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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Type II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Type III </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Type IV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Complications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Complications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Complications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Complications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Short_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Short term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Long term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy,_childbirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy,_childbirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Pregnancy, childbirth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy,_childbirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological_effects,_sexual_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_effects,_sexual_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Psychological effects, sexual function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological_effects,_sexual_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Distribution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Distribution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Household_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Household_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Household surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Household_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_of_FGM" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_of_FGM"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Type of FGM </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_of_FGM-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevalence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevalence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Prevalence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevalence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rural_areas,_wealth,_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural_areas,_wealth,_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Rural areas, wealth, education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural_areas,_wealth,_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age,_ethnicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age,_ethnicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Age, ethnicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age,_ethnicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Reasons </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reasons-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reasons subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reasons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Support_from_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_from_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Support from women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_from_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_obligation,_poor_access_to_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_obligation,_poor_access_to_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Social obligation, poor access to information </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_obligation,_poor_access_to_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Red_Sea_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_Sea_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Red Sea slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_Sea_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_and_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_and_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Europe and the United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_and_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_and_legal_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_and_legal_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Opposition and legal status </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Opposition_and_legal_status-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Opposition and legal status subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Opposition_and_legal_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonial_opposition_in_Kenya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_opposition_in_Kenya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Colonial opposition in Kenya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_opposition_in_Kenya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_of_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Growth of opposition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 United Nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-practising_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-practising_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Non-practising countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-practising_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.1 Overview </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.2 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.3 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Criticism of opposition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_of_opposition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism of opposition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tolerance_versus_human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tolerance_versus_human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Tolerance versus human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tolerance_versus_human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_other_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_other_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Comparison with other procedures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cosmetic_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmetic_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Cosmetic procedures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmetic_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analogy_to_other_genital-altering_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analogy_to_other_genital-altering_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Analogy to other genital-altering procedures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analogy_to_other_genital-altering_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Female genital mutilation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" > 95 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vroulike_genitale_verminking" title="Vroulike genitale verminking – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vroulike genitale verminking" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AB" title="ختان الإناث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ختان الإناث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="মহিলাৰ যৌনাংগ বিকৃতকৰণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মহিলাৰ যৌনাংগ বিকৃতকৰণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilaci%C3%B3n_xenital_femenina" title="Mutilación xenital femenina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mutilación xenital femenina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qad%C4%B1n_s%C3%BCnn%C9%99ti" title="Qadın sünnəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qadın sünnəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87" title="قادین لارین کین کسمه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قادین لارین کین کسمه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE" title="নারী খৎনা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নারী খৎনা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Жаночае абразанне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жаночае абразанне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Женско обрязване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Женско обрязване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac%27hagnerezh_reizhel_benel" title="Mac'hagnerezh reizhel benel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mac'hagnerezh reizhel benel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilaci%C3%B3_genital_femenina" title="Mutilació genital femenina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mutilació genital femenina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDensk%C3%A1_ob%C5%99%C3%ADzka" title="Ženská obřízka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ženská obřízka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mdulidwe_wa_amayi" title="Mdulidwe wa amayi – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Mdulidwe wa amayi" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuchekwa_kwenhengo_yemunhukadzi" title="Kuchekwa kwenhengo yemunhukadzi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kuchekwa kwenhengo yemunhukadzi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvindelig_omsk%C3%A6ring" title="Kvindelig omskæring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kvindelig omskæring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibliche_Genitalverst%C3%BCmmelung" title="Weibliche Genitalverstümmelung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Weibliche Genitalverstümmelung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naiste_suguelundite_moonutamine" title="Naiste suguelundite moonutamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Naiste suguelundite moonutamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Ακρωτηριασμός γυναικείων γεννητικών οργάνων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακρωτηριασμός γυναικείων γεννητικών οργάνων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilaci%C3%B3n_genital_femenina" title="Mutilación genital femenina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mutilación genital femenina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virina_seksa_mutilado" title="Virina seksa mutilado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Virina seksa mutilado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emakumeen_genitalen_mutilazio" title="Emakumeen genitalen mutilazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Emakumeen genitalen mutilazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gur mw-list-item"><a href="https://gur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yabega_%C5%8Amaa_(Female_Circumcision_also_know_as_Female_Genital_Mutilation)" title="Yabega Ŋmaa (Female Circumcision also know as Female Genital Mutilation) – Frafra" lang="gur" hreflang="gur" data-title="Yabega Ŋmaa (Female Circumcision also know as Female Genital Mutilation)" data-language-autonym="Farefare" data-language-local-name="Frafra" class="interlanguage-link-target">Farefare</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="بریدن آلت زنانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بریدن آلت زنانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilations_g%C3%A9nitales_f%C3%A9minines" title="Mutilations génitales féminines – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mutilations génitales féminines" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciorr%C3%BA_ball_gini%C3%BAna_ban" title="Ciorrú ball giniúna ban – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ciorrú ball giniúna ban" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablaci%C3%B3n_de_cl%C3%ADtoris" title="Ablación de clítoris – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ablación de clítoris" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%9B%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%A8" title="સ્ત્રી જનન અંગછેદન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સ્ત્રી જનન અંગછેદન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AC%EC%84%B1_%EC%84%B1%EA%B8%B0_%EC%A0%88%EC%A0%9C" title="여성 성기 절제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="여성 성기 절제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81_%D5%A9%D5%AC%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կանանց թլպատում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կանանց