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Argentina</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Azurix_Corp_v._Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biwater_Gauff_Ltd_v._Tanzania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biwater_Gauff_Ltd_v._Tanzania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span><i>Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biwater_Gauff_Ltd_v._Tanzania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_water_in_domestic_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_water_in_domestic_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Right to water in domestic law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Right_to_water_in_domestic_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Right to water in domestic law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Right_to_water_in_domestic_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Residents_of_Bon_Vista_Mansions_v._Southern_Metropolitan_Local_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Residents_of_Bon_Vista_Mansions_v._Southern_Metropolitan_Local_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span><i>Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Residents_of_Bon_Vista_Mansions_v._Southern_Metropolitan_Local_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mazibuko_v._City_of_Johannesburg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mazibuko_v._City_of_Johannesburg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span><i>Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mazibuko_v._City_of_Johannesburg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delhi_Water_Supply_v._State_of_Haryana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delhi_Water_Supply_v._State_of_Haryana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span><i>Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delhi_Water_Supply_v._State_of_Haryana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subhash_Kumar_v._State_of_Bihar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subhash_Kumar_v._State_of_Bihar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span><i>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subhash_Kumar_v._State_of_Bihar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_Rights_to_Water_Day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Rights_to_Water_Day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>World Rights to Water Day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Rights_to_Water_Day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Standing_Rock_Sioux_Tribe_v._United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standing_Rock_Sioux_Tribe_v._United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span><i>Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standing_Rock_Sioux_Tribe_v._United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remaining_discussions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remaining_discussions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Remaining discussions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Remaining_discussions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Remaining discussions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Remaining_discussions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transboundary_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transboundary_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Transboundary effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transboundary_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_Dispute_Between_India_and_Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_Dispute_Between_India_and_Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_Dispute_Between_India_and_Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_commercialization_versus_state_provision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_commercialization_versus_state_provision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Water commercialization versus state provision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_commercialization_versus_state_provision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organizations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Nations_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>United Nations organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governmental_cooperation_agencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governmental_cooperation_agencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Governmental cooperation agencies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governmental_cooperation_agencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_non-governmental_organizations_and_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_non-governmental_organizations_and_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>International non-governmental organizations and networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_non-governmental_organizations_and_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human right to water and sanitation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="حق الإنسان في المياه والصرف الصحي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حق الإنسان في المياه والصرف الصحي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%83%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="পানি ও পয়ঃনিষ্কাশনের মানবাধিকার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পানি ও পয়ঃনিষ্কাশনের মানবাধিকার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karapatan_pantawo_sa_tubig_asin_sanitasyon" title="Karapatan pantawo sa tubig asin sanitasyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Karapatan pantawo sa tubig asin sanitasyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawl_dynol_i_dd%C5%B5r_a_glanweithdra" title="Hawl dynol i ddŵr a glanweithdra – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hawl dynol i ddŵr a glanweithdra" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Human right to water and sanitation" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht_auf_Zugang_zu_sauberem_Wasser" title="Recht auf Zugang zu sauberem Wasser – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Recht auf Zugang zu sauberem Wasser" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8C_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE" title="Δικαίωμα στο νερό και την υγιεινή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δικαίωμα στο νερό και την υγιεινή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_al_agua_y_al_saneamiento" title="Derecho al agua y al saneamiento – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho al agua y al saneamiento" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ura_eta_saneamendurako_giza_eskubidea" title="Ura eta saneamendurako giza eskubidea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ura eta saneamendurako giza eskubidea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%A2%D8%A8_%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="حق بشری دسترسی به آب و پساب‌زدایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حق بشری دسترسی به آب و پساب‌زدایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_%C3%A0_l%27eau" title="Droit à l'eau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit à l'eau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceart_an_duine_ar_uisce_agus_sl%C3%A1int%C3%ADocht" title="Ceart an duine ar uisce agus sláintíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceart an duine ar uisce agus sláintíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereito_%C3%A1_auga_e_o_saneamento" title="Dereito á auga e o saneamento – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dereito á auga e o saneamento" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikike_mmad%E1%BB%A5_nwere_mmiri_na_idebe_ihe_%E1%BB%8Dcha" title="Ikike