in_situ_conversion_process" title="Shell in situ conversion process">Shell ICP</a> (some embodiments) </td></tr> <tr> <th align="left">Volumetric heating </th> <td align="left">– </td> <td align="left">Radio wave, microwave, and electric current processes </td></tr></tbody></table> By raw oil shale particle size: The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by the size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts. As a rule, gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters (0.4 to 3.9 in), while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-qian-16">[16]</a> By retort orientation: "Ex-situ" technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal. Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where a bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity. Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other. As a general rule, vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier, while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier. By complexity of technology: In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes. True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing the oil shale. Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit. The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit, thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ex_situ_technologies">Ex situ technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ex situ technologies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_combustion">Internal combustion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Internal combustion">edit</a>]</div> Internal combustion technologies burn materials (typically char and oil shale gas) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres (0.5 in) and 75 millimetres (3.0 in) in size are fed into the top of the retort and are heated by the rising hot gases, which pass through the descending oil shale, thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 °C (932 °F) . Shale oil mist, evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment. Condensed shale oil is collected, while non-condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up the retort. In the lower part of the retort, air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 °C (1,292 °F) and 900 °C (1,650 °F). Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-koel-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-fuelstodrive-31">[31]</a> The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern. In the Union A process, oil shale is fed through the bottom of the retort and a pump moves it upward.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a> In the Superior Direct process, oil shale is processed in a horizontal, segmented, doughnut-shaped <a href="/wiki/Traveling-grate_retort" class="mw-redirect" title="Traveling-grate retort">traveling-grate retort</a>.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-synthetic2-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008appendix-32">[32]</a> Internal combustion technologies such as the <a href="/wiki/Paraho_process" title="Paraho process">Paraho Direct</a> are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermally efficient</a>, since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of the retort. These technologies can achieve 80–90% of Fischer assay yield.<a href="#cite_note-smith-30">[30]</a> Two well-established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies: Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s, and a number of Chinese companies operate <a href="/wiki/Fushun_process" title="Fushun process">Fushun process</a> facilities. Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas is diluted by combustion gases<a href="#cite_note-smith-30">[30]</a> and particles smaller than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) can not be processed. Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hot_recycled_solids">Hot recycled solids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hot recycled solids">edit</a>]</div> Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles—typically oil shale ash. These technologies usually employ <a href="/wiki/Rotary_kiln" title="Rotary kiln">rotating kiln</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluidized_bed" title="Fluidized bed">fluidized bed</a> retorts, fed by fine oil shale particles generally having a diameter of less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in); some technologies use particles even smaller than 2.5 millimeters (0.10 in). The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 °C (1,470 °F) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect the oil. Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids. In the <a href="/wiki/Galoter_process" title="Galoter process">Galoter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enefit_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Enefit process">Enefit</a> processes, the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln. Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry the oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash.<a href="#cite_note-soone-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/TOSCO_II_process" title="TOSCO II process">TOSCO II process</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> The distinguishing feature of the <a href="/wiki/Alberta_Taciuk_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta Taciuk Process">Alberta Taciuk Process</a> (ATP) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi–chamber horizontal vessel.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-qian-16">[16]</a> Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace, the oil shale gas from these technologies is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process, thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used. One disadvantage is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash. <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the Alberta Taciuk Processor retort. It is a horizontal cylinder 8.2 meters (27 ft) high and 62.5 meters (205 ft) wide. The raw oil shale is fed from the right side and it moves to a section where it is dried and preheated by hot oil shale ash. The temperature in this section is around 250 °C (482 °F). At the same time, the raw oil shale in this section serves to cool the resultant oil shale ash before its removal. In the retorting section, the temperature is around 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapors are removed through the vapor tube. The spent oil shale is again heated in the combustion section to a temperature of 750 °C (1,380 °F) and ash is generated. The ash is then sent to the retorting section as a heat carrier, or to the cooling zone for removal." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG/540px-Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG" decoding="async" width="540" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG/810px-Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Alberta_Taciuk_Processor.PNG 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Alberta Taciuk Processor retort</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conduction_through_a_wall">Conduction through a wall</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conduction through a wall">edit</a>]</div> These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall. The shale feed usually consists of fine particles. Their advantage lies in the fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Combustion_Resources" title="Combustion Resources">Combustion Resources</a> process uses a hydrogen–fired rotating kiln, where hot gas is circulated through an outer <a href="/wiki/Annulus_(oil_well)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annulus (oil well)">annulus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-combustion2-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-combustion-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ambre_Energy" title="Ambre Energy">Oil-Tech</a> staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter-connected heating chambers, stacked atop each other.