թլպատում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="महिला जननांग कर्तन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महिला जननांग कर्तन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDensko_obrezivanje" title="Žensko obrezivanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Žensko obrezivanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibe_nwaany%E1%BB%8B_ugwu" title="Ibe nwaanyị ugwu – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ibe nwaanyị ugwu" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemotongan_kelamin_perempuan" title="Pemotongan kelamin perempuan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemotongan kelamin perempuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilation_genital_feminin" title="Mutilation genital feminin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mutilation genital feminin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilazioni_genitali_femminili" title="Mutilazioni genitali femminili – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mutilazioni genitali femminili" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%AA%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%99" title="השחתת איבר המין הנשי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השחתת איבר המין הנשי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97_%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3" title="ಮಹಿಳೆಯ ಜನನಾಂಗ ಹರಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಹಿಳೆಯ ಜನನಾಂಗ ಹರಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%90" title="ქალთა წინადაცვეთა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქალთა წინადაცვეთა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusiramura_igitsina_gore" title="Gusiramura igitsina gore – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Gusiramura igitsina gore" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukeketaji" title="Ukeketaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukeketaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi_jenital_mutilasyon" title="Fi jenital mutilasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fi jenital mutilasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinetkirina_jinan" title="Sinetkirina jinan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sinetkirina jinan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Аялдын жыныс органдарын жабыркаткан операциялар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аялдын жыныс органдарын жабыркаткан операциялар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilatio_genitalium_muliebrium" title="Mutilatio genitalium muliebrium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mutilatio genitalium muliebrium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sievie%C5%A1u_apgraiz%C4%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Sieviešu apgraizīšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sieviešu apgraizīšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moter%C5%B3_lyties_organ%C5%B3_%C5%BEalojimas" title="Moterų lyties organų žalojimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Moterų lyties organų žalojimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C5%91i_nemi_szervek_megcsonk%C3%ADt%C3%A1sa" title="Női nemi szervek megcsonkítása – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Női nemi szervek megcsonkítása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnat_ka_or%C3%A8ng_bin%C3%A8%27" title="Sonnat ka orèng binè' – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Sonnat ka orèng binè'" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="महिला यौनाङ्ग कर्तन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="महिला यौनाङ्ग कर्तन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Женско обрежување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Женско обрежување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%9B%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="സ്ത്രീ ലിംഗഛേദനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ത്രീ ലിംഗഛേദനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%9B%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A8" title="स्त्रियांमधील जननांग छेदन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="स्त्रियांमधील जननांग छेदन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AB%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="تشويه اعضاء التناسل الانثويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تشويه اعضاء التناسل الانثويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilasi_alat_kelamin_wanita" title="Mutilasi alat kelamin wanita – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mutilasi alat kelamin wanita" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC_%D0%B1%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B3_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%85%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Эм бэлэг эрхтний зэрэмдэглэлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эм бэлэг эрхтний зэрэмдэглэлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB_%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%93%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B7" title="မမျိုးပွားအင်္ဂါ ဖြတ်တောက်ဖယ်ရှားခြင်း ဓလေ့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မမျိုးပွားအင်္ဂါ ဖြတ်တောက်ဖယ်ရှားခြင်း ဓလေ့" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrouwelijke_genitale_verminking" title="Vrouwelijke genitale verminking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vrouwelijke genitale verminking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="महिला यौनाङ्ग कर्तन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="महिला यौनाङ्ग कर्तन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E5%99%A8%E5%88%87%E9%99%A4" title="女性器切除 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="女性器切除" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvinnelig_omskj%C3%A6ring" title="Kvinnelig omskjæring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kvinnelig omskjæring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnslemlesting" title="Kjønnslemlesting – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjønnslemlesting" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B3%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%AF%E0%AD%8C%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%99%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%97_%E0%AC%9B%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%A8" title="ମହିଳା ଯୌନାଙ୍ଗ ଛେଦନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମହିଳା ଯୌନାଙ୍ଗ ଛେଦନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayollar_xatnasi" title="Ayollar xatnasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ayollar xatnasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%94%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9F-%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A2" title="ਔਰਤ ਜਣਨ ਅੰਗ ਕੱਟ-ਵੱਢ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਔਰਤ ਜਣਨ ਅੰਗ ਕੱਟ-ਵੱਢ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%81" title="نسوانی ختنہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نسوانی ختنہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%9A%DA%81%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%90_%D8%BA%D9%88%DA%85%D9%88%D9%84_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84" title="د ښځو د تناسلي آلې غوڅول یا ختنه کول – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ښځو د تناسلي آلې غوڅول یا ختنه کول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okaleczanie_%C5%BCe%C5%84skich_narz%C4%85d%C3%B3w_p%C5%82ciowych" title="Okaleczanie żeńskich narządów płciowych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Okaleczanie żeńskich narządów płciowych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutila%C3%A7%C3%A3o_genital_feminina" title="Mutilação genital feminina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mutilação genital feminina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilarea_genital%C4%83_la_femei" title="Mutilarea genitală la femei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mutilarea genitală la femei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Женское обрезание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Женское обрезание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_genital_mittlin" title="Female genital mittlin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Female genital mittlin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_bolotsa_basadi" title="Ho bolotsa basadi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Ho bolotsa basadi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjymtimi_gjenital_fem%C3%ABror" title="Gjymtimi gjenital femëror – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjymtimi gjenital femëror" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C_%E0%B6%A1%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ස්ත්‍රී ප්‍රජනකාංග ඡේදනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ස්ත්‍රී ප්‍රජනකාංග ඡේදනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Female genital mutilation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilondza_esitfweni_samake_sangasese" title="Tilondza esitfweni samake sangasese – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Tilondza esitfweni samake sangasese" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDensk%C3%A1_obriezka" title="Ženská obriezka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ženská obriezka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilacija_%C5%BEenskih_genitalij" title="Mutilacija ženskih genitalij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mutilacija ženskih genitalij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudniinka_Fircooniga" title="Gudniinka Fircooniga – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Gudniinka Fircooniga" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خەتەنەکردنی کچان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەتەنەکردنی کچان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%9B%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Генитално сакаћење жена – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Генитално сакаћење жена" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDensko_genitalno_saka%C4%87enje" title="Žensko genitalno sakaćenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Žensko genitalno sakaćenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naisen_sukupuolielinten_silpominen" title="Naisen sukupuolielinten silpominen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Naisen sukupuolielinten silpominen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvinnlig_k%C3%B6nsstympning" title="Kvinnlig könsstympning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kvinnlig könsstympning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagtutuli_ng_babae" title="Pagtutuli ng babae – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagtutuli ng babae" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="பெண் உறுப்பு சிதைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெண் உறுப்பு சிதைப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_s%C3%BCnneti" title="Kadın sünneti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kadın sünneti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%86bea_awode_s%C9%9Be" title="Ɔbea awode sɛe – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Ɔbea awode sɛe" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Жіноче обрізання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жіноче обрізання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%81" title="نسوانی ختنہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نسوانی ختنہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%AFt_%C3%A2m_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Cắt âm vật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cắt âm vật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AE%8B%E5%89%B2%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96%E5%99%A8" title="残割女性生殖器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="残割女性生殖器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"FGM" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/FGM_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="FGM (disambiguation)">FGM (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Vaginoplasty" title="Vaginoplasty">Vaginoplasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty" title="Labiaplasty">Labiaplasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labia_stretching" title="Labia stretching">Labia stretching</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Vulvoplasty" title="Vulvoplasty">Vulvoplasty</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_(cropped)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Billboard with surgical tools covered by a red X. Sign reads: STOP FEMALE CIRCUMCISION. IT IS DANGEROUS TO WOMEN'S HEALTH. FAMILY PLANNING ASSOCIATION OF UGANDA" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg/300px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg/450px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg/600px-Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="522" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Anti-FGM road sign near <a href="/wiki/Kapchorwa" title="Kapchorwa">Kapchorwa</a>, Uganda, 2004</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Definition</th><td class="infobox-data">"Partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" (<a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">UNFPA</a>, 1997).