mmadụ nwere mmiri na idebe ihe ọcha – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ikike mmadụ nwere mmiri na idebe ihe ọcha" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hak_atas_air" title="Hak atas air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hak atas air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_all%27acqua" title="Diritto all'acqua – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto all'acqua" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haki_ya_kuwa_na_maji_na_mazingira_salama" title="Haki ya kuwa na maji na mazingira salama – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Haki ya kuwa na maji na mazingira salama" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="വെള്ളത്തിനും ശുചീകരണത്തിനുമുള്ള മനുഷ്യാവകാശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വെള്ളത്തിനും ശുചീകരണത്തിനുമുള്ള മനുഷ്യാവകാശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="पाण्याचा अधिकार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पाण्याचा अधिकार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1_%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%A1_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A8_%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A2%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%90%EA%AF%AA%EA%AF%90%EA%AF%9D_%EA%AF%8A%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9B%EA%AF%84" title="ꯏꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯂꯨ ꯅꯥꯟꯕꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯑꯣꯢꯕꯒꯤ ꯐꯪꯐꯝ ꯊꯣꯛꯄ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯏꯁꯤꯡ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯂꯨ ꯅꯥꯟꯕꯒꯤ ꯃꯤꯑꯣꯢꯕꯒꯤ ꯐꯪꯐꯝ ꯊꯣꯛꯄ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%85%DA%9A%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%87_%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D9%82" title="د څښاک پاکو اوبو او د ناپاکو اوبو د ویستلو سیستم ته د لاسرسي بشري حق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د څښاک پاکو اوبو او د ناپاکو اوبو د ویستلو سیستم ته د لاسرسي بشري حق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_humano_%C3%A0_%C3%A1gua_e_ao_saneamento" title="Direito humano à água e ao saneamento – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito humano à água e ao saneamento" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokwan_a_nnipa_w%C9%94_s%C9%9B_wonya_nsu_ne_ahotew_(Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation)" title="Hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew (Human right to water and sanitation) – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Hokwan a nnipa wɔ sɛ wonya nsu ne ahotew (Human right to water and sanitation)" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8E" title="Право людини на воду та санітарію – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Право людини на воду та санітарію" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%82" title="پانی اور صفائی کا انسانی حق – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پانی اور صفائی کا انسانی حق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AB%E6%9C%89%E9%A5%AE%E6%B0%B4%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%AB%E7%94%9F%E8%AE%BE%E6%96%BD%E7%9A%84%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83" title="享有饮水和卫生设施的人权 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="享有饮水和卫生设施的人权" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_repair" title="Right to repair">Repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Self defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination of people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water and sanitation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rights" title="Template:Rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rights" title="Template talk:Rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanitation_work_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sanitation_work_3.jpg/220px-Sanitation_work_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sanitation_work_3.jpg/330px-Sanitation_work_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sanitation_work_3.jpg/440px-Sanitation_work_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>people sanitizing the environment in Nigeria</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>human right to water and sanitation</b> (<b>HRWS</b>) is a principle stating that clean <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> are a universal <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human right</a> because of their high importance in sustaining every person's life.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was recognized as a human right by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> on 28 July 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-HRWS_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HRWS-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The HRWS has been recognized in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> through <a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">human rights treaties</a>, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have based an argument for the existence of a universal human right to water on grounds independent of the 2010 General Assembly resolution, such as Article 11.1 of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> (ICESCR); among those commentators, those who accept the existence of international <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_cogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius cogens">ius cogens</a></i> and consider it to include the Covenant's provisions hold that such a right is a universally binding principle of international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_Against_Women" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women</a> (CEDAW) and the 1989 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a> (CRC). </p><p>The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">right to an adequate standard of living</a>, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the <a href="/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Human Rights Council">UN Human Rights Council</a> in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They stated that there was aman right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly Resolution 64/292 reasserted the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that General Assembly, it stated that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General Assembly Resolution 64/292's assertion of a free human right of access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation raises issues regarding governmental rights to control and responsibilities for securing that water and sanitation. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a> has stated that broad recognition of the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services will promote wide expansion of the achievement of a healthy and fulfilling life.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The HRWS obliges governments to ensure that people can enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Affordability of water considers the extent to which the cost of water becomes inhibitive such that it requires one to sacrifice access to other essential goods and services.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, a rule of thumb for the affordability of water is that it should not surpass 3–5% of households' income.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accessibility of water considers the time taken, convenience in reaching the source and risks involved while getting to the source of water.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water must be accessible to every citizen, meaning that water should not be further than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet and must be within 30 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Availability of water considers whether the supply of water is available in adequate amounts, reliable and sustainable.