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008appendix-32">[32]</a> Its principal advantage lies in its <a href="/wiki/Modular_design" title="Modular design">modular design</a>, which enhances its portability and adaptability.<a href="#cite_note-BLM2008appendix-32">[32]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Red_Leaf_Resources" title="Red Leaf Resources">Red Leaf Resources</a> EcoShale In-Capsule Process combines surface mining with a lower-temperature heating method similar to in situ processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure. A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-biglarbigi-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-crawford-37">[37]</a> An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography.<a href="#cite_note-crawford-37">[37]</a> A general drawback of conduction through a wall technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled-up due to the resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high-temperature alloys. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Externally_generated_hot_gas">Externally generated hot gas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Externally generated hot gas">edit</a>]</div> In general, externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns. Significantly, though, the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel, and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Petrosix" title="Petrosix">Petrosix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraho_process" title="Paraho process">Paraho Indirect</a> employ this technology.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-laherrere-38">[38]</a> In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed, these technologies do not utilize the potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels. However, due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale, the oil shale does not exceed 500 °C (932 °F) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales. Also, these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactive_fluids">Reactive fluids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reactive fluids">edit</a>]</div> Kerogen is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sung-39">[39]</a> Despite this constraint, extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested, including those in a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical</a> state.<a href="#cite_note-sung-39">[39]</a> Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content. In these technologies, hydrogen gas (H2) or hydrogen donors (chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions) react with coke <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursors</a> (chemical structures in the oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so).<a href="#cite_note-hytort-40">[40]</a> Reactive fluid technologies include the <a href="/wiki/Hytort_process" title="Hytort process">IGT Hytort</a> (high-pressure H2) process, donor solvent processes, and the <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_Corporation#Chattanooga_Process" title="Chattanooga Corporation">Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high-pressure hydrogen environment.<a href="#cite_note-hytort2-41">[41]</a> The Chattanooga process uses a <a href="/wiki/Fluidized_bed_reactor" title="Fluidized bed reactor">fluidized bed reactor</a> and an associated hydrogen-fired heater for oil shale <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">thermal cracking</a> and hydrogenation.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a> Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes. Drawbacks are the additional cost and complexity of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> and high-pressure retort vessels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plasma_gasification">Plasma gasification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Plasma gasification">edit</a>]</div> Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil-shale gasification by using <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> technologies.<a href="#cite_note-IWEPAC-42">[42]</a> In these technologies, oil shale is bombarded by <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>). The radicals crack kerogen <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> forming <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic gas">synthetic gas</a> and oil. Air, hydrogen or <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical arc">arc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma arc">plasma arc</a>, or plasma electrolysis mode.<a href="#cite_note-IWEPAC-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-amayreh-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-foret-44">[44]</a> The main benefit of these technologies is processing without using water.<a href="#cite_note-amayreh-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_situ_technologies">In situ technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In situ technologies">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">In situ</a> technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation, or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">thermal conduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> to distribute heat through the target area. Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a> These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from a given area of land than conventional <a href="/wiki/Ex_situ" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex situ">ex situ</a> processing technologies, as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines. They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low-grade deposits that <a href="/wiki/Traditional_mining" title="Traditional mining">traditional mining</a> techniques could not extract.<a href="#cite_note-kok-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Fell_(industrialist)" title="John Fell (industrialist)">John Fell</a> experimented with in situ extraction, at <a href="/wiki/Newnes,_New_South_Wales" title="Newnes, New South Wales">Newnes</a>, In Australia, during 1921, with some success,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-47">[47]</a> but his ambitions were well ahead of technologies available at the time. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a> One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy (<a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Ljungstr%C3%B6m" title="Fredrik Ljungström">Ljungström</a> method)—a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at <a href="/wiki/Kumla_Municipality" title="Kumla Municipality">Kvarntorp</a> in Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-assessment-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-savage-48">[48]</a> Prior to the 1980s, many variations of the in situ process were explored in the United States. The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by <a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a> in 1972 at Logan Wash, Colorado.