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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parada_en_la_puerta_de_la_escuela" title="Parada en la puerta de la escuela – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Parada en la puerta de la escuela" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro_%C4%89e_la_lerneja_pordo" title="Staro ĉe la lerneja pordo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Staro ĉe la lerneja pordo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zutik_Eskolako_Atean" title="Zutik Eskolako Atean – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zutik Eskolako Atean" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parada_na_porta_da_escola" title="Parada na porta da escola – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parada na porta da escola" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D" title="സ്‌കൂൾവാതിൽക്കലെ നിൽപ്പ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്‌കൂൾവാതിൽക്കലെ നിൽപ്പ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Инцидент на входе в Университет Алабамы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Инцидент на входе в Университет Алабамы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Стајање на вратима школе – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стајање на вратима школе" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8C%A1%E6%A0%A1%E9%97%A8%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="挡校门事件 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="挡校门事件" data-language-autonym="中文" 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href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&params=33_12_29.2_N_87_32_38.4_W_region:US-AL_type:event"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">33°12′29.2″N</span> <span class="longitude">87°32′38.4″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">33.208111°N 87.544000°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">33.208111; -87.544000</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1963 protest against racial integration of schools in Alabama</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#eeeeee;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/305px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="305" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/458px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg/610px-Wallace_at_University_of_Alabama_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4046" data-file-height="2897" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Attempting to block integration at the University of Alabama, Governor of Alabama <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> stands at the door of <a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Foster Auditorium</a> while being confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Nicholas Katzenbach</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">June 11, 1963</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tuscaloosa,_Alabama" title="Tuscaloosa, Alabama">Tuscaloosa, Alabama</a></div><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&params=33_12_29.2_N_87_32_38.4_W_region:US-AL_type:event"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">33°12′29.2″N</span> <span class="longitude">87°32′38.4″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">33.208111°N 87.544000°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">33.208111; -87.544000</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Caused by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i>United States v. Wallace</i> (1963)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Resulted in</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a> register for classes at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> gains national attention</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">President Kennedy</a> delivers a <a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">Speech on Civil Rights</a> the same day</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Lead figures</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244901718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist infobox-columns infobox-columns-2 infobox-columns-text-left"> <div> <p><b>Students</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li></ul> <p><b>The White House</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, President</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a>, Attorney General</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Nicholas Katzenbach</a>, Deputy Attorney General</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_V._Graham" title="Henry V. Graham">Henry V. Graham</a>, Guard General</li></ul> </div> <div> <p><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, Governor </p> </div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_Rights_Movement_in_Alabama" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;float:right; clear:right; margin:0.2em 0 0.2em 0.5em; width:25.5em;font-size:90%; display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #CEE0F2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Template:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Template talk:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Special:EditPage/Template:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_Rights_Movement_in_Alabama" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama#Civil_Rights_Movement_and_redistricting,_1945–1975" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>State of Alabama</b> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alabama_Pupil_Placement_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alabama Pupil Placement Law (page does not exist)">Alabama Pupil Placement Law</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=NAACP_v._Patterson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NAACP v. Patterson (page does not exist)">NAACP v. Patterson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alabama" title="United States v. Alabama">United States v. Alabama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Original_Freedom_Rides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Original Freedom Rides (page does not exist)">Original Freedom Rides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">George Wallace's Inaugural Address</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Wallace">United States v. Wallace</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_v._Alabama_(1964)" title="Hamilton v. Alabama (1964)">Hamilton v. Alabama</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Birmingham</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombingham" title="Bombingham">Bombingham</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_bus_boycott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birmingham bus boycott (page does not exist)">Birmingham bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Bethel_Baptist_Church_bombing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Bethel Baptist Church bombing (page does not exist)">First Bethel Baptist Church bombing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shuttlesworth_v._Birmingham_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (page does not exist)">Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birmingham sit-ins (page does not exist)">Birmingham sit-ins</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Armstrong_v._Birmingham_Board_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education">Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bus bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham bus attack</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gober_v._City_of_Birmingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gober v. City of Birmingham (page does not exist)">Gober v. City of Birmingham</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=A.G._Gaston_Motel_and_A._D._King_residence_bombings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A.G. Gaston Motel and A. D. King residence bombings (page does not exist)">Gaston Motel and King residence bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot of 1963</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Johnny_Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Johnny Robinson">Shooting of Johnny Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil_Lamar_Ware" title="Virgil Lamar Ware">Murder of Virgil Lamar Ware</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuttlesworth_v._City_of_Birmingham" title="Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham">Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Montgomery</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Graetz_residence_bombing_(1956)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Graetz residence bombing (1956) (page does not exist)">Robert Graetz residence bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Luther_King_Jr._residence_bombing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Luther King Jr. residence bombing (page does not exist)">Martin Luther King Jr. residence bombing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilmore_v._City_of_Montgomery_(1959)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilmore v. City of Montgomery (1959) (page does not exist)">Gilmore v. City of Montgomery</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montgomery_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montgomery sit-ins (page does not exist)">Montgomery sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connecticut_Freedom_Ride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Connecticut Freedom Ride (page does not exist)">Connecticut Freedom Ride</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Montgomery_County_Board_of_Education" title="United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education">U.S. v. Montgomery County Board of Ed.