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quality of water considers whether water is safe for consumption, including for drinking or other activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For acceptability of water, it must not have any odor and should not consist of any color.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_context">International context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: International context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a>/<a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> <a href="/wiki/Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation" title="Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation">Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</a> reported that 663 million people did not have access to improved sources of <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> and more than 2.4 billion people lacked access to basic <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> services in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-JMP_report_2013_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMP_report_2013-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Access to clean water is a major problem for many parts of the world. Acceptable sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections."<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although 9 percent of the global population lacks access to water, there are "regions particularly delayed, such as Sub-Saharan Africa".<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UN further emphasizes that "about 1.5 million children under the age of five die each year and 443 million school days are lost because of water- and sanitation-related diseases."<sup id="cite_ref-ref2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, over 2 billion people, 25% of the world's population, lacked consistent access to clean drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 4.2 billion lacked access to safe sanitation services. <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2024, new estimates are much higher, with 4.4 billion people in low- and middle-income countries lacking access to safe household drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_foundations_and_recognition">Legal foundations and recognition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Legal foundations and recognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/ICESCR" class="mw-redirect" title="ICESCR">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> (ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration on Human Rights</a> (UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation. </p> <ul><li>The 1979 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_Against_Women" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women</a> (CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right: ... (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The 1989 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a> (CRC) has Article 24 that provides that "parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health ... 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia... the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water..."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The 2006 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_Persons_with_Disabilities" title="Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> (CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that "parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>"The International Bill of Human Rights"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor <a href="/wiki/Stephen_McCaffrey" title="Stephen McCaffrey">Stephen McCaffrey</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Pacific_(United_States)" title="University of the Pacific (United States)">University of the Pacific</a> in 1992<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Dr. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gleick" title="Peter Gleick">Peter Gleick</a> in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-pacinst.org_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacinst.org-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McCaffrey stated that "Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a>, or most fundamentally, the right to life.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gleick added: "that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice."<sup id="cite_ref-pacinst.org_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacinst.org-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The UN <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> (CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was found that, the right to water was an implicitly part of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">right to an adequate standard of living</a> and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It defines that "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom;<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Netherlands<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) after publication of General Comment 15. </p><p>A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN <a href="/wiki/Sub-Commission_on_the_Promotion_and_Protection_of_Human_Rights" title="Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights">Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights</a> which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These guidelines led the UN <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Council">Human Rights Council</a> to assign <a href="/wiki/Catarina_de_Albuquerque" title="Catarina de Albuquerque">Catarina de Albuquerque</a> as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged "the Human Right to Water and Sanitation" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100 liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes)."<sup id="cite_ref-ref2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights".<sup id="cite_ref-ref2_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">right to an adequate standard of living</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mandate of <a href="/wiki/Catarina_de_Albuquerque" title="Catarina de Albuquerque">Catarina de Albuquerque</a> as "Independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation" was extended and renamed as "Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation" after the resolutions in 2010. Through her reports to the Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly, she continued clarifying the scope and content of the human right to water and sanitation. As Special Rapporteur, she addressed issues such as: Human Rights Obligations Related to Non-State Service Provision in Water and Sanitation (2010);<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Financing for the Realization of the Rights to Water and Sanitation (2011);<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wastewater management in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013);<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Léo Heller was appointed in 2014 to be the second Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. </p><p>Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of "The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It recognized the distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_jurisprudence">International jurisprudence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: International jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights">Inter-American Court of Human Rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Inter-American Court of Human Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The right to water has been considered in the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="Inter-American Court of Human Rights">Inter-American Court of Human Rights</a> case of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sawhoyamaxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawhoyamaxa">Sawhoyamaxa</a> Indigenous Community v. Paraguay</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-para_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-para-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services.