<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Areas</th><td class="infobox-data">Africa, Southeast Asia, Middle East, and within communities from these areas<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Numbers</th><td class="infobox-data">Over 230 million women and girls worldwide: 144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world (as of 2024)<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Age</th><td class="infobox-data">Days after birth to puberty<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p50-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevalence</th><td class="infobox-data"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; ;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Ages 15–49</div></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> (98%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> (97%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> (93%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> (90%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> (89%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (87%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> (87%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> (83%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> (76%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia">Gambia</a> (75%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> (74%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> (69%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> (50%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> (45%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> (44%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> (38%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (25%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> (25%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> (24%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> (21%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> (19%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/United_Republic_of_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="United Republic of Tanzania">United Republic of Tanzania</a> (10%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> (9%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> (8%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> (5%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> (4%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> (2%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> (1%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> (1%)<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; ;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Ages 0–14</div></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia">Gambia</a> (56%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> (54%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> (49%, 0–11)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> (46%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> (33%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> (32%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> (30%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> (24%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (17%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> (15%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (14%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> (13%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> (13%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> (13%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> (10%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> (3%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> (1%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> (1%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> (1%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> (0.3%)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> (0.2%)<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_the_law" title="Sex and the law">Sex and the law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#5CB3FF;"> Social issues</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_consent_in_law" title="Sexual consent in law">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health_and_rights" title="Sexual and reproductive health and rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization</a> · <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBTQ rights">LGBTQ rights</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legality_of_conversion_therapy" title="Legality of conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Decriminalization of homosexuality">Decriminalization</a> · <a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">Civil union</a> · <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage</a> · <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Adoption</a> · <a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex</a> · <a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_transgender_people" title="Legal status of transgender people">Transgender</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_consent" title="Age of consent">Age of consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriageable_age" title="Marriageable age">Marriageable age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedophile_advocacy_groups" title="Pedophile advocacy groups">Pedophile advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_sexual_intercourse" title="Deviant sexual intercourse">Deviant sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_norm" title="Sexual norm">Norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisexualism" title="Antisexualism">Antisexualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_laws_by_region" title="Pornography laws by region">Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_law" title="Prostitution law">Prostitution law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-light_district" title="Red-light district">Red-light district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Right to sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_industry" title="Sex industry">Sex industry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Workers' rights</a> · <a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_sex_work" title="Decriminalization of sex work">Decriminalization</a> · <a href="/wiki/World_Charter_for_Prostitutes%27_Rights" title="World Charter for Prostitutes' Rights">World Charter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_sex" title="Survival sex">Survival sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Bodily integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision_and_law" title="Circumcision and law">Circumcision</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#5CB3FF;"> Specific offences (varies by jurisdiction)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adultery_laws" title="Adultery laws">Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">U.S. laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoophilia" title="Zoophilia">Bestiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_grooming" class="mw-redirect" title="Child grooming">Child grooming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_pornography" title="Child pornography">Child pornography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_child_pornography" title="Legality of child pornography">Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_prostitution" title="Child prostitution">Child prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_transmission_of_HIV" title="Criminal transmission of HIV">Criminal transmission of HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forcible_touching" title="Forcible touching">Forcible touching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">Fornication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_incest" title="Legality of incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">Obscenity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_obscenity_law" title="United States obscenity law">U.S. law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procuring_(prostitution)" title="Procuring (prostitution)">Pimping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">forced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procuring_(prostitution)" title="Procuring (prostitution)">procuring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indecent_exposure" title="Indecent exposure">Public indecency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_regarding_rape" title="Laws regarding rape">Rape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_rape" title="Statutory rape">statutory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marital_rape" title="Marital rape">marital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_porn" title="Revenge porn">Revenge porn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction_(tort)" title="Seduction (tort)">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexting" title="Sexting">Sexting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">child</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Sodomy laws in the United States">U.S. laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_sodomy" title="Female sodomy">Female sodomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_63_of_the_Criminal_Justice_and_Immigration_Act_2008" title="Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008">UK Section 63 (2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#5CB3FF;"> Sex offender registration</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_offender_registry" title="Sex offender registry">Sex offender registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_offender_registries_in_the_United_States" title="Sex offender registries in the United States">Sex offender registries in the United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#5CB3FF;"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Bisexuality_symbol_(bold,_color).