<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a> Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wall_conduction">Wall conduction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Wall conduction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A simplified cross section of Shell's in situ process shows a number of vertical holes that have been drilled into the oil shale deposit, surrounded by a "freeze wall" intended to prevent leakage into the surrounding area. The process has an ecological footprint also on the ground." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png/220px-Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png/330px-Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png/440px-Shell_Freeze_Wall_Oil_Shale.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a>'s freeze wall for in situ shale oil production separates the process from its surroundings</figcaption></figure> Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation. The <a href="/wiki/Shell_in_situ_conversion_process" title="Shell in situ conversion process">Shell in situ conversion process</a> (Shell ICP) uses electrical <a href="/wiki/Heating_element" title="Heating element">heating elements</a> for heating the oil shale layer to between 340 and 370 °C (650 and 700 °F) over a period of approximately four years.<a href="#cite_note-handbook-49">[49]</a> The processing area is isolated from surrounding <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super-chilled fluid.<a href="#cite_note-handbook2-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-rand-29">[29]</a> Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption, extensive water use, and the risk of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">groundwater pollution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fortune-50">[50]</a> The process was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the <a href="/wiki/Piceance_Basin" title="Piceance Basin">Piceance Basin</a>. 270 cubic meters (1,700 bbl) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 9-by-12-meter (30 by 40 ft) testing area.<a href="#cite_note-rand-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-handbook-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-wired-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EGL_Process.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A schematic overview of the American Shale Oil CCR in situ process facility. Horizontal and vertical wells apply steam to the oil shale deposit and vertical wells recover the oil." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EGL_Process.jpg/220px-EGL_Process.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EGL_Process.jpg/330px-EGL_Process.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EGL_Process.jpg/440px-EGL_Process.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>American Shale Oil CCR Process</figcaption></figure> In the CCR Process proposed by <a href="/wiki/American_Shale_Oil" title="American Shale Oil">American Shale Oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superheated_steam" title="Superheated steam">superheated steam</a> or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted. The system combines horizontal wells, through which steam is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through <a href="/wiki/Reflux" title="Reflux">refluxing</a> of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons. Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-EGL2-52">[52]</a> The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process (IEP GFC) proposed by <a href="/wiki/Independent_Energy_Partners" title="Independent Energy Partners">Independent Energy Partners</a> extracts shale oil by exploiting a high-temperature stack of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>. The cells, placed in the oil shale formation, are fueled by natural gas during a warm-up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-savage-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Externally_generated_hot_gas_2">Externally generated hot gas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Externally generated hot gas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schematic overview of the Chevron CRUSH process. Vertical wells inject hot gas, recover the oil, and house groundwater monitors. Oil pumps, hot gas compressors, and oil treatment units and tanks are located on the surface. The oil shale formation is fractured to enable gas circulation between wells and to increase oil recovery." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG/220px-Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG/330px-Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG/440px-Chevron_Oil_Shale_Project.PNG 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chevron_CRUSH" title="Chevron CRUSH">Chevron CRUSH</a> process</figcaption></figure> Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above-ground and then injected into the oil shale formation. The <a href="/wiki/Chevron_CRUSH" title="Chevron CRUSH">Chevron CRUSH</a> process, which was researched by <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron Corporation</a> in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, injects heated carbon dioxide into the formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated.<a href="#cite_note-chevron-53">[53]</a> General Synfuels International has proposed the <a href="/wiki/Omnishale_process" title="Omnishale process">Omnishale process</a> involving injection of super-heated air into the oil shale formation.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-crawford-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mountain_West_Energy" title="Mountain West Energy">Mountain West Energy</a>'s In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high-temperature gas.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ExxonMobil_Electrofrac">ExxonMobil Electrofrac</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: ExxonMobil Electrofrac">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil_Electrofrac" title="ExxonMobil Electrofrac">ExxonMobil Electrofrac</a></div> <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a>'s in situ technology (<a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil_Electrofrac" title="ExxonMobil Electrofrac">ExxonMobil Electrofrac</a>) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods. It injects an electrically conductive material such as <a href="/wiki/Calcined_petroleum_coke" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcined petroleum coke">calcined petroleum coke</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fractures</a> created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-almanac2009-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-AAAPG-56">[56]</a> Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe. This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-AAAPG-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volumetric_heating">Volumetric heating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Volumetric heating">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An artist's cross section of an oil shale processing facility using radio waves to deliver heat to the formation. On a plateau surrounded by mountains, transmission towers, an oil derrick, and a few supporting structures are shown above ground. Large opaque pipes represent its underground infrastructure network ." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG/220px-Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG/330px-Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG/440px-Oil_shale_radio_frequency_extraction.JPG 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>Artist's rendition of a radio wave-based extraction facility</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a> developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using <a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a> (radio frequency processing) during the late 1970s. This technology was further developed by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>. Oil shale is heated by vertical <a href="/wiki/Electrode_array" title="Electrode array">electrode arrays</a>. Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters. The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the <a href="/wiki/Skin_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin depth">skin depth</a> is many tens of meters, thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating.<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burnham-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-carlson-58">[58]</a> Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and the possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy.<a href="#cite_note-AICHE-2">[2]</a> Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical fluids is being developed by <a href="/wiki/Raytheon" title="Raytheon">Raytheon</a> together with CF Technologies and tested by <a href="/wiki/Schlumberger" title="Schlumberger">Schlumberger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-raytheon-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-spe-60">[60]</a> Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating, although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into the oil shale formation.<a href="#cite_note-daniel-61">[61]</a> The microwave heating process was tested by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_Resource_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Global Resource Corporation (page does not exist)">Global Resource Corporation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-downstream1-62">[62]</a> Electro-Petroleum proposes electrically <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">enhanced oil recovery</a> by the passage of <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> between <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathodes</a> in producing wells and <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anodes</a> located either at the surface or at depth in other wells. The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shale_oil">Shale oil</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Shale oil">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">Shale oil</a></div> The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and the extraction technology used.<a href="#cite_note-mcketta-63">[63]</a> Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, and it is characterized using bulk properties of the oil. Shale oil usually contains large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">olefinic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatic</a> hydrocarbons. Shale oil can also contain significant quantities of <a href="/wiki/Heteroatom" title="Heteroatom">heteroatoms</a>. A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, 1.5–2% of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and 0.15–1% of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, and some deposits contain more heteroatoms. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well.<a href="#cite_note-slee-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-speight-65">[65]</a> Generally, the oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming <a href="/wiki/Pour_point" title="Pour point">pourable</a> at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing pipelines.<a href="#cite_note-slee-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Shale oil contains <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> which are <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a>. It has been described that raw shale oil has a mild carcinogenic potential which is comparable to some intermediate refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to broken down by hydrogenation.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-purga-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">Particulates</a> in the raw oil clog downstream processes; <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> create <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>. Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> that may be present, also destroy the <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> used in refining.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">Olefins</a> form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> within the oil, present at higher levels than in <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a>, lends itself to the formation of destructive <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radicals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-spe-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">Hydrodesulfurization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization#Hydrodenitrogenation" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodenitrogenation</a> can address these problems and result in a product comparable to <a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">benchmark crude oil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-slee-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-spe-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-oja-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenols</a> can be first be removed by water extraction.<a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-72">[72]</a> Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen (<a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a>) or removing carbon (<a href="/wiki/Coking" title="Coking">coking</a>).<a href="#cite_note-oja-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-72">[72]</a> Before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood <a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">preservative</a>. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-purga-1">[1]</a> Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of <a href="/wiki/Middle_distillate#Major_products_of_oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle distillate">middle distillates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-spe-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-andrews-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-andrews2-74">[74]</a> Additional <a href="/wiki/Fluid_catalytic_cracking" title="Fluid catalytic cracking">cracking</a> can create the lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline.<a href="#cite_note-spe-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WTI_price_96_09.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph of NYMEX light-sweet crude oil price changes from 1996 to 2009 (not adjusted for inflation). In 1996, the price was about $20 per barrel. Since then, the prices saw a sharp rise, peaking at over $140 per barrel in 2008. It dropped to about $70 per barrel in mid 2009." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/250px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/375px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/WTI_price_96_09.PNG/500px-WTI_price_96_09.PNG 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NYMEX" class="mw-redirect" title="NYMEX">NYMEX</a> <a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">light-sweet crude oil</a> prices 1996–2009 (not adjusted for inflation)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_economics" title="Oil shale economics">Oil shale economics</a></div> The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable. According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>, the capital costs of a 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d) ex-situ processing complex are $3–10 billion.<a href="#cite_note-factsheet-76">[76]</a> The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the shale-oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes. According to a survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a>, the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">upgrading plant</a>, supporting utilities, and spent oil shale reclamation), would be in a range of $70–95 per barrel ($440–600/m3), adjusted to 2005 values. Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production, the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $30–40 per barrel ($190–250/m3) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3).<a href="#cite_note-eu-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-rand-29">[29]</a> The United States Department of Energy estimates that the ex-situ processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above $54 per barrel and in-situ processing would be economic at prices above $35 per barrel. These estimates assume a return rate of 15%.<a href="#cite_note-factsheet-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $30 per barrel ($190/m3), while some technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $20 per barrel ($130/m3).<a href="#cite_note-fossilenergy-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-schmidt-77">[77]</a> To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, waste <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a> wastes are retorted along with the oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-co-pyrolisis2-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-veski1-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morocco-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-turkey2-82">[82]</a> Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by-products of pyrolysis (char and oil shale gas) and thereby improving oil yield, increasing throughput, and decreasing retorting time.<a href="#cite_note-siirde-83">[83]</a> Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>, use oil shale that is a by-product of coal mining such as at <a href="/wiki/Fushun" title="Fushun">Fushun</a> China, produce <a href="/wiki/Specialty_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty chemicals">specialty chemicals</a> as by <a href="/wiki/Viru_Keemia_Grupp" title="Viru Keemia Grupp">Viru Keemia Grupp</a> in Estonia, co-generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed. A possible measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy in the extracted oil to the energy used in its mining and processing (Energy Returned on Energy Invested, or <a href="/wiki/EROEI" class="mw-redirect" title="EROEI">EROEI</a>). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7 and 13.3;<a href="#cite_note-science2-84">[84]</a> Some companies and newer technologies assert an EROEI between 3 and 10. According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROEI of ex-situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in-situ processing it may be even as low as 2.<a href="#cite_note-weo2010-85">[85]</a> To increase the EROEI, several combined technologies were proposed. These include the usage of process waste heat, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gasification" title="Gasification">gasification</a> or combustion of the residual carbon (char), and the usage of waste heat from other industrial processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Coal_gasification" title="Coal gasification">coal gasification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> generation.<a href="#cite_note-DOE-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-chemical-engineering-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-ogj-nuclear-87">[87]</a> The water requirements of extraction processes are an additional economic consideration in regions where water is a scarce resource. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_considerations">Environmental considerations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Environmental considerations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">Environmental impact of the oil shale industry</a></div> Mining oil shale involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining.<a href="#cite_note-mittal-88">[88]</a> These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of formerly buried materials, the introduction of metals including <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> into surface-water and groundwater, increased <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, sulfur-gas emissions, and air pollution caused by the production of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric particulate matter">particulates</a> during processing, transport, and support activities.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-openpitimpacts-90">[90]</a> In 2002, about 97% of air pollution, 86% of total waste and 23% of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry, which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production.<a href="#cite_note-raukas-91">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpentShale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of dark gray/silver piles of spent shale lumps." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/SpentShale.jpg/220px-SpentShale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/SpentShale.jpg/330px-SpentShale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/SpentShale.jpg/440px-SpentShale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spent_shale" title="Spent shale">Spent shale</a> often presents a disposal problem</figcaption></figure> Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-nrdc-92">[92]</a> Experimental in situ conversion processes and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> pollution.<a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-93">[93]</a> Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include <a href="/wiki/Quinoline" title="Quinoline">quinoline</a> derivatives, <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a>, and various alkyl homologues of pyridine (<a href="/wiki/Picoline" title="Picoline">picoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutidine" title="Lutidine">lutidine</a>).<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as the western US and Israel's <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev Desert</a>, where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water shortage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil.<a href="#cite_note-rand-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-water-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Ayed-98">[98]</a> A 2008 programmatic <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" title="Environmental impact statement">environmental impact statement</a> issued by the US <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">Bureau of Land Management</a> stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.