<sup id="cite_ref-para_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-para-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fell within the scope of the <a href="/wiki/American_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="American Convention on Human Rights">American Convention on Human Rights</a>; encroaching the right to life.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Centre_for_Settlement_of_Investment_Disputes">International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (<a href="/wiki/International_Centre_for_Settlement_of_Investment_Disputes" title="International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes">ICSID</a>) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World Bank data shows that <a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">water privatization</a> spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Azurix_Corp_v._Argentina"><i>Azurix Corp v. Argentina</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Azurix Corp v. Argentina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first notable case regarding the right to water in the ICSID is that of <i>Azurix Corp v. Argentina</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dispute was between the <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentine Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azurix" title="Azurix">Azurix Corporation</a> regarding discrepancies arising from a 30-year contract between the parties to operate the water supply of various provinces. A consideration in regard to the right to water is implicitly made during the arbitration for compensation, where it was held that Azurix was entitled to a fair return on the market value of the investment. This was rather than the requested US$438.6 million, citing that a reasonable business person could not expect such a return, given the limits of water price increases and improvements that would be required to ensure a well-functioning, clean water system.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biwater_Gauff_Ltd_v._Tanzania"><i>Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secondly, a similar case encountered by the ICSID is that of <i>Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was again a case of a private water company in a contractual dispute with a government, this time the United Republic of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>. This contract was for the operation and management of the Dar es Salaam water system. In May 2005, the Tanzania government ended the contract with Biwater Gauff for its alleged failure to meet performance guarantees. In July 2008, the Tribunal issued its decision on the case, declaring that the Tanzania government had violated the agreement with Biwater Gauff.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It did not however award monetary damages to Biwater,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> acknowledging that public interest concerns were paramount in the dispute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Right_to_water_in_domestic_law">Right to water in domestic law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Right to water in domestic law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights (<a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">ESCR</a>) through one of two means: as "directive principles" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_(2941731238).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg/220px-Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg/330px-Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg/440px-Communal_tap_for_drinking_water_%282941731238%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A group of people gathering around a communal tap in Johannesburg, South Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, the right to water is enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">constitution</a> and implemented by ordinary statutes. This is evidence of a slight modification of the second technique of constitutionalisation referred to as the "subsidiary legislation model". This means that a large portion of the content and implementation of the right is done an ordinary domestic statute with some constitutional standing.<sup id="cite_ref-kaupapature.org.nz_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaupapature.org.nz-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Residents_of_Bon_Vista_Mansions_v._Southern_Metropolitan_Local_Council"><i>Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first notable case in which the courts did so was the <i>Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case was brought by residents of a block of flats (Bon Vista Mansions), following the disconnection of the water supply by the local Council, resulting from the failure to pay water charges. The court held that in adherence to the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Constitution">South African Constitution</a>, that constitutionally all persons ought to have access to water as a right.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any encroaching measures.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the "fair and reasonable" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mazibuko_v._City_of_Johannesburg"><i>Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mazibuko_v_City_of_Johannesburg" title="Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg">Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg</a></div> <p>The quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in <i><a href="/wiki/Mazibuko_v_City_of_Johannesburg" title="Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg">Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues: whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful. It was held in the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_South_Africa" title="High Court of South Africa">High Court</a> that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Witwatersrand" title="University of the Witwatersrand">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in Johannesburg, South Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Institute" title="Pacific Institute">Pacific Institute</a> in Oakland, California, shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The big respondents took the case to the Supreme Court of Appeal (<a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Appeal_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa">SCA</a>) which held that the city's water policy had been formulated based upon a material error of law in regards to the city's obligation to provide the minimum set in the South African National Standard, therefore it was set aside.