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/32px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/48px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/64px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="25" data-file-height="16" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Human_sexuality" title="Portal:Human sexuality">Human sexuality portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #bbb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_and_the_law" title="Template:Sex and the law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_and_the_law" title="Template talk:Sex and the law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_and_the_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex and the law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Female genital mutilation (FGM) (also known as female genital cutting, female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and female circumcision<a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a>) is the cutting or removal of some or all of the <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulva</a> for non-medical reasons. <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_female_genital_mutilation" title="Prevalence of female genital mutilation">FGM prevalence</a> varies worldwide, but is majorly present in some countries of Africa, Asia and Middle East, and within their diasporas. As of 2024<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> estimates that worldwide 230 million girls and women (144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world) had been subjected to <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Types">one or more types</a> of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">[3]</a> Typically carried out by a traditional cutter using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond. In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group. They include removal of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">clitoral hood</a> (type 1-a) and <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_glans" class="mw-redirect" title="Clitoral glans">clitoral glans</a> (1-b); removal of the <a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">inner labia</a> (2-a); and removal of the inner and <a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">outer labia</a> and closure of the vulva (type 3). In this last procedure, known as <a href="#Type_III">infibulation</a>, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstrual fluid</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a> is opened for <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">intercourse</a> and opened further for childbirth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> The practice is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a>, attempts to control <a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_female_genital_mutilation" title="Religious views on female genital mutilation">religious beliefs</a> and ideas about purity, modesty, and beauty. It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour, and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social exclusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> Adverse health effects depend on the type of procedure; they can include recurrent infections, difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_pain" title="Chronic pain">chronic pain</a>, the development of <a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">cysts</a>, an inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth, and fatal bleeding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> There are no known health benefits.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018health-11">[10]</a> There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon FGM, and it has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, although the laws are often poorly enforced. Since 2010, the United Nations has called upon healthcare providers to stop performing all forms of the procedure, including <a href="#reinfibulation">reinfibulation</a> after childbirth and symbolic "nicking" of the clitoral hood.<a href="#cite_note-UN2010Askew-12">[11]</a> The opposition to the practice is not without its critics, particularly among <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologists</a>, who have raised questions about <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a> and the universality of human rights.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> According to the UNICEF, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many affected countries.<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[13]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony,_Kenya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg/260px-Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg/390px-Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg/520px-Samburu_female_circumcision_ceremony%2C_Kenya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samburu_people" title="Samburu people">Samburu</a> FGM ceremony, <a href="/wiki/Laikipia_County" title="Laikipia County">Laikipia</a> plateau, Kenya, 2004</figcaption></figure> Until the 1980s, FGM was widely known in English as "female circumcision", implying an equivalence in severity with <a href="/wiki/Male_circumcision" class="mw-redirect" title="Male circumcision">male circumcision</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119-6">[6]</a> From 1929 the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Churches_of_Kenya" title="National Council of Churches of Kenya">Kenya Missionary Council</a> referred to it as the sexual mutilation of women, following the lead of <a href="/wiki/Marion_Stevenson" title="Marion Stevenson">Marion Scott Stevenson</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> missionary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaranja2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidF1ezIgyomGICpgPA93_93],_n.&nbsp;631-15">[14]</a> References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2008pp4,22-16">[15]</a> In 1975 <a href="/wiki/Rose_Oldfield_Hayes" title="Rose Oldfield Hayes">Rose Oldfield Hayes</a>, an American anthropologist, used the term female genital mutilation in the title of a paper in <a href="/wiki/American_Ethnologist" class="mw-redirect" title="American Ethnologist">American Ethnologist</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1975-17">[16]</a> and four years later <a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a> called it mutilation in her influential The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosken1994-18">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Inter-African_Committee_on_Traditional_Practices_Affecting_the_Health_of_Women_and_Children" title="Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children">Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children</a> began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) followed suit in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Other English terms include female genital cutting (FGC) and female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), preferred by those who work with practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2008pp4,22-16">[15]</a> In countries where FGM is common, the practice's many variants are reflected in dozens of terms, often alluding to purification.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p48-20">[19]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_language" title="Bambara language">Bambara language</a>, spoken mostly in Mali, it is known as bolokoli ("washing your hands")<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabus2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxZmWF3qxHo4CpgPA47_47]-21">[20]</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo language</a> in eastern Nigeria as isa aru or iwu aru ("having your bath").<a href="#cite_note-23">[b]</a> A common Arabic term for purification has the root t-h-r, used for male and female circumcision (tahur and tahara).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA30_30]-24">[22]</a> It is also known in Arabic as khafḍ or khifaḍ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsmaniAbdi20083–5-25">[23]</a> Communities may refer to FGM as "pharaonic" for <a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">infibulation</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunna</a>" circumcision for everything else;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum20012–3-26">[24]</a> sunna means "path or way" in Arabic and refers to the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, although none of the procedures are required within Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsmaniAbdi20083–5-25">[23]</a> The term infibulation derives from <a href="/wiki/Fibula_(brooch)" title="Fibula (brooch)">fibula</a>, Latin for clasp; the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Romans</a> reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse. The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and as Sudanese circumcision in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoubaMuasher198596–97-27">[25]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, it is known simply as qodob ("to sew up").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJO_SBQAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-28">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg/200px-Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg/300px-Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg/400px-Clitoral_anatomy_updated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1284" data-file-height="1236" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">clitoris</a>, showing the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_glans" class="mw-redirect" title="Clitoral glans">clitoral glans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crus_of_clitoris" title="Crus of clitoris">clitoral crura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_cavernosum_of_clitoris" title="Corpus cavernosum of clitoris">corpora cavernosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulb_of_vestibule" title="Bulb of vestibule">vestibular bulbs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vagina#Vaginal_opening_and_hymen" title="Vagina">vaginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urinary_meatus" title="Urinary meatus">urethral openings</a></figcaption></figure> The procedures are generally performed by a traditional cutter (exciseuse) in the girls' homes, with or without anaesthesia. The cutter is usually an older woman, but in communities where the male <a href="/wiki/Barber#History" title="Barber">barber</a> has assumed the role of health worker, he will also perform FGM.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[c]</a> When traditional cutters are involved, non-sterile devices are likely to be used, including knives, razors, scissors, glass, sharpened rocks, and fingernails.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491-32">[29]</a> According to a nurse in Uganda, quoted in 2007 in The Lancet, a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakabi2007-33">[30]</a> In several countries, health professionals are involved; in Egypt, 77 percent of FGM procedures, and in Indonesia over 50 percent, were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variation">Variation</h3></div> The WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA issued a joint statement in 1997 defining FGM as "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons".<a href="#cite_note-WHO2008pp4,22-16">[15]</a> The procedures vary according to the ethnicity and individual practitioners; during a 1998 survey in Niger, women responded with over 50 terms when asked what was done to them.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p48-20">[19]</a> Translation problems are compounded by the women's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced, or even whether they experienced it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013190-35">[32]</a> Studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable. A 2003 study in Ghana found that in 1995 four percent said they had not undergone FGM, but in 2000 said they had, while 11 percent switched in the other direction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacksonAkweongoSakeahHodgson2003-36">[33]</a> In Tanzania in 2005, 66 percent reported FGM, but a medical exam found that 73 percent had undergone it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloumanManongiKlepp2005-37">[34]</a> In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElmusharafElhadiAlmroth2006-38">[35]</a> In 2017, during an international meeting of 98 FGM experts, which included physicians, social scientists, policymakers, and activists from 23 countries, a majority of the participants advocated for the revision of FGM/C classifications proposed by the WHO and other UN agencies.<a href="#cite_note-Elsevier2020-39">[36]</a> The experts agreed on legal prohibition of reinfibulation and ritual pricking. They also expressed worry over the harm presented by "the lawfulness of both female genital cosmetic surgeries and male circumcision" in the negation of FGM/C prevention campaigns. The participants, however, differed in their views on the ban of female genital cosmetic surgeries and regular vulvar checkups of female children.