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Young_Men%27s_Christian_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association (page does not exist)">Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilmore_v._City_of_Montgomery_(1974)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilmore v. City of Montgomery (1974) (page does not exist)">Gilmore v. City of Montgomery</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Selma</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">Murder of James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Murder of Viola Liuzzo</a></li></ul> <p><b>City of Tuscaloosa</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Alabama_desegregation_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Alabama desegregation crisis (page does not exist)">University of Alabama desegregation crisis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li></ul> <p><b>City of Tuskegee</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_merchant_boycott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee merchant boycott (page does not exist)">Tuskegee merchant boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alabama_Act_140&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alabama Act 140 (page does not exist)">Alabama Act 140</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee sit-ins (page does not exist)">Tuskegee sit-ins</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_High_School_desegregation_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee High School desegregation crisis (page does not exist)">Tuskegee High School desegregation crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Murder of Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lee_v._Macon_County_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lee v. Macon County Board of Education (page does not exist)">Lee v. Macon County Board of Education</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Other localities</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Murder of Willie Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">Murder of William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Brewster" title="Murder of Willie Brewster">Murder of Willie Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Murder of Jonathan Daniels</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</b> took place at <a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Foster Auditorium</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a> on June 11, 1963. In a symbolic attempt to keep his inaugural promise of "<a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever</a>" and stop the <a href="/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States" title="School integration in the United States">desegregation</a> of schools, <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, the Democratic <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of Alabama">Governor of Alabama</a>, stood at the door of the auditorium as if to block the way of the two African American students attempting to enter: <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-npr_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response, President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> issued <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_11111" class="extiw" title="s:Executive Order 11111">Executive Order 11111</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Federalization_of_the_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalization of the National Guard">federalized</a> the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_National_Guard" title="Alabama National Guard">Alabama National Guard</a>, and Guard General <a href="/wiki/Henry_V._Graham" title="Henry V. Graham">Henry V. Graham</a> then commanded Wallace to step aside.<sup id="cite_ref-george-wallace_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-george-wallace-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace spoke further, but eventually moved, and Malone and Hood completed their registration. The incident brought Wallace into the national spotlight.<sup id="cite_ref-adah_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adah-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></div> <p>On May 17, 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> handed down its decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, which held that the education of black children in separate public schools from their white counterparts violated the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. <i>Brown</i> meant that the University of Alabama had to be desegregated. In the years following, hundreds of African-Americans applied for admission, but with one brief exception,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all were denied. The university worked with police to find any disqualifying qualities, or when this failed, intimidated the applicants.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, in 1963, three African-Americans—<a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone Jones</a>, Dave McGlathery and <a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a>—applied. In early June <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_Alabama" title="United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama">federal district judge</a> <a href="/wiki/Seybourn_Harris_Lynne" title="Seybourn Harris Lynne">Seybourn H. Lynne</a> ordered that they be admitted,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and forbade Governor Wallace from interfering, but did not grant the request that Wallace be barred from the campus.<sup id="cite_ref-crmvet_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crmvet-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wallace privately signaled to the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy administration</a> his intention to avoid fomenting violence, such as had occurred in the September 1962 <a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Battle of Oxford</a> with the desegregation of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a>. The head of the Alabama State Police, <a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Lingo" title="Albert J. Lingo">Albert Lingo</a>, who reported directly to Wallace, warned leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> that their members would be arrested if they appeared in <a href="/wiki/Tuscaloosa,_Alabama" title="Tuscaloosa, Alabama">Tuscaloosa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Bull Connor</a>, the chief of <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Police_Department" title="Birmingham Police Department">Birmingham Police</a>, also told Klan members to spread word that Wallace wanted no crowds to gather in the town. And Wallace's speechwriter and top aide, <a href="/wiki/Asa_Earl_Carter" title="Asa Earl Carter">Asa Carter</a>, himself a top Klan official, personally visited <a href="/wiki/Edward_Reed_Fields" title="Edward Reed Fields">Edward R. Fields</a>, a leader of the <a href="/wiki/National_States%27_Rights_Party" title="National States' Rights Party">National States' Rights Party</a>, a white supremacist group, also to tell him to stay away from the event. But Wallace refused to talk directly to Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> when he called to learn of Wallace's plans.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the eve of the incident, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Justice Department</a> tried to discredit Wallace by leaking to a <i><a href="/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a></i> reporter the private health information that the Governor was receiving government payments related to a psychiatric disability suffered while flying in bombing missions over Japan during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Wallace confirmed the disability, but <i>Newsday</i> editors refused to run the story.