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court also held the quantity for dignified human existence in compliance with section 27 of the constitution was in fact 42 litres per person per day rather than 50 litres per person per day. The SCA declared that the installation of water meters was illegal, but suspended the order for two years to give the city an opportunity to rectify the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issues went further to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_South_Africa" title="Constitutional Court of South Africa">Constitutional Court</a>, which held that the duty created by the constitution required that the state take reasonable legislative and other measures progressively to realise the achievement of the right to access of water, within its available resource. The Constitutional Court also held that it is a matter for the legislature and executive institution of government to act within the allowance of their budgets and that the scrutiny of their programs is a matter of democratic <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a>. Therefore, the minimum content set out by the regulation 3(b) is constitutional, rendering the bodies to deviate upwards and further it is inappropriate for a court to determine the achievement of any social and economic right the government has taken steps to implement.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The courts had instead focused their inquiry on whether the steps taken by Government are reasonable, and whether the Government subjects its policies to regular review.<sup id="cite_ref-kaupapature.org.nz_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kaupapature.org.nz-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judgment has been criticized for deploying an "unnecessarily limiting concept of judicial deference".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two most prominent cases in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a>, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jamuna_River_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Jamuna_River_04.jpg/220px-Jamuna_River_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Jamuna_River_04.jpg/330px-Jamuna_River_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Jamuna_River_04.jpg/440px-Jamuna_River_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Jamuna River</a>, the river that the state of Haryana and the city of Delhi were using</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Delhi_Water_Supply_v._State_of_Haryana"><i>Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use.<sup id="cite_ref-indiankanoon.org_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indiankanoon.org-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subhash_Kumar_v._State_of_Bihar"><i>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also notable is the case of <i>Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar</i>, where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">right to life</a>, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process.<sup id="cite_ref-indiankanoon.org_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indiankanoon.org-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_Rights_to_Water_Day">World Rights to Water Day</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: World Rights to Water Day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water is essential for existence of living beings including humans. Therefore, having access to pure and adequate quantity of water is an inalienable human right. Hence, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eco_Needs_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eco Needs Foundation (page does not exist)">Eco Needs Foundation</a> (ENF) deems it necessary to recognise the right to water (with ensured per capita minimum quantity of water) through the appropriate expressed legal provision. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> with its several covenants has made it obligatory for all the nations to ensure equitable distribution of water amongst all the citizens. Accordingly, the ENF began to observe and promote the celebration of <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_Rights_to_Water_Day&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Rights to Water Day (page does not exist)">World Rights to Water Day</a> on 20 March, the date on which Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar ("the father of modern India") led the world's first <a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">satyagraha</a> for water in 1927. The World Right to Water Day calls for the adoption of special legislation establishing the universal right to water. Under the guidance of founder Dr <a href="/w/index.php?title=Priyanand_Agale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Priyanand Agale (page does not exist)">Priyanand Agale</a>, the ENF arranges a variety of several programmes to ensure the right to water for Indian citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status of economic, social and cultural rights.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Pilchen v. City of Auburn, New York</i>, a single mother named Diane Pilchen was living as a rental tenant in a foreclosed house, in which the owner (landlord) of the house had failed to pay the water bill for some time. The City of Auburn billed Pilchen for the landlord's arrears, and repeatedly shut her water service off without notice when she could not pay these debts, making the house uninhabitable. The city condemned the home and forced Pilchen and her child to move out. Pilchen was represented by the Public Utility Law Project of New York (PULP) in the lawsuit. The City of Auburn attempted unsuccessfully to argue that water is not a constitutional right because bottled water could be used instead, an argument that was contested by PULP as absurd. In 2010, Pilchen won summary judgment in which it was determined that shutting off the water violated her constitutional rights, and that Pilchen could not be billed and stopped from having water due to an unrelated party's delays in paying water bills.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standing_Rock_Sioux_Tribe_v._United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers"><i>Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg/220px-Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg/330px-Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg/440px-Protest_against_Dakota_Access_and_Keystone_XL_Pipelines_20170126-1458.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4581" data-file-height="3613" /></a><figcaption>People protesting against the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2016, there was a prominent case known as <i>Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers,</i> where the Sioux Tribe challenged the building of the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline" title="Dakota Access Pipeline">Dakota Access Pipeline</a> (DAPL). This crude oil pipeline spans over four states, which includes the beginning in <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, then passes through both <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>, and ends in <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Standing_Rock_Indian_Reservation" title="Standing Rock Indian Reservation">Standing Rock Reservation</a> is located near the border of North and South Dakota and the pipeline is built within a half a mile of it. Since the pipeline was built near the reservation, the tribe feared that historical and cultural significance of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Oahe" title="Lake Oahe">Lake Oahe</a> would be tampered with, even though the pipeline does not run directly through the lake. Lake Oahe provides basic water necessities for the Sioux Tribe such as drinking water and for sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction of the oil pipeline means that there is a higher risk of an oil spill into Lake Oahe, which made the tribe concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sioux Tribe sued the DAPL company as they believed that the creation of the pipeline was violating the <a href="/wiki/National_Environmental_Policy_Act" title="National Environmental Policy Act">National Environmental Policy Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Preservation_Act_of_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Preservation Act of 1966">National Historic Preservation Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 2016 briefing, the court was unable to come to a conclusion, so the court decided to do additional briefings.