<a href="#cite_note-Elsevier2020-39">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReproductiveHealth2017-40">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FGC_Types.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/FGC_Types.svg/300px-FGC_Types.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/FGC_Types.svg/450px-FGC_Types.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/FGC_Types.svg/600px-FGC_Types.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="#Household_surveys">Standard questionnaires</a> from United Nations bodies ask women whether they or their daughters have undergone the following: (1) cut, no flesh removed (symbolic nicking); (2) cut, some flesh removed; (3) sewn closed; or (4) type not determined/unsure/doesn't know.<a href="#cite_note-41">[d]</a> The most common procedures fall within the "cut, some flesh removed" category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans.<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> The World Health Organization (a UN agency) created a more detailed typology in 1997: Types I–II vary in how much tissue is removed; Type III is equivalent to the UNICEF category "sewn closed"; and Type IV describes miscellaneous procedures, including symbolic nicking.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_I">Type I</h4></div> Type I is "partial or total removal of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_glans" class="mw-redirect" title="Clitoral glans">clitoral glans</a> (the external and visible part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/<a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">clitoral hood</a> (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans)".<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> Type Ia<a href="#cite_note-46">[e]</a> involves removal of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">clitoral hood</a> only. This is rarely performed alone.<a href="#cite_note-48">[f]</a> The more common procedure is Type Ib (<a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">clitoridectomy</a>), the complete or partial removal of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_glans" class="mw-redirect" title="Clitoral glans">clitoral glans</a> (the visible tip of the clitoris) and clitoral hood.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[43]</a> The circumciser pulls the clitoral glans with her thumb and index finger and cuts it off.<a href="#cite_note-51">[g]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_II">Type II</h4></div> Type II (excision) is the complete or partial removal of the <a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">inner labia</a>, with or without removal of the clitoral glans and <a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">outer labia</a>. Type IIa is removal of the inner labia; Type IIb, removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia; and Type IIc, removal of the clitoral glans, inner and outer labia. Excision in French can refer to any form of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_III">Type III</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:300px; border-width: 1px; font-size: 95%; color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:1em"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; color: #555555;">External images</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote center-aligned" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180207062846/https://smw.ch/resource/jf/jimg/780/780/ratio/journal/file/view/article/smw/en/smw.2011.13137/smw_2011_13137_fig_01_conv.jpg/">Type IIIb (virgin)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180207010148/https://smw.ch/resource/jf/jimg/780/780/ratio/journal/file/view/article/smw/en/smw.2011.13137/smw_2011_13137_fig_02_conv.jpg/">Type IIIb (sexually active)</a></li></ul> </div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">— <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Medical_Weekly" title="Swiss Medical Weekly">Swiss Medical Weekly</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a></cite></div> </div> Type III (<a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">infibulation</a> or pharaonic circumcision), the "sewn closed" category, is the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound. The inner and/or outer labia are cut away, with or without removal of the clitoral glans.<a href="#cite_note-52">[h]</a> Type III is found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan (although not in South Sudan). According to one 2008 estimate, over eight million women in Africa are living with Type III FGM.<a href="#cite_note-54">[i]</a> According to UNFPA in 2010, 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPATypeIIIestimate-55">[46]</a> In Somalia, according to <a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a>, the child squats on a stool or mat while adults pull her legs open; a local anaesthetic is applied if available: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The element of speed and surprise is vital and the circumciser immediately grabs the clitoris by pinching it between her nails aiming to amputate it with a slash. The organ is then shown to the senior female relatives of the child who will decide whether the amount that has been removed is satisfactory or whether more is to be cut off. After the clitoris has been satisfactorily amputated ... the circumciser can proceed with the total removal of the labia minora and the paring of the inner walls of the labia majora. Since the entire skin on the inner walls of the labia majora has to be removed all the way down to the perineum, this becomes a messy business. By now, the child is screaming, struggling, and bleeding profusely, which makes it difficult for the circumciser to hold with bare fingers and nails the slippery skin and parts that are to be cut or sutured together. ... Having ensured that sufficient tissue has been removed to allow the desired fusion of the skin, the circumciser pulls together the opposite sides of the labia majora, ensuring that the raw edges where the skin has been removed are well approximated. The wound is now ready to be stitched or for thorns to be applied. If a needle and thread are being used, close tight sutures will be placed to ensure that a flap of skin covers the vulva and extends from the mons veneris to the perineum, and which, after the wound heals, will form a bridge of scar tissue that will totally occlude the vaginal introitus.<a href="#cite_note-Ismail2016p12-56">[47]</a></blockquote> The amputated parts might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA43_43]-57">[48]</a> A single hole of 2–3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid.<a href="#cite_note-58">[j]</a> The vulva is closed with surgical thread, or <a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">agave</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacia</a> thorns, and might be covered with a poultice of raw egg, herbs, and sugar. To help the tissue bond, the girl's legs are tied together, often from hip to ankle; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and removed after two to six weeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmail201614-59">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491-32">[29]</a> If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the girl's family, the procedure is repeated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190]-60">[50]</a> The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse, for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman's husband with his penis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190–191],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA198_198]-61">[51]</a> In some areas, including Somaliland, female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmail201614-59">[49]</a> The woman is opened further for childbirth (defibulation or deinfibulation), and closed again afterwards (reinfibulation). Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation. This might be performed before marriage, and after childbirth, divorce and widowhood.<a href="#cite_note-62">[k]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198256–64-63">[52]</a> Hanny Lightfoot-Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The penetration of the bride's infibulation takes anywhere from 3 or 4 days to several months. Some men are unable to penetrate their wives at all (in my study over 15%), and the task is often accomplished by a midwife under conditions of great secrecy, since this reflects negatively on the man's potency. Some who are unable to penetrate their wives manage to get them pregnant in spite of the infibulation, and the woman's vaginal passage is then cut open to allow birth to take place. ... Those men who do manage to penetrate their wives do so often, or perhaps always, with the help of the "little knife". This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient to admit the penis.<a href="#cite_note-64">[53]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_IV">Type IV</h4></div> Type IV is "[a]ll other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes", including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1">[1]</a> It includes nicking of the clitoris (symbolic circumcision), burning or scarring the genitals, and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten it.<a href="#cite_note-65">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Labia_stretching" title="Labia stretching">Labia stretching</a> is also categorized as Type IV.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2008,_27-67">[56]</a> Common in southern and eastern Africa, the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space. From the age of eight, girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage. Girls in Uganda are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia.<a href="#cite_note-69">[l]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[58]</a> A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included <a href="/wiki/Gishiri_cutting" title="Gishiri cutting">gishiri cutting</a> and angurya cutting, found in Nigeria and Niger. These were removed from the WHO's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2008,_27-67">[56]</a> Angurya cutting is excision of the <a href="/wiki/Hymen" title="Hymen">hymen</a>, usually performed seven days after birth. Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina's front or back wall with a blade or penknife, performed in response to infertility, obstructed labour, and other conditions. In a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara, over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts were found to have <a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">vesicovaginal fistulae</a> (holes that allow urine to seep into the vagina).<a href="#cite_note-71">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complications">Complications</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short_term">Short term</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-FGM_campaign,_Walala_Biyotey,_25_January_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg/330px-Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg/495px-Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg/660px-Anti-FGM_campaign%2C_Walala_Biyotey%2C_25_January_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3697" data-file-height="2221" /></a><figcaption>FGM awareness session run by the <a href="/wiki/African_Union_Mission_to_Somalia" title="African Union Mission to Somalia">African Union Mission to Somalia</a> at the Walalah Biylooley refugee camp, <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, 2014</figcaption></figure> FGM harms women's physical and emotional health throughout their lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergUnderlandOdgaard-JensenFretheim2014-72">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201549-73">[61]</a> It has no known health benefits.