<a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-96">[96]</a> In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmental</a> activists, including members of <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>, have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Energy_Resources" title="Queensland Energy Resources">Queensland Energy Resources</a> put the proposed <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Oil_Shale_Project" title="Stuart Oil Shale Project">Stuart Oil Shale Project</a> in Australia on hold in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-Burnham-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_China" title="Oil shale in China">Oil shale in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_Estonia" title="Oil shale in Estonia">Oil shale in Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_Jordan" title="Oil shale in Jordan">Oil shale in Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_geology" title="Oil shale geology">Oil shale geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves" title="Oil shale reserves">Oil shale reserves</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-purga-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-purga_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-purga_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-purga_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 19 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greenpeace+happy+with+part+closure+of+shale+oil+plant&rft.pub=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.date=2004-07-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2004-07-22%2Fgreenpeace-happy-with-part-closure-of-shale-oil%2F2013172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil+extraction" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2002" class="citation conference cs1">Anderson, Campbell (2 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smedg.org.au/miningc/SMCMay02text.pdf">Greenpeace vs the future of Australian oil shale</a> (PDF). The 53rd Sydney Mining Club. Sydney. Retrieved 10 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Greenpeace+vs+the+future+of+Australian+oil+shale&rft.place=Sydney&rft.date=2002-05-02&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Campbell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smedg.org.au%2Fminingc%2FSMCMay02text.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShale+oil+extraction" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Shale_oil_extraction&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirj.ee/oilshale">Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0208-189X">0208-189X</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080314013800/http://www.ostseis.anl.gov/">Oil Shale and Tar Sands Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Information Center.</a> Concerning potential leases of Federal oil sands lands in Utah and oil shale lands in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oilshaleassoc.org/">The United States National Oil Shale Association (NOSA)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Petroleum_industry" title="Template talk:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Petroleum_industry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum industry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">Benchmarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argus_Sour_Crude_Index" title="Argus Sour Crude Index">Argus Sour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonny_Light_oil" title="Bonny Light oil">Bonny Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brent_Crude" title="Brent Crude">Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubai_Crude" title="Dubai Crude">Dubai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Basket" title="Indian Basket">Indian Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Crude_Price" title="Indonesian Crude Price">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus-34_Light" title="Isthmus-34 Light">Isthmus-34 Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Crude_Cocktail" title="Japan Crude Cocktail">Japan Cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC_Reference_Basket" title="OPEC Reference Basket">OPEC Reference Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapis_crude" title="Tapis crude">Tapis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urals_oil" title="Urals oil">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Natural gas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_consumption" title="List of countries by natural gas consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production" title="List of countries by natural gas production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves" title="List of countries by natural gas proven reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_imports" title="List of countries by natural gas imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_prices" title="Natural gas prices">Price</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Petroleum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_consumption" title="List of countries by oil consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production" title="List of countries by oil production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_imports" title="List of countries by oil imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports" title="List of countries by oil exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posted_oil_price" title="Posted oil price">Posted oil price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_and_diesel_usage_and_pricing" title="Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing">of gasoline and diesel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration" title="Hydrocarbon exploration">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">Core sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling" title="Integrated asset modelling">Integrated asset modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulation" title="Reservoir simulation">Reservoir simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_modeling" title="Reservoir modeling">Reservoir modeling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">Petroleum geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrophysics" title="Petrophysics">Petrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflection_seismology" title="Reflection seismology">Reflection seismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_inversion" title="Seismic inversion">Seismic inversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_source" title="Seismic source">Seismic source</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">Drilling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowout_(well_drilling)" title="Blowout (well drilling)">Blowout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completion_(oil_and_gas_wells)" title="Completion (oil and gas wells)">Completion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Squeeze_job" title="Squeeze job">Squeeze job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_sticking" title="Differential sticking">Differential sticking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">Directional drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geosteering" title="Geosteering">Geosteering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_stem_test" title="Drill stem test">Drill stem test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_engineering" title="Drilling engineering">Drilling engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid" title="Drilling fluid">Drilling fluid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid_invasion" title="Drilling fluid invasion">invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_circulation" title="Lost circulation">Lost circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_while_drilling" title="Measurement while drilling">Measurement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shale oil extraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Ljungstr%C3%B6m#Shale_oil_extraction" title="Fredrik Ljungström">Ljungström method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracer_use_in_the_oil_industry" title="Tracer use in the oil industry">Tracers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underbalanced_drilling" title="Underbalanced drilling">Underbalanced drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_logging" title="Well logging">Well logging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_fiscal_regime" title="Petroleum fiscal regime">Petroleum fiscal regime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_licensing" title="Petroleum licensing">Concessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_sharing_agreement" title="Production sharing agreement">Production sharing agreements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_lift" title="Artificial lift">Artificial lift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lift" title="Gas lift">Gas lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpjack" title="Pumpjack">Pumpjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pump" title="Submersible pump">Submersible pump (ESP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Downstream (petroleum industry)">Downstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reinjection" title="Gas reinjection">Gas reinjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midstream" title="Midstream">Midstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">Petroleum product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline" title="Pipeline">Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Upstream (petroleum industry)">Upstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(oil_production)" title="Water injection (oil production)">Water injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_intervention" title="Well intervention">Well intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_(oil_well)" title="Christmas tree (oil well)">XT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="History of the petroleum industry">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Oil_Embargo" title="1967 Oil Embargo">1967 Oil Embargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_oil_price_shock" title="1990 oil price shock">1990 oil price shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_oil_glut" title="2010s oil glut">2010s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_oil_supplies" title="Nationalization of oil supplies">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_Exporting_Countries_Forum" title="Gas Exporting Countries Forum">GECF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sisters_(oil_companies)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sisters (oil companies)">Seven Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_France" title="History of the petroleum industry in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_India" title="History of the oil industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Norway" title="History of the petroleum industry in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Provinces and fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_fields" title="List of natural gas fields">List of natural gas fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_fields" title="List of oil fields">List of oil fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_Oil_Province" title="East Midlands Oil Province">East Midlands Oil Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Texas_Oil_Field" title="East Texas Oil Field">East Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta#Nigerian_oil" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian_Basin_(North_America)" title="Permian Basin (North America)">Permian Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field" title="Prudhoe Bay Oil Field">Prudhoe Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Russia" title="Oil reserves in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Venezuela" title="Oil reserves in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abbreviations_in_oil_and_gas_exploration_and_production" title="List of abbreviations in oil and gas exploration and production">Abbreviations</a></li> <li>Classification <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">sweet oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_crude_oil" title="Sour crude oil">sour oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">Oil shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_wells" title="Orphan wells">Orphan wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicting_the_timing_of_peak_oil" title="Predicting the timing of peak oil">timing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocurrency" title="Petrocurrency">Petrocurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrodollar_recycling" title="Petrodollar recycling">Petrodollar recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofiction" title="Petrofiction">Petrofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_band" title="Shale band">Shale band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_producer" title="Swing producer">Swing producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir" title="Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir">Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy crude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Companies and organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies" title="List of oil exploration and production companies">petroleum companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Big_Oil" title="Big Oil">Supermajors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Eni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TotalEnergies" title="TotalEnergies">TotalEnergies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">National oil companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company" title="Abu Dhabi National Oil Company">Abu Dhabi National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANCAP_(Uruguay)" title="ANCAP (Uruguay)">ANCAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharat_Petroleum" title="Bharat Petroleum">Bharat Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Petroleum_Corporation" title="China National Petroleum Corporation">China National Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopetrol" title="Ecopetrol">Ecopetrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinor" title="Equinor">Equinor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazprom" title="Gazprom">Gazprom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Petroleum" title="Hindustan Petroleum">Hindustan Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Oil_Corporation" title="Indian Oil Corporation">Indian Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_National_Oil_Company" title="Iraq National Oil Company">Iraq National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KazMunayGas" title="KazMunayGas">KazMunayGas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Petroleum_Corporation" title="Kuwait