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After five briefings in 2017 and one briefing in 2018, the court has allowed the construction of the pipeline, but the Standing Rock tribe continues to fight to ensure that pipeline is removed.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The attention in Australia is focused on the rights of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> to water and sanitation. History of <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler-colonialism</a> overshadows today's state governance that regulates water use to indigenous Australians. There are many governmental agreements, but most of them are incomplete to fully influence power to the indigenous right to water and sanitation. In <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)"><i>Mabo v Queensland</i></a>, 1992, Native rights were legally recognized at the first time. Indigenous Australians often claim cultural bonds to the land. Although "culture" was recognized in the court as much as land resources, cultural and spiritual value of Aborigines to water body are fuzzy. It is challenging but needed to transcend their cultural and spiritual values into legal sphere. For now, there is virtually no progress.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Australian water law basically prescribes surface water for citizens who can use surface water but cannot own. In the constitution, however, there is no description about inland and riparian water. Therefore, the sphere of inland/riparian water rights are the primary mandates of the state. The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Government" title="Australian Government">Commonwealth Government</a> obtains authority over water by borrowing the help of external relationship, including the Grants Power, Trade and Commerce Power.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2000, the Federal Court concluded the agreement that allowed indigenous landowners to take water for traditional purposes. However, the use is limited to traditional purpose, which did not include irrigation as a traditional practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2004, CoAC concluded an intergovernmental accord on a <a href="/wiki/National_Water_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="National Water Initiative">National Water Initiative</a> (NWI), promoting recognition of indigenous right to water. However, NWI is not concerned broadly about complex history of settler-colonialism, which has systematically created an unequal pattern of water distribution. Indigenous people in Australia are constantly seeking the right to water.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remaining_discussions">Remaining discussions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Remaining discussions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transboundary_effects">Transboundary effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Transboundary effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg/220px-Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg/330px-Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg/440px-Nile_River_and_delta_from_orbit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Ethiopia's move to fill the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Ethiopian_Renaissance_Dam" title="Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam">Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam</a>'s reservoir could reduce <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nord-Krim-Kanal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nord-Krim-Kanal.png/220px-Nord-Krim-Kanal.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nord-Krim-Kanal.png/330px-Nord-Krim-Kanal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Nord-Krim-Kanal.png/440px-Nord-Krim-Kanal.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Following Russia's <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> of Crimea, Ukraine blocked the <a href="/wiki/North_Crimean_Canal" title="North Crimean Canal">North Crimean Canal</a>, which provided 85% of Crimea's fresh water.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Given the fact that access to water is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (<a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGOs</a>) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap and cross borders, states also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formal acknowledgement of this legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global "water crunch" (as a future threat and one negative result of <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">human overpopulation</a>).<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/pp091805.shtml">[22]</a> Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another.<sup id="cite_ref-ref3_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref3-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_Dispute_Between_India_and_Pakistan">Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water dispute between <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> is influenced by the scarcity of water in the <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asian</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two countries have a pre-existing agreement known as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Waters_Treaty" title="Indus Waters Treaty">Indus Waters Treaty</a>. The treaty was formed to limit the conflict between India and Pakistan regarding the use of the Indus basin and allocate water supply for both countries after the countries gained independence.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, disagreements regarding it have surfaced. According to the treaty, India is allowed to use the western river basin for irrigation and non-consumptive purposes, while Pakistan has the majority of control over the basin.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Pakistan has voiced concerns that India's construction on the rivers may lead to severe <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> in Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Pakistan voiced that the dams constructed by India for non-consumptive purposes may be used to divert water flow and disrupt Pakistan's water supply.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the treaty involves rivers that originate from <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>, which have been excluded from control over their own water bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_commercialization_versus_state_provision">Water commercialization versus state provision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Water commercialization versus state provision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and sanitation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The commercialization of water is offered as a response to the increased scarcity of water that has resulted due to the world population tripling while the demand for water has increased six-fold. Market environmentalism uses the markets as a solution to environmental problems such as <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> and an inefficient use of resources. Supporters of market <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a> believe that the managing of water as an economic good by private companies will be more efficient than governments providing water resources to their citizens<i>.