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018health-11">[10]</a> The short-term and late <a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">complications</a> depend on the type of FGM, whether the practitioner has had medical training, and whether they used antibiotics and sterilized or single-use surgical instruments. In the case of Type III, other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, whether surgical thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns, and whether the procedure was performed more than once (for example, to close an opening regarded as too wide or re-open one too small).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> Common short-term complications include swelling, excessive bleeding, pain, <a href="/wiki/Urinary_retention" title="Urinary retention">urine retention</a>, and healing problems/<a href="/wiki/Wound_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Wound infection">wound infection</a>. A 2014 systematic review of 56 studies suggested that over one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM, including symbolic nicking of the clitoris (Type IV), experience immediate complications, although the risks increased with Type III. The review also suggested that there was under-reporting.<a href="#cite_note-75">[m]</a> Other short-term complications include fatal bleeding, <a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">anaemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urinary_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary infection">urinary infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septicaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Septicaemia">septicaemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Necrotizing_fasciitis" title="Necrotizing fasciitis">necrotizing fasciitis</a> (flesh-eating disease), and <a href="/wiki/Endometritis" title="Endometritis">endometritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[63]</a> It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice, because complications may not be recognized or reported. The practitioners' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> and <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, although no epidemiological studies have shown this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550-77">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_term">Long term</h3></div> Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> They include the formation of scars and <a href="/wiki/Keloid" title="Keloid">keloids</a> that lead to <a href="/wiki/Stenosis" title="Stenosis">strictures</a> and obstruction, <a href="/wiki/Epidermoid_cyst" title="Epidermoid cyst">epidermoid cysts</a> that may become infected, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroma" title="Neuroma">neuroma</a> formation (growth of nerve tissue) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492-78">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaveSethiMorrone2011-79">[66]</a> An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop <a href="/wiki/Urination" title="Urination">urination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysuria" title="Dysuria">pain while urinating</a>, and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time. Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones. The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the <a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">urethra</a> opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue. <a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">rectovaginal fistulae</a> can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERushwan2013132-80">[67]</a> This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, <a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">pain during sexual intercourse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492-78">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Painful periods</a> are common because of the obstruction to the <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstrual flow</a>, and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus. Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in <a href="/wiki/Hematocolpos" title="Hematocolpos">hematocolpos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hematometra" title="Hematometra">hematometra</a> (where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> The swelling of the abdomen and lack of menstruation can resemble pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERushwan2013132-80">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Asma_El_Dareer" title="Asma El Dareer">Asma El Dareer</a>, a Sudanese physician, reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198237-81">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy,_childbirth">Pregnancy, childbirth</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_(12345176104).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg/220px-Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg/330px-Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg/440px-Teaching_communities_about_FGM-C_%2812345176104%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5154" data-file-height="3606" /></a><figcaption>Materials used to teach communities in <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> about FGM</figcaption></figure> FGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth, which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby's size.<a href="#cite_note-RashidRashid2007-82">[69]</a>: 99  In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae, it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care, making the diagnosis of conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a> harder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492-78">[65]</a> Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed. Third-degree <a href="/wiki/Laceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Laceration">laceration</a> (tears), <a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">anal-sphincter</a> damage and emergency <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">caesarean section</a> are more common in infibulated women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-RashidRashid2007-82">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality#Neonatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Neonatal mortality</a> is increased. The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10–20 babies die per 1,000 deliveries as a result of FGM. The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28,393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan. In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for Type III. The reasons for this were unclear, but may be connected to genital and <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">urinary tract infections</a> and the presence of scar tissue. According to the study, FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the <a href="/wiki/Perineum" title="Perineum">perineum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_bleeding" title="Postpartum bleeding">excessive blood loss</a>, as well as a need to <a href="/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation" title="Cardiopulmonary resuscitation">resuscitate</a> the baby, and <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirth</a>, perhaps because of a long <a href="/wiki/Childbirth#Second_stage:_fetal_expulsion" title="Childbirth">second stage of labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanksMeirikFarleyAkande2006-83">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological_effects,_sexual_function">Psychological effects, sexual function</h3></div> According to a 2015 <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> there is little high-quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM. Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM develop anxiety, depression, and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550-77">[64]</a> Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practices FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm, but within the practicing culture, they may view their FGM with pride because for them it signifies beauty, respect for tradition, chastity and hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> Studies on sexual function have also been small.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550-77">[64]</a> A 2013 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of 15 studies involving 12,671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report <a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">dyspareunia</a> (painful sexual intercourse). One-third reported reduced sexual feelings.<a href="#cite_note-85">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, international FGM rates have risen significantly in recent years, rising from an estimated 200 million in 2016 to 230 million in 2024, with progress towards its abandonment stalling or reversing in many effected countries.<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Household_surveys">Household surveys</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg/400px-2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg/600px-2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg/800px-2020_Global_Response_report_FGM_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the % of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C according to the March 2020 Global Response report.<a href="#cite_note-86">[73]</a> Grey countries' data are not covered.</figcaption></figure> Aid agencies define the prevalence of FGM as the percentage of the 15–49 age group that has experienced it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013193-87">[74]</a> These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as <a href="/wiki/Demographic_and_Health_Surveys" title="Demographic and Health Surveys">Demographic and Health Surveys</a> (DHS), developed by <a href="/wiki/ICF_International" title="ICF International">Macro International</a> and funded mainly by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">United States Agency for International Development</a> (USAID); and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_Indicator_Cluster_Surveys" title="Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys">Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys</a> (MICS) conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013190-35">[32]</a> These surveys have been carried out in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere roughly every five years since 1984 and 1995 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-DHS-88">[75]</a> The first to ask about FGM was the 1989–1990 DHS in northern Sudan. The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data (in seven countries) was written by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013-89">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_of_FGM">Type of FGM</h3></div> Questions the women are asked during the surveys include: "Was the genital area just nicked/cut without removing any flesh? Was any flesh (or something) removed from the genital area? Was your genital area sewn?"<a href="#cite_note-90">[77]</a> Most women report "cut, some flesh removed" (Types I and II).<a href="#cite_note-Yoder2013p189TypeI-91">[78]</a> Type I is the most common form in Egypt,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasheedAbd-EllahYousef2011-92">[79]</a> and in the southern parts of Nigeria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkekeAnyaehieEzenyeaku201270–73-93">[80]</a> Type III (infibulation) is concentrated in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan200813–14-53">[45]</a> In surveys in 2002–2006, 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti, 38 percent in Eritrea, and 63 percent in Somalia had experienced Type III.<a href="#cite_note-94">[81]</a> There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and Senegal,<a href="#cite_note-95">[82]</a> and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0–14 age group had been infibulated.<a href="#cite_note-96">[83]</a> The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity. In Eritrea, for example, a survey in 2002 found that all <a href="/wiki/Hedareb_people" title="Hedareb people">Hedareb</a> girls had been infibulated, compared with two percent of the <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_people" title="Tigrinya people">Tigrinya</a>, most of whom fell into the "cut, no flesh removed" category.