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incident">Incident</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Incident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On June 11, Malone and Hood pre-registered in the morning at the Birmingham courthouse. They selected their courses and filled out all their forms there. They arrived at Foster Auditorium to have their course loads reviewed by advisors and pay their fees. Kennedy administration officials, struggling with a potentially violent situation, considered simply bypassing Foster Auditorium and having Malone and Hood escorted directly to their dorm rooms. But given reports of an agitated Wallace, Robert Kennedy told <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Attorney_General" title="United States Deputy Attorney General">Deputy Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Nicholas Katzenbach</a>, "You'd better give him his show because I'm concerned if he doesn't have it ... that God knows what could happen by way of violence."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:542px;max-width:542px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="margin-right:15px;width:243px;max-width:243px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:180px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Henry_Graham_saluting_Governor_George_Wallace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4d/General_Henry_Graham_saluting_Governor_George_Wallace.jpg" decoding="async" width="241" height="181" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="135" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Henry_V._Graham" title="Henry V. Graham">Henry Graham</a> salutes and then confronts <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:281px;max-width:281px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:180px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg/279px-Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg/419px-Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg/558px-Vivian_Malone_registering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4642" data-file-height="3014" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone Jones</a> arrives to register for classes at the University of Alabama's Foster Auditorium</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Administration officials also concluded the best optics would be to present the matter as a conflict between state and federal authority, not a racial confrontation between the white governor and the black students. Further, by keeping the students away from the doorway, the administration was not forced to charge Wallace with contempt of a federal court order. So it was that Malone and Hood remained in their vehicle as Wallace, attempting to uphold his promise as well as for political show,<sup id="cite_ref-crmvet_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crmvet-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> blocked the entrance to Foster Auditorium with the media watching. Then, flanked by federal marshals, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Katzenbach</a> told Wallace to step aside.<sup id="cite_ref-npr_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Wallace interrupted Katzenbach and gave a speech on <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crmvet_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crmvet-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Katzenbach called <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, who had previously issued a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_proclamation" title="Presidential proclamation">presidential proclamation</a> demanding that Wallace step aside, and told him of Wallace's actions in ignoring the proclamation as it had no legal force.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Willis_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willis-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Kennedy issued <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_11111" class="extiw" title="s:Executive Order 11111">Executive Order 11111</a>, which had already been prepared, authorizing the <a href="/wiki/Federalization_of_the_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalization of the National Guard">federalization</a> of the Alabama National Guard under the <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_Act_of_1807" title="Insurrection Act of 1807">Insurrection Act of 1807</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Willis_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willis-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four hours later, Guard General <a href="/wiki/Henry_V._Graham" title="Henry V. Graham">Henry Graham</a> commanded Wallace to step aside, saying, "Sir, it is my sad duty to ask you to step aside under the orders of the President of the United States." Wallace then spoke further, but eventually moved, and Malone and Hood completed their registration.<sup id="cite_ref-george-wallace_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-george-wallace-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the days following the enactment, the National Guard were ordered to remain on the campus owing to a large Ku Klux Klan contingent in the surrounding area. Wallace and Kennedy exchanged volatile telegrams over it.<sup id="cite_ref-tel_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tel-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace objected to Kennedy ordering the Guard to remain on the campus and said that Kennedy bore responsibility if something happened.<sup id="cite_ref-tel_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tel-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kennedy responded stating that Executive Order 11111 made it clear that responsibility for keeping the peace remained with the state troopers under Wallace's control and said he would revoke the order if assurances were made.<sup id="cite_ref-tel_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tel-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wallace refused, stating he would not be intimidated and cited that Executive Order 11111 was passed without his knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-tel_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tel-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Executive Order 11111 was also used to ensure that the Alabama National Guard made sure that black students across the state were able to enroll at previously all-white schools.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was complemented by Executive Order 11118, which provided "assistance for removal of unlawful obstructions of justice in the State of Alabama".<sup id="cite_ref-arc_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arc-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of June 2024, Executive Order 11111 has not been revoked.<sup id="cite_ref-arc_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arc-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stage managing of the incident did avoid provoking violence, but it also served Wallace's purposes by amplifying his contention that desegregation was not primarily an issue of racial justice, but one of "<a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>" instead.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The incident was detailed in <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew" title="Robert Drew">Robert Drew</a>'s 1963 documentary film <i><a href="/wiki/Crisis:_Behind_a_Presidential_Commitment" title="Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment">Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment</a></i>. The event was depicted in the 1994 film <i><a href="/wiki/Forrest_Gump" title="Forrest Gump">Forrest Gump</a></i>, in which Vivian Jones drops her books, which are retrieved by the titular character,<sup id="cite_ref-gump_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gump-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gump2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gump2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the 1997 television film <i><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace_(TV_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Wallace (TV film)">George Wallace</a></i>. </p><p>In June 2012, <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace_Jr." title="George Wallace Jr.">George Wallace Jr.