</i> Such proponents claim that the government costs of developing infrastructure for water resource allocation is not worth the marginal benefits of water provision, thus deeming the state as an ineffective provider of water. Moreover, it is argued that water commodification leads to more sustainable water management due to the economic incentives for consumers to use water more efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opponents believe that the consequence of water being a human right excludes private sector involvement and requires that water should be given to all people because it is essential to life. Access to water as a human right is used by some NGOs as a means to combat privatization efforts. A human right to water "generally rests on two justifications: the non-substitutability of drinking water ('essential for life'), and the fact that many other human rights which are explicitly recognized in the UN Conventions are predicated upon an (assumed) availability of water (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">right to food</a>)."<sup id="cite_ref-ref4_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref4-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations_organizations">United Nations organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United Nations organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OHCHR" class="mw-redirect" title="OHCHR">OHCHR</a> (UN Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNDP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNDP">UNDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanitationandwaterforall.org">Sanitation and Water for All</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governmental_cooperation_agencies">Governmental cooperation agencies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Governmental cooperation agencies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DFID" class="mw-redirect" title="DFID">DFID</a> (United Kingdom's Cooperation Agency)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Internationale_Zusammenarbeit" title="Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit">GIZ</a> (German Corporation for International Cooperation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Agency_for_Development_and_Cooperation" title="Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation">SDC</a> (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> (United States Environmental Protection Agency)<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_non-governmental_organizations_and_networks">International non-governmental organizations and networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: International non-governmental organizations and networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_against_Hunger" class="mw-redirect" title="Action against Hunger">Action against Hunger</a> (ACF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood:_Water_Mission" title="Blood: Water Mission">Blood:Water</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Center for Water Security and Cooperation<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Freshwater Action Network (FAN)<sup id="cite_ref-freshwateraction.net_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-freshwateraction.net-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Pure Water for the World<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The DigDeep Right to Water Project<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Institute" title="Pacific Institute">Pacific Institute</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Water Project<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_Institute" title="Transnational Institute">Transnational Institute</a> with the Water Justice project<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>UUSC<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WaterAid" title="WaterAid">WaterAid</a></li> <li>WaterLex (defunct as of 2020)<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PeaceJam" title="PeaceJam">PeaceJam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirst_Project" title="Thirst Project">Thirst Project</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:8-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+human+rights+to+safe+drinking+water+and+sanitation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.endwaterpoverty.org%2Fsites%2Fendwaterpoverty.org%2Ffiles%2FThe%2520Human%2520Rights%2520To%2520Water%2520And%2520Sanitation%2520UN%2520resolution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+right+to+water+and+sanitation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf">"Resolution adopted by the General Assembly"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Albuquerque2014" class="citation book cs1">de Albuquerque, Catarina (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Handbook/Book1_intro_.pdf"><i>Realising the human rights to water and sanitation: A Handbook by the UN Special Rapporteur</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Portugal: United Nations. pp. Introduction.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Realising+the+human+rights+to+water+and+sanitation%3A+A+Handbook+by+the+UN+Special+Rapporteur&rft.place=Portugal&rft.pages=Introduction&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=de+Albuquerque&rft.aufirst=Catarina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FDocuments%2FIssues%2FWater%2FHandbook%2FBook1_intro_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+right+to+water+and+sanitation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoafAlbuquerqueHeller2018" class="citation book cs1">Roaf, Virginia; Albuquerque, Catarina de; Heller, Léo (26 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315471532-2"><i>The Human Rights to Water and Sanitation</i></a>. Equality in Water and Sanitation Services. Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge. pp. 26–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315471532-2">10.4324/9781315471532-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47153-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47153-2"><bdi>978-1-315-47153-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204491938">204491938</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruel,_inhuman,_or_degrading_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment">Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_from_discrimination" title="Freedom from discrimination">Freedom from discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Freedom from torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aid" title="Legal aid">Legal aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">Presumption of innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">Right of asylum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">Right to a fair trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Right to life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_protest" title="Right to protest">Right to protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Right to refuse medical treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_resist" title="Right to resist">Right to resist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Right of self-defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_truth" title="Right to truth">Right to truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nomination_rules" title="Nomination rules">right to be a candidate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_homeland" title="Right to homeland">Right to homeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Economic,_social_and_cultural_rights" title="Economic, social and cultural rights">Economic, social<br />and cultural</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">Digital rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_pay_for_equal_work" title="Equal pay for equal work">Equal pay for equal work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remuneration" title="Remuneration">Fair remuneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">Right