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p48-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevalence">Prevalence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_female_genital_mutilation" title="Prevalence of female genital mutilation">Prevalence of female genital mutilation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Downward trend</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_(2016).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="graph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg/200px-FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg/300px-FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg/400px-FGM_prevalence_15%E2%80%9349_%282016%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="805" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Percentage of 15–49 group who have undergone FGM in 29 countries for which figures were available in 2016<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_(2016).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="graph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg/200px-FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg/300px-FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg/400px-FGM_prevalence_0%E2%80%9314_%282016%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="805" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Percentage of 0–14 group who have undergone FGM in 21 countries for which figures were available in 2016<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a></div></div></div></div></div> FGM is mostly found in what <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a> called an "intriguingly contiguous" zone in Africa—east to west from Somalia to Senegal, and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania.<a href="#cite_note-97">[84]</a> Nationally representative figures are available for 27 countries in Africa, as well as Indonesia, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen. Over 200 million women and girls are thought to be living with FGM in those 30 countries.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICEFIndonesia2016-98">[85]</a> The highest concentrations among the 15–49 age group are in Somalia (98 percent), Guinea (97 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), and Sierra Leone (90 percent).<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2014pp89-90-99">[86]</a> As of 2013, 27.2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt, 23.8 million in Ethiopia, and 19.9 million in Nigeria.<a href="#cite_note-100">[87]</a> There is a high concentration in Indonesia, where according to UNICEF Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type IV (symbolic nicking) are practised; the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Indonesia)" title="Ministry of Health (Indonesia)">Indonesian Ministry of Health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Ulema_Council" title="Indonesian Ulema Council">Indonesian Ulema Council</a> both say the clitoris should not be cut. The prevalence rate for the 0–11 group in Indonesia is 49 percent (13.4 million).<a href="#cite_note-UNICEFIndonesia2016-98">[85]</a>: 2  Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that various types of FGM are also practised in various circumstances in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-101">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-102">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_2013,_23-104">[91]</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[92]</a> and among <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a> communities in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-101">[88]</a> but there are no representative data on the prevalence in these countries.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a> As of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, UNICEF reported that "The highest levels of support for FGM can be found in Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea, the Gambia, Somalia, and Egypt, where more than half of the female population thinks the practice should continue".<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">[3]</a> Prevalence figures for the 15–19 age group and younger show a downward trend.<a href="#cite_note-107">[n]</a> For example, Burkina Faso fell from 89 percent (1980) to 58 percent (2010); Egypt from 97 percent (1985) to 70 percent (2015); and Kenya from 41 percent (1984) to 11 percent (2014).<a href="#cite_note-108">[94]</a> Beginning in 2010, household surveys asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters.<a href="#cite_note-109">[95]</a> The highest concentrations among girls aged 0–14 were in Gambia (56 percent), Mauritania (54 percent), Indonesia (49 percent for 0–11) and Guinea (46 percent).<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">[4]</a> The figures suggest that a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-110">[96]</a> According to a 2018 study published in BMJ Global Health, the prevalence within the 0–14 year old group fell in East Africa from 71.4 percent in 1995 to 8 percent in 2016; in North Africa from 57.7 percent in 1990 to 14.1 percent in 2015; and in West Africa from 73.6 percent in 1996 to 25.4 percent in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-111">[97]</a> If the current rate of decline continues, the number of girls cut will nevertheless continue to rise because of population growth, according to UNICEF in 2014; they estimate that the figure will increase from 3.6 million a year in 2013 to 4.1 million in 2050.<a href="#cite_note-113">[o]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_areas,_wealth,_education">Rural areas, wealth, education</h3></div> Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas, less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes, and (except in Sudan and Somalia) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary/higher education. In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed: in Somalia, the mothers' access to secondary/higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters, and in Sudan, access to any education was accompanied by a rise.<a href="#cite_note-114">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age,_ethnicity">Age, ethnicity</h3></div> FGM is not invariably a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a> between childhood and adulthood but is often performed on much younger children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2000275-115">[100]</a> Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15. In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000–2010, most girls had been cut by age five.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p50-5">[5]</a> Over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut before the age of five in Nigeria, Mali, Eritrea, Ghana and Mauritania.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013pp47,183-116">[101]</a> The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth.<a href="#cite_note-117">[102]</a> The percentage is reversed in Somalia, Egypt, Chad, and the Central African Republic, where over 80 percent (of those cut) are cut between five and 14.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013pp47,183-116">[101]</a> Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity, so is the mean age. In Kenya, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Kisi_people" title="Kisi people">Kisi</a> cut around age 10 and the <a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Kamba</a> at 16.<a href="#cite_note-118">[103]</a> A country's national prevalence often reflects a high sub-national prevalence among certain ethnicities, rather than a widespread practice.<a href="#cite_note-119">[104]</a> In Iraq, for example, FGM is found mostly among the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurds</a> in <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a> (58 percent prevalence within age group 15–49, as of 2011), <a href="/wiki/Sulaymaniyah" title="Sulaymaniyah">Sulaymaniyah</a> (54 percent) and <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a> (20 percent), giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent.<a href="#cite_note-120">[105]</a> The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker, but it may differ along national lines. For example, in the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, which share a border with Somalia, the <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali people</a> practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013196,_198-121">[106]</a> But in Guinea all <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fulani</a> women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM,<a href="#cite_note-122">[107]</a> against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad, while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it.<a href="#cite_note-123">[108]</a> In Sierra Leone, the predominantly Christian <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Leone Creole">Creole</a> people are the only ethnicity not known to practice FGM or participate in <a href="/wiki/Sande_society" title="Sande society">Bondo society</a> rituals.<a href="#cite_note-Bassir,_Olumbe_1954-124">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons">Reasons</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_from_women">Support from women</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:220px; border-width: 1px; font-size: 95%; color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:1.0em"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; color: #555555;">1996 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote center-aligned" style=""> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151007101527/http://www.pulitzer.org/works/1996-Feature-Photography">Kenyan FGM ceremony</a> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style=""> — Stephanie Welsh, Newhouse News Service<a href="#cite_note-127">[112]</a></cite></div> </div> Dahabo Musa, a Somali woman, described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the "three feminine sorrows": the procedure itself, the wedding night when the woman is cut open, then childbirth when she is cut again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA187_187]-128">[113]</a> Despite the evident suffering, it is women who organize all forms of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735,_42,_46-129">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[p]</a> Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Rose_Oldfield_Hayes" title="Rose Oldfield Hayes">Rose Oldfield Hayes</a> wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated (preferring clitoridectomy) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1975620,_624-135">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a> has compared the practice to <a href="/wiki/Footbinding" class="mw-redirect" title="Footbinding">footbinding</a>. Like FGM, footbinding was carried out on young girls, nearly universal where practised, tied to ideas about honour, chastity, and appropriate marriage, and "supported and transmitted" by women.<a href="#cite_note-137">[q]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg/170px-Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg/255px-Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg/340px-Fuambai_Sia_Ahmadu_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1782" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fuambai_Ahmadu" title="Fuambai Ahmadu">Fuambai Ahmadu</a> chose to undergo clitoridectomy as an adult.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmadu2000-138">[121]</a></figcaption></figure> FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender differences. According to this view, male circumcision defeminizes men while FGM demasculinizes women.