</a> commented on his father's legacy, and mentioned the reference to the event in <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>'s 1964 song "<a href="/wiki/The_Times_They_Are_a-Changin%27_(song)" title="The Times They Are a-Changin' (song)">The Times They Are a-Changin'</a> ": "Come Senators, Congressmen, please heed the call. Don't stand in the doorway, don't block up the hall." The younger Wallace said that when he was 14, he sang the song for his father and thought he saw a look of regret in his father's eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">Report to the American People on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States" title="School integration in the United States">School integration in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In February 1956, <a href="/wiki/Autherine_Lucy" title="Autherine Lucy">Autherine Lucy</a> started classes under guard at UA as a graduate student after having been admitted three years earlier. Her presence was met with riots, and the administration found excuses first to suspend, and then expel her shortly after she enrolled.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-npr-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-npr_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-npr_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliot, Debbie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1294680">Wallace in the Schoolhouse Door</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101106030730/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1294680">Archived</a> November 6, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. June 11, 2003. Accessed February 19, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-george-wallace-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-george-wallace_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-george-wallace_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLesher1995" class="citation book cs1">Lesher, Stephan (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uzJ7-p31HRwC&pg=PA233"><i>George Wallace: American Populist</i></a>. Da Capo Press. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201407983" title="Special:BookSources/9780201407983"><bdi>9780201407983</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=George+Wallace%3A+American+Populist&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780201407983&rft.aulast=Lesher&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuzJ7-p31HRwC%26pg%3DPA233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adah-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-adah_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html">Governor George C. Wallace's School House Door Speech</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020806081029/http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html">Archived</a> August 6, 2002, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed February 19, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoe2015" class="citation web cs1">Joe (June 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arthurashe.pre.ss.ucla.edu/2015/06/11/the-stand-in-the-schoolhouse-door/">"The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door"</a>. <i>Arthur Ashe Legacy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611130705/https://pre.ss.ucla.edu/wp-signup.php?new=arthurashe">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arthur+Ashe+Legacy&rft.atitle=The+Stand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft.au=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farthurashe.pre.ss.ucla.edu%2F2015%2F06%2F11%2Fthe-stand-in-the-schoolhouse-door%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117073355/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3375">"Address on Civil Rights"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miller_Center_of_Public_Affairs" title="Miller Center of Public Affairs">Miller Center of Public Affairs</a>. June 11, 1963. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3375">the original</a> on January 17, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2013</span>. <q>This afternoon, following a series of threats and defiant statements, the presence of Alabama National Guardsmen was required on the University of Alabama to carry out the final and unequivocal order of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_Alabama" title="United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama">United States District Court of the Northern District of Alabama</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Address+on+Civil+Rights&rft.pub=Miller+Center+of+Public+Affairs&rft.date=1963-06-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fspeeches%2Fdetail%2F3375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crmvet-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crmvet_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">Standing In the Schoolhouse Door (June)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060449/http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963tuscaloosa">Archived</a> June 15, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement. Accessed February 19, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 139–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=139-141&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 142–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142-143&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Cohen2012" class="citation web cs1">Andrew Cohen (May 9, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/05/nicholas-katzenbach-unsung-hero-of-americas-desegregation/256957/">"Nicholas Katzenbach, Unsung Hero of America's Desegregation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Theatlantic.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatlantic.com">Theatlantic.com</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170803045434/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/05/nicholas-katzenbach-unsung-hero-of-americas-desegregation/256957/">Archived</a> from the original on August 3, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nicholas+Katzenbach%2C+Unsung+Hero+of+America%27s+Desegregation&rft.pub=Theatlantic.com&rft.date=2012-05-09&rft.au=Andrew+Cohen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fnational%2Farchive%2F2012%2F05%2Fnicholas-katzenbach-unsung-hero-of-americas-desegregation%2F256957%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2012" class="citation web cs1">Wallace, George C. (December 12, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020806081029/http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html">"Governor George C. Wallace's School House Door Speech"</a>. <i>Alabama Department of Archives and History</i>. Montgomery, Alabama. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html">the original</a> on August 6, 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alabama+Department+of+Archives+and+History&rft.atitle=Governor+George+C.+Wallace%27s+School+House+Door+Speech&rft.date=2012-12-12&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.state.al.us%2Fgovs_list%2Fschooldoor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shmoop.com/historical-texts/executive-order-10730-little-rock-nine/university-of-alabama-integration.html">"Executive Order 10730: Little Rock Nine: Integration of the University of Alabama"</a>. Shmoop<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Executive+Order+10730%3A+Little+Rock+Nine%3A+Integration+of+the+University+of+Alabama&rft.pub=Shmoop&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shmoop.com%2Fhistorical-texts%2Fexecutive-order-10730-little-rock-nine%2Funiversity-of-alabama-integration.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willis-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Willis_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Willis_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis2015" class="citation book cs1">Willis, Jim (2015). <i>1960s Counterculture: Documents Decoded: Documents Decoded</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610695237" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610695237"><bdi>978-1610695237</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1960s+Counterculture%3A+Documents+Decoded%3A+Documents+Decoded&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1610695237&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tel-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tel_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tel_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tel_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tel_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150930144218/http://www.archives.state.al.us/ahei/Dueling_Telegrams_1963_Verbal_Power_Play_Between_Wallace_and_JFK_Jan_2012.pdf">"Dueling Telegrams: 1963 verbal power play between Wallace and JFK"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Alabama State Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.state.al.us/ahei/Dueling_Telegrams_1963_Verbal_Power_Play_Between_Wallace_and_JFK_Jan_2012.