Petroleum Corporation">Kuwait Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grupa_Lotos" title="Grupa Lotos">Lotos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftogaz" title="Naftogaz">Naftogaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_South_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian South Oil Company">National Iranian South Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NNPC_Limited" title="NNPC Limited">NNPC Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_%26_Gas_Development_Company" title="Oil & Gas Development Company">Oil & Gas Development Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation" title="Oil and Natural Gas Corporation">Oil and Natural Gas Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlen" title="Orlen">Orlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemex" title="Pemex">Pemex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamina" title="Pertamina">Pertamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobangla" title="Petrobangla">Petrobangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PetroChina" title="PetroChina">PetroChina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronas" title="Petronas">Petronas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovietnam" title="Petrovietnam">Petrovietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PTT_Public_Company_Limited" title="PTT Public Company Limited">PTT Public Company Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QatarEnergy" title="QatarEnergy">QatarEnergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosneft" title="Rosneft">Rosneft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco" title="Saudi Aramco">Saudi Aramco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopec" title="Sinopec">Sinopec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOCAR" title="SOCAR">SOCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonangol_Group" title="Sonangol Group">Sonangol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonatrach" title="Sonatrach">Sonatrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPAO" title="TPAO">TPAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YPF" title="YPF">YPF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy trading">Energy trading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunvor" title="Gunvor">Gunvor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercuria" title="Mercuria">Mercuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trafigura" title="Trafigura">Trafigura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitol" title="Vitol">Vitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APA_Corporation" title="APA Corporation">APA Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenovus_Energy" title="Cenovus Energy">Cenovus Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cepsa" title="Cepsa">Cepsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConocoPhillips" title="ConocoPhillips">ConocoPhillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Energy" title="Devon Energy">Devon Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eneos_Holdings" title="Eneos Holdings">Eneos Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galp_Energia" title="Galp Energia">Galp Energia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess_Corporation" title="Hess Corporation">Hess Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lukoil" title="Lukoil">Lukoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Oil" title="Marathon Oil">Marathon Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum" title="Marathon Petroleum">Marathon Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OMV" title="OMV">OMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_66" title="Phillips 66">Phillips 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Harcourt_Refining_Company" title="Port Harcourt Refining Company">Port Harcourt Refining Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repsol" title="Repsol">Repsol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sunoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgutneftegas" title="Surgutneftegas">Surgutneftegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TechnipFMC" title="TechnipFMC">TechnipFMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNK-BP" title="TNK-BP">TNK-BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullow_Oil" title="Tullow Oil">Tullow Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCpra%C5%9F" title="Tüpraş">Tüpraş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valero_Energy" title="Valero Energy">Valero Energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oilfield_service_companies" title="List of oilfield service companies">services companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amec_Foster_Wheeler" title="Amec Foster Wheeler">Amec Foster Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Hughes" title="Baker Hughes">Baker Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameron_International" title="Cameron International">Cameron International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGG_(company)" title="CGG (company)">CGG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH2M" title="CH2M">CH2M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Bridge_%26_Iron_Company" title="Chicago Bridge & Iron Company">Chicago Bridge & Iron Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Oilfield_Services" title="China Oilfield Services">China Oilfield Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GE_Power" title="GE Power">GE Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halliburton" title="Halliburton">Halliburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabors_Industries" title="Nabors Industries">Nabors Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOV_Inc." title="NOV Inc.">NOV Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofac" title="Petrofac">Petrofac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saipem" title="Saipem">Saipem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlumberger" title="Schlumberger">Schlumberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snam" title="Snam">Snam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsea_7" title="Subsea 7">Subsea 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_Energy" title="TC Energy">TC Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transocean" title="Transocean">Transocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valaris_Limited" title="Valaris Limited">Valaris Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weatherford_International" title="Weatherford International">Weatherford International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wood_Group" title="John Wood Group">John Wood Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_petroleum_companies" title="Canadian petroleum companies">Canadian petroleum companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange_Futures" title="Intercontinental Exchange Futures">Intercontinental Exchange Futures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Oil_%26_Gas_Producers" title="International Association of Oil & Gas Producers">International Association of Oil & Gas Producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Engineers" title="Society of Petroleum Engineers">Society of Petroleum Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Petroleum_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Petroleum Council">World Petroleum Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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