to an adequate standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_clothing" title="Right to clothing">Right to clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_development" title="Right to development">Right to development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Right to education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_Internet_access" title="Right to Internet access">Right to Internet access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation" title="Public participation">Right to public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_reply" title="Right of reply">Right of reply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to social security">Right to social security</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Right to water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">Right to work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health_and_rights" title="Sexual and reproductive health and rights">Sexual</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Freedom from involuntary female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Right to sexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malnutrition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template talk:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malnutrition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition" title="Protein–energy malnutrition">Protein-energy<br />malnutrition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascites" title="Ascites">Ascites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emaciation" title="Emaciation">Emaciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">Kwashiorkor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marasmus" title="Marasmus">Marasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catabolysis" title="Catabolysis">Catabolysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_deficiency" title="Vitamin deficiency">Vitamin deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>B<sub>1</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beriberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Beriberi">Beriberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_encephalopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wernicke's encephalopathy">Wernicke's encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korsakoff%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakoff's syndrome">Korsakoff's syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>2</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin#Deficiency" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>3</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pellagra" title="Pellagra">Pellagra</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>6</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxine_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyridoxine deficiency">Pyridoxine deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>7</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotin_deficiency" title="Biotin deficiency">Biotin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>9</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">Folate deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>12</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12_deficiency" title="Vitamin B12 deficiency">Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> deficiency</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>A: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitot%27s_spots" title="Bitot's spots">Bitot's spots</a></li></ul></li> <li>C: <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">Scurvy</a></li> <li>D: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">Vitamin D deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">Rickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison%27s_groove" title="Harrison's groove">Harrison's groove</a></li></ul></li> <li>E: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E_deficiency" title="Vitamin E deficiency">Vitamin E deficiency</a></li> <li>K: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K_deficiency" title="Vitamin K deficiency">Vitamin K deficiency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_deficiency" title="Mineral deficiency">Mineral deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance" title="Electrolyte imbalance">Electrolyte imbalance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypocalcemia" title="Hypocalcemia">Calcium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochloremia" title="Hypochloremia">Chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_deficiency_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium deficiency (medicine)">Magnesium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypophosphatemia" title="Hypophosphatemia">Phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">Potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">Sodium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency" title="Iron deficiency">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">Zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_deficiency_(medicine)" title="Manganese deficiency (medicine)">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_deficiency" title="Copper deficiency">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">Iodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_deficiency" title="Chromium deficiency">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_deficiency" title="Molybdenum deficiency">Molybdenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_deficiency" title="Selenium deficiency">Selenium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keshan_disease" title="Keshan disease">Keshan disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_deficiency" title="Fluorine deficiency">Fluorine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_development_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (biology)">Growth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformity" title="Deformity">Deformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_milestone" title="Delayed milestone">Delayed milestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" title="Failure to thrive">Failure to thrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_stature" title="Short stature">Short stature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_short_stature" title="Idiopathic short stature">Idiopathic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">Anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cachexia" title="Cachexia">Cachexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)" title="Deficiency (medicine)">Deficiency (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">Dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_malnutrition" title="Epidemiology of malnutrition">Epidemiology of malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">Food fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">Hunger</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency" title="Micronutrient deficiency">Micronutrient deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation (crime)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_dehydration" title="Terminal dehydration">Terminal dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undernutrition_in_children" title="Undernutrition in children">Undernutrition in children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">Weight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_food_crises_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="World food crises (2022–present)">World food crises (2022–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underweight" title="Underweight">Underweight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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