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 30, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dueling+Telegrams%3A+1963+verbal+power+play+between+Wallace+and+JFK&rft.pub=Alabama+State+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.state.al.us%2Fahei%2FDueling_Telegrams_1963_Verbal_Power_Play_Between_Wallace_and_JFK_Jan_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.al.com/birmingham-news-stories/2013/09/kennedy_federalized_national_g.html">"Kennedy federalized National Guard to integrate Alabama public schools (Sept. 10, 1963)"</a>. AL.com. September 10, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611130652/https://www.al.com/birmingham-news-stories/2013/09/kennedy_federalized_national_g.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kennedy+federalized+National+Guard+to+integrate+Alabama+public+schools+%28Sept.+10%2C+1963%29&rft.pub=AL.com&rft.date=2013-09-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.al.com%2Fbirmingham-news-stories%2F2013%2F09%2Fkennedy_federalized_national_g.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arc-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arc_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arc_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1963-kennedy.html">"Executive Orders Disposition Tables"</a>. National Archives. August 15, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611130650/https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1963-kennedy.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 18,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Executive+Orders+Disposition+Tables&rft.pub=National+Archives&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffederal-register%2Fexecutive-orders%2F1963-kennedy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_General_Accounting_Office1965" class="citation book cs1">United States General Accounting Office (1965). <i>Decisions of the Comptroller General of the United States</i>. Vol. 43. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 296.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisions+of+the+Comptroller+General+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1965&rft.au=United+States+General+Accounting+Office&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1995" class="citation book cs1">Carter, Dan T. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924"><i>The politics of rage : George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80916-8"><bdi>0-684-80916-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">32739924</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512144744/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32739924">Archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+rage+%3A+George+Wallace%2C+the+origins+of+the+new+conservatism%2C+and+the+transformation+of+American+politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32739924&rft.isbn=0-684-80916-8&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Dan+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32739924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gump-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gump_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByers1996" class="citation journal cs1">Byers, Thomas (1996). "History Re-Membered: Forrest Gump, Postfeminist Masculinity, and the Burial of the Counterculture". <i>Modern Fiction Studies</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 419–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmfs.1995.0102">10.1353/mfs.1995.0102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161822250">161822250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Fiction+Studies&rft.atitle=History+Re-Membered%3A+Forrest+Gump%2C+Postfeminist+Masculinity%2C+and+the+Burial+of+the+Counterculture&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=419-44&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fmfs.1995.0102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161822250%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Byers&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gump2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gump2_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Grainge2003" class="citation book cs1">Paul Grainge (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4CONLVHWGUC&q=forrest+gump+wallace&pg=PA229"><i>Memory and Popular Film</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6375-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6375-6"><bdi>978-0-7190-6375-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240611130651/https://books.google.com/books?id=W4CONLVHWGUC&q=forrest+gump+wallace&pg=PA229#v=snippet&q=forrest%20gump%20wallace&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memory+and+Popular+Film&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-6375-6&rft.au=Paul+Grainge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW4CONLVHWGUC%26q%3Dforrest%2Bgump%2Bwallace%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><i>Behind the Magic of Forrest Gump: "George Wallace." in </i>Forrest Gump<i> special collector's edition</i> (DVD). 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Behind+the+Magic+of+Forrest+Gump%3A+%22George+Wallace.%22+in+Forrest+Gump+special+collector%27s+edition&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayson2012" class="citation news cs1">Grayson, Wayne (June 8, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181125073417/https://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/DA/20120608/News/605152896/TL/">"Son says former Gov. George Wallace repented for past"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tuscaloosa_News" title="The Tuscaloosa News">The Tuscaloosa News</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/20120608/NEWS/120609818?p=3&tc=pg&tc=ar">the original</a> on November 25, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Tuscaloosa+News&rft.atitle=Son+says+former+Gov.+George+Wallace+repented+for+past&rft.date=2012-06-08&rft.aulast=Grayson&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuscaloosanews.com%2Farticle%2F20120608%2FNEWS%2F120609818%3Fp%3D3%26tc%3Dpg%26tc%3Dar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStand+in+the+Schoolhouse+Door" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door_Speech" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px; margin-top: 4px;"><i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door_Speech" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door Speech">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door Speech</a></b></i></div><div style="margin-left: 10px; margin-top: 4px;"><i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_11111" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Executive Order 11111">Executive Order 11111</a></b></i></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Sarah Melton, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://southernspaces.org/2009/sleight-history-university-alabamas-foster-auditorium/">"A Sleight of History: University of Alabama's Foster Auditorium"</a>, <i>Southern Spaces</i>, October 15, 2009.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090621065539/http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3375">JFK Address on Civil Rights (June 11, 1963)</a></li> <li><i>The Crimson-white</i> (University of Alabama student newspaper), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdm17336.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/u0002_0000007/id/7047">June 9, 1963</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdm17336.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/u0002_0000007/id/7560">June 13, 1963</a>, W. S. Hoole Special Collections Library.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_Wallace" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_Wallace" title="Template:George Wallace"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_Wallace" title="Template talk:George Wallace"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_Wallace" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George Wallace"><abbr title="Edit this 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gubernatorial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1962_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1962 Alabama gubernatorial election">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1970 Alabama gubernatorial election">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1974 Alabama gubernatorial election">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1982 Alabama gubernatorial election">1982</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1964 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace_1968_presidential_campaign" title="George Wallace 1968 presidential campaign">1968 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1972 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1976 presidential campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">1963 Inaugural Address</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Foster Auditorium</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crisis:_Behind_a_Presidential_Commitment" title="Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment">Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment</a></i> (1963 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Independent_Party" title="American Independent Party">American Independent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bremer" title="Arthur Bremer">Arthur Bremer</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Assassin%27s_Diary" title="An Assassin's Diary">An Assassin's Diary</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace_(film)" title="George Wallace (film)">George Wallace</a></i> (1997 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace_Tunnel" title="George Wallace Tunnel">George Wallace Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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Kennedy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">35th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1961–1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States senators from Massachusetts">U.S. Senator from Massachusetts</a> (1953–1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States representatives from Massachusetts">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_11th_congressional_district" title="Massachusetts's 11th congressional district">MA–11</a> (1947–1953)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Inauguration of John F. Kennedy">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy#Administration,_Cabinet,_and_judicial_appointments_1961–63" title="John F. Kennedy">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of federal judges appointed by John F. Kennedy">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:John Fitzgerald Kennedy/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:John Fitzgerald Kennedy/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_or_granted_clemency_by_the_President_of_the_United_States#John_F._Kennedy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States">Presidential pardons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS-100-X" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-100-X">Presidential limousine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S/Y_Manitou" class="mw-redirect" title="S/Y Manitou">Presidential yacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resolute_desk" title="Resolute desk"><i>Resolute</i> desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_Room" title="Situation Room">Situation Room</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_administration" title="Foreign policy of the John F. 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Assistance Act">Migration and Refugee Assistance Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">USAID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War#The_Kennedy_years,_1961–63" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li>Cuba: <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban Project">Cuban Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EXCOMM" title="EXCOMM">ExComm</a></li></ul></li> <li>Soviet Union: <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow%E2%80%93Washington_hotline" title="Moscow–Washington hotline">Moscow–Washington hotline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_summit" title="Vienna summit">Vienna summit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Satellite_Act_of_1962" title="Communications Satellite Act of 1962">Communications Satellite Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Mental_Health_Act" title="Community Mental Health Act">Community Mental Health Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11110" title="Executive Order 11110">Executive Order 11110</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10925" title="Executive Order 10925">Federal affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11063" title="Executive Order 11063">Federal housing segregation ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_march" title="Kennedy march">Fifty-mile hikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_for_Peace" title="Food for Peace">Food for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program#Pilot_Food_Stamp_Program_(1961–1964)" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">Pilot Food Stamp Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Kennedy_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Space policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Status of Women (Presidential Commission)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">University of Alabama integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-Channel_Receiver_Act" title="All-Channel Receiver Act">All-Channel Receiver Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_Pollution_Act_of_1961" title="Oil Pollution Act of 1961">Oil Pollution Act of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1962" title="Revenue Act of 1962">Revenue Act of 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Farm_and_Rural_Development_Act_of_1961" title="Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961">Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetlands_Loan_Act" title="Wetlands Loan Act">Wetlands Loan Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/90px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/135px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg/180px-John_F._Kennedy%2C_White_House_photo_portrait%2C_looking_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="970" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential<br />speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_F._Kennedy#The_inaugural_address" title="Inauguration of John F. Kennedy">Inaugural address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_University_speech" title="American University speech">American University speech</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon" title="We choose to go to the Moon">We choose to go to the Moon</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">Report to the American People on Civil Rights</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_rising_tide_lifts_all_boats" title="A rising tide lifts all boats">A rising tide lifts all boats</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remarks_at_Amherst_College_on_the_Arts" title="Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts">Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/January_30,_1961_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 30, 1961 State of the Union Address">1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1962 State of the Union Address">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1963 State of the Union Address">1963</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Electoral history of John F. Kennedy">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>U.S. House of Representatives elections: <a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1946 United States House of Representatives elections">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1948 United States House of Representatives elections">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1950 United States House of Representatives elections">1950</a></li> <li>U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1952 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1958 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries">1960 presidential primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_1960_presidential_campaign" title="John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign">1960 presidential campaign</a></li> <li>Democratic National Conventions: <a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">U.S. presidential election 1960</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1960 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_National_Historic_Site" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site">Birthplace and childhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Compound" title="Kennedy Compound">Kennedy Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hickory_Hill_(McLean,_Virginia)" title="Hickory Hill (McLean, Virginia)">Hickory Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Querida_(mansion)" title="La Querida (mansion)">La Querida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wexford_(Marshall,_Virginia)" title="Wexford (Marshall, Virginia)">Wexford</a></li> <li>Navy service: <a href="/wiki/Patrol_torpedo_boat_PT-109" title="Patrol torpedo boat PT-109"><i>PT-109</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biuku_Gasa_and_Eroni_Kumana" title="Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana">Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Reginald_Evans" title="Arthur Reginald Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_torpedo_boat_PT-59" title="Patrol torpedo boat PT-59"><i>PT-59</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hot_Springs_(Arizona)" title="Castle Hot Springs (Arizona)">Castle Hot Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammersmith_Farm" title="Hammersmith Farm">Hammersmith Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King#John_F._Kennedy_phone_call" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King phone call</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday,_Mr._President" title="Happy Birthday, Mr. President">Happy Birthday, Mr. President</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_document_hoax" title="John F. Kennedy document hoax">John F. Kennedy document hoax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Why_England_Slept" title="Why England Slept"><i>Why England Slept</i> <small>(1940)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage" title="Profiles in Courage"><i>Profiles in Courage</i> <small>(1956)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Nation_of_Immigrants" title="A Nation of Immigrants"><i>A Nation of Immigrants</i> <small>(1958)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Death</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_assassination" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Media coverage of the assassination of John F. Kennedy">media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Reactions to the assassination of John F. Kennedy">reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy_in_popular_culture" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture">in popular culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_funeral_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="State funeral of John F. Kennedy">State funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jack_(horse)" title="Black Jack (horse)">Riderless horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dignitaries_at_the_state_funeral_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of dignitaries at the state funeral of John F. Kennedy">attending dignitaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Eternal_Flame" title="John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame">Gravesite and Eternal Flame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Bibliography of John F. Kennedy">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum">John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Profile_in_Courage_Award" title="Profile in Courage Award">Profile in Courage Award</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11 Moon landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Round" title="Kennedy Round">Kennedy Round</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AmeriCorps_VISTA" title="AmeriCorps VISTA">VISTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy">Cultural depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_John_F._Kennedy" title="Category:Films about John F. Kennedy">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_half_dollar" title="Kennedy half dollar">Kennedy half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_cents_John_Kennedy" title="Five cents John Kennedy">U.S. five cent stamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Kennedy_coincidences_urban_legend" title="Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend">Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sail" title="Operation Sail">Operation Sail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_F._Kennedy" title="List of things named after John F. Kennedy">Memorials,<br />namesakes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School" title="Harvard Kennedy School">Harvard Kennedy School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts">Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Federal_Building" title="John F. Kennedy Federal Building">John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">John F. Kennedy International Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_John_F._Kennedy_(Boston)" title="Statue of John F. Kennedy (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_(Brooklyn)" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial (Brooklyn)">Brooklyn bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_Memorial" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial">Dallas memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_(Hyannis,_Massachusetts)" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial (Hyannis, Massachusetts)">Hyannis memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial,_London" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial, London">London bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_John_F._Kennedy_(Nashua,_New_Hampshire)" title="Bust of John F. Kennedy (Nashua, New Hampshire)">Nashua bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fitzgerald_Kennedy_Memorial_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial (Portland, Oregon)">Portland memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runnymede#John_F._Kennedy_Memorial" title="Runnymede">Runnymede memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Arboretum" title="John F. Kennedy Arboretum">John F. Kennedy Arboretum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Memorial_Bridge" title="John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge">John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Special_Warfare_Center_and_School" title="John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School">John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_University" title="John F. Kennedy University">John F. Kennedy University (defunct)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Stadium_(Philadelphia)" title="John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)">John F. Kennedy Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Expressway" title="Kennedy Expressway">Kennedy Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Kennedy" title="Mount Kennedy">Mount Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MV_John_F._Kennedy" title="MV John F. Kennedy">MV <i>John F. Kennedy</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_F._Kennedy_(CV-67)" title="USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)">USS <i>John F. Kennedy</i> (CV-67)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_F._Kennedy_(CVN-79)" title="USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79)">USS <i>John F. Kennedy</i> (CVN-79)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Kennedy" title="Yad Kennedy">Yad Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy_Onassis" title="Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis">Jacqueline Bouvier</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Kennedy" title="Caroline Kennedy">Caroline Kennedy</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="John F. Kennedy Jr.">John F. Kennedy Jr.</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bouvier_Kennedy" title="Patrick Bouvier Kennedy">Patrick Bouvier Kennedy</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Schlossberg" title="Rose Schlossberg">Rose Schlossberg</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatiana_Schlossberg" title="Tatiana Schlossberg">Tatiana Schlossberg</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Schlossberg" title="Jack Schlossberg">Jack Schlossberg</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Sr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.">Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Kennedy" title="Rose Kennedy">Rose Fitzgerald</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Jr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.">Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Kennedy" title="Rosemary Kennedy">Rosemary Kennedy</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cavendish,_Marchioness_of_Hartington" title="Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington">Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunice_Kennedy_Shriver" title="Eunice Kennedy Shriver">Eunice Kennedy Shriver</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Kennedy_Lawford" title="Patricia Kennedy Lawford">Patricia Kennedy Lawford</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Kennedy_Smith" title="Jean Kennedy Smith">Jean Kennedy Smith</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kennedy" title="Ted Kennedy">Ted Kennedy</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._J._Kennedy" title="P. J. Kennedy">P. J. Kennedy</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Fitzgerald" title="John F. Fitzgerald">John F. Fitzgerald</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushinka" title="Pushinka">Pushinka</a> (dog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billie_and_Debbie" title="Billie and Debbie">Billie and Debbie</a> (hamsters)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardar_(horse)" title="Sardar (horse)">Sardar</a> (horse)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">← Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:John_F._Kennedy" title="Category:John F. Kennedy">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="University_of_Alabama" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:University_of_Alabama" title="Template:University of Alabama"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#FFFFFF">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:University_of_Alabama" title="Template talk:University of Alabama"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#FFFFFF">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:University_of_Alabama" title="Special:EditPage/Template:University of Alabama"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#FFFFFF">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="University_of_Alabama" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">University of Alabama</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;"><div><b>Located in</b>: <a href="/wiki/Tuscaloosa,_Alabama" title="Tuscaloosa, Alabama"><span style="color:white">Tuscaloosa, Alabama</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_College_of_Communication_and_Information_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Alabama College of Communication and Information Sciences">College of Communication and Information Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_School_of_Law" title="University of Alabama School of Law">School of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_School_of_Medicine#Tuscaloosa" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Alabama School of Medicine"> College of Community Health Sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Top of the Denny Chimes bell tower." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG/125px-Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG" decoding="async" width="125" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG/188px-Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG/250px-Denny_Chimes_Tower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="2375" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Alabama_people" title="List of University of Alabama people"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">People</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bear_Bryant" title="Bear Bryant">Bear Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Denny" title="George H. Denny">George H. Denny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Gayle_Gorgas" title="Amelia Gayle Gorgas">Amelia Gayle Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autherine_Lucy" title="Autherine Lucy">Autherine Lucy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivian Malone">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Tutwiler" title="Julia Tutwiler">Julia Tutwiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_University_of_Alabama" title="Presidents of the University of Alabama">Presidents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%">Campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Arboretum" title="University of Alabama Arboretum">Arboretum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Archaeological Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Auditorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denny_Chimes" title="Denny Chimes">Chimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_Hall_of_Fame" title="Insurance Hall of Fame">Insurance Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Alabama Museum of Natural History">Museum of Natural History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Observatory" title="University of Alabama Observatory">New Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_University_of_Alabama_Observatory" title="Old University of Alabama Observatory">Old Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Bryant_Museum" title="Paul W. Bryant Museum">Paul W. Bryant Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Mansion_(University_of_Alabama)" title="President's Mansion (University of Alabama)">President's Mansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Quad" title="University of Alabama Quad">The Quad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strode_House" title="Strode House">Strode House</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide" title="Alabama Crimson Tide"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Athletics</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football" title="Alabama Crimson Tide football">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_men%27s_basketball" title="Alabama Crimson Tide men's basketball">Men's basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_baseball" title="Alabama Crimson Tide baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_golf" title="Alabama Crimson Tide golf">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_women%27s_gymnastics" title="Alabama Crimson Tide women's gymnastics">Gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_women%27s_soccer" title="Alabama Crimson Tide women's soccer">Soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_softball" title="Alabama Crimson Tide softball">Softball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_women%27s_volleyball" title="Alabama Crimson Tide women's volleyball">Volleyball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_women%27s_basketball" title="Alabama Crimson Tide women's basketball">Women's basketball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;">Facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Soccer_Stadium" title="Alabama Soccer Stadium">Alabama Soccer Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryant%E2%80%93Denny_Stadium" title="Bryant–Denny Stadium">Bryant–Denny Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleman_Coliseum" title="Coleman Coliseum">Coleman Coliseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Auditorium" title="Foster Auditorium">Foster Auditorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoads_Stadium" title="Rhoads Stadium">Rhoads Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewell%E2%80%93Thomas_Stadium" title="Sewell–Thomas Stadium">Sewell–Thomas Stadium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_University_of_Alabama" title="History of the University of Alabama">Timeline</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trustees_of_the_University_of_Alabama_v._Garrett" title="Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett">Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgas%E2%80%93Manly_Historic_District" title="Gorgas–Manly Historic District">Historic District</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crisis:_Behind_a_Presidential_Commitment" title="Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment">1963 documentary</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bishop_v._Aronov" title="Bishop v. Aronov">Bishop v. Aronov</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Public_Radio" title="Alabama Public Radio">Alabama Public Radio</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bear_Bryant_Show" title="The Bear Bryant Show">The Bear Bryant Show</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimson_Tide_Sports_Network" title="Crimson Tide Sports Network">Crimson Tide Sports Network</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Crimson_White" title="The Crimson White">The Crimson White</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Press" title="University of Alabama Press">University of Alabama Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WVUA-FM" title="WVUA-FM">WVUA-FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WVUA-CD" title="WVUA-CD">WVUA-CD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Al_(mascot)" title="Big Al (mascot)">Big Al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Public_Safety" title="Center for Advanced Public Safety">Center for Advanced Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimsonettes" title="Crimsonettes">Crimsonettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrimsonRide" title="CrimsonRide">CrimsonRide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Machine_(social_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Machine (social group)">"The Machine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Dollar_Band_(marching_band)" title="Million Dollar Band (marching band)">Million Dollar Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_traditions" title="University of Alabama traditions">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_System" title="University of Alabama System">University of Alabama System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#9E1B32; color:#FFFFFF; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #828A8F, inset -2px -2px 0 #828A8F;"><div> <ul><li><b>Endowment</b>: $631.95 million</li> <li><b>Students</b>: 37,100</li> <li><b>Faculty</b>: 1,175</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output 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