<a href="#cite_note-139">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuambai_Ahmadu" title="Fuambai Ahmadu">Fuambai Ahmadu</a>, an anthropologist and member of the <a href="/wiki/Kono_people" title="Kono people">Kono people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a <a href="/wiki/Sande_society" title="Sande society">Sande society</a> initiation, argued in 2000 that it is a male-centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality. African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmadu2000-138">[121]</a> Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility. "[G]enital cutting completes the social definition of a child's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny," <a href="/wiki/Janice_Boddy" title="Janice Boddy">Janice Boddy</a> wrote in 2007. "The female body is then covered, closed, and its productive blood bound within; the male body is unveiled, opened, and exposed."<a href="#cite_note-140">[123]</a> In communities where infibulation is common, there is a preference for women's genitals to be smooth, dry and without odour, and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005435–436-141">[124]</a> Some men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation.<a href="#cite_note-142">[125]</a> The local preference for <a href="/wiki/Dry_sex" title="Dry sex">dry sex</a> causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication, including leaves, tree bark, toothpaste and <a href="/wiki/Vicks_VapoRub" title="Vicks VapoRub">Vicks menthol rub</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA277_277–281]-143">[126]</a> The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM, because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection.<a href="#cite_note-144">[127]</a> Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva, there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005437-145">[128]</a> Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance, religion, hygiene, preservation of virginity, marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure.<a href="#cite_note-146">[129]</a> In a study in northern Sudan, published in 1983, only 17.4 percent of women opposed FGM (558 out of 3,210), and most preferred excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer1983140-147">[130]</a> Attitudes are changing slowly. In Sudan in 2010, 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue.<a href="#cite_note-148">[131]</a> In several surveys since 2006, over 50 percent of women in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, the Gambia, and Egypt supported FGM's continuance, while elsewhere in Africa, Iraq, and Yemen most said it should end, although in several countries only by a narrow margin.<a href="#cite_note-149">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_obligation,_poor_access_to_information">Social obligation, poor access to information</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keur_Simbara,_Senegal_(8592417042),_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg/260px-Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg/390px-Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg/520px-Keur_Simbara%2C_Senegal_%288592417042%29%2C_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3443" data-file-height="2229" /></a><figcaption>Keur Simbara, Senegal, abandoned FGM in 1998 after a three-year program by <a href="/wiki/Tostan" title="Tostan">Tostan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[133]</a></figcaption></figure> Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters, UNICEF calls the practice a "self-enforcing <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social convention</a>" to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion.<a href="#cite_note-151">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Gruenbaum" title="Ellen Gruenbaum">Ellen Gruenbaum</a> reported that, in Sudan in the 1970s, cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut <a href="/wiki/Zarma_people" title="Zarma people">Zabarma</a> girls with Ya, ghalfa! ("Hey, unclean!"). The Zabarma girls would respond Ya, mutmura! (A mutmura was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed, like an infibulated woman.) But despite throwing the insult back, the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers, "What's the matter? Don't we have razor blades like the Arabs?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005432–433-152">[135]</a> Because of poor access to information, and because practitioners downplay the causal connection, women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure. Lala Baldé, president of a women's association in Medina Cherif, a village in Senegal, told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or died, it was attributed to evil spirits. When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health, Mackie wrote, the women broke down and wept. He argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2003147–148-153">[136]</a> The American non-profit group <a href="/wiki/Tostan" title="Tostan">Tostan</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Molly_Melching" title="Molly Melching">Molly Melching</a> in 1991, introduced community-empowerment programs in several countries that focus on local democracy, literacy, and education about healthcare, giving women the tools to make their own decisions.<a href="#cite_note-154">[137]</a> In 1997, using the Tostan program, <a href="/wiki/Malicounda_Bambara" title="Malicounda Bambara">Malicounda Bambara</a> in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2000256ff-155">[138]</a> By August 2019, 8,800 communities in eight countries had pledged to abandon FGM and <a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">child marriage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[r]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_female_genital_mutilation" title="Religious views on female genital mutilation">Religious views on female genital mutilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)#Comparisons_with_female_circumcision" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Khitan (circumcision) § Comparisons with female circumcision</a></div> Surveys have shown a widespread belief, particularly in Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, and Egypt, that FGM is a religious requirement.<a href="#cite_note-158">[140]</a> Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion, tradition, and chastity, making it difficult to interpret the data.<a href="#cite_note-159">[141]</a> FGM's origins in northeastern Africa are pre-Islamic, but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion's focus on female chastity and seclusion.<a href="#cite_note-161">[s]</a> According to a 2013 UNICEF report, in 18 African countries at least 10 percent of Muslim females had experienced FGM, and in 13 of those countries, the figure rose to 50–99 percent.<a href="#cite_note-auto-162">[143]</a> In 2007 the <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University#Council_of_Senior_Scholars" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research</a> in Cairo ruled that FGM had "no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions".<a href="#cite_note-163">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[t]</a> There is no mention of the practice in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961004–1005-166">[146]</a> It is praised in a few <a href="/wiki/Hadith_terminology" title="Hadith terminology">daʻīf</a> (weak) <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> (sayings attributed to Muhammad) as noble but not required.<a href="#cite_note-167">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[u]</a> Islamic scholars <a href="/wiki/Abu_Dawood" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Dawood">Abū Dāwūd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal</a> reported that Muhammad said circumcision was a "law for men and a preservation of honor for women",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck2012-169">[148]</a> however some regard this <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> as <a href="/wiki/Hadith_terminology" title="Hadith terminology">daʻīf</a> (weak).<a href="#cite_note-170">[149]</a> FGM is regarded as an obligatory practice by the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> version of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoald2003243-171">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_India" title="Female genital mutilation in India">FGM in India</a> is prevalent among the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> members of the <a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra#Female_circumcision" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Bohra</a> Muslim community who practice it as a religious custom.<a href="#cite_note-fgmindia-172">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-bohra-173">[152]</a> There is no mention of FGM in the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-175">[v]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Skoptsy" title="Skoptsy">Skoptsy Christian</a> sect in Europe practices FGM as part of redemption from <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">sin</a> and to remain chaste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngelstein1997-176">[154]</a> Christian missionaries in Africa were <a href="#Colonial_opposition_in_Kenya">among the first</a> to object to FGM,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray1976-177">[155]</a> but Christian communities in Africa do practise it. In 2013 UNICEF identified 19 African countries in which at least 10 percent of Christian females aged 15 to 49 had undergone FGM;<a href="#cite_note-179">[w]</a> in Niger, 55 percent of Christian women and girls had experienced it, compared with two percent of their Muslim counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-180">[157]</a> The only Jewish group known to have practised it is the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> of Ethiopia. Judaism requires male circumcision but does not allow FGM.<a href="#cite_note-181">[158]</a> FGM is also practised by <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animist</a> groups, particularly in Guinea and Mali.<a href="#cite_note-auto-162">[143]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:300px; border-width: 1px; font-size: 95%; color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:2.0em"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; color: #555555;">Spell 1117</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite it [a magical spell] every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the b3d [unknown substance] of an uncircumcised girl ['m't] and the flakes of skin [šnft] of an uncircumcised bald man. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—From an <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a>, c. 1991–1786 BCE<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001330-182">[159]</a></cite></div> </div> The practice's origins are unknown. Gerry Mackie has suggested that, because FGM's east–west, north–south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan, infibulation may have begun there with the <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroite civilization</a> (c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE), before the rise of Islam, to increase confidence in paternity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2000264,_267-183">[160]</a> According to historian Mary Knight, Spell 1117 (c. 1991–1786 BCE) of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">Coffin Texts</a> may refer in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> to an uncircumcised girl ('m't): <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D36.png?9d512" height="12" title="D36 [a]" alt="a" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G17.png?3741e" height="38" title="G17 [m]" alt="m" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D36.png?9d512" height="12" title="D36 [a]" alt="a" /> <img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_X1.png?f2a8c" height="11" title="X1" alt="X1" /></td> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_D53.png?a32fd" height="14" title="D53" alt="D53" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_B1.png?ca40a" height="38" title="B1" alt="B1" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> The spell was found on the <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> of Sit-hedjhotep, now in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a>, and dates to Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001330-182">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[x]</a> (Paul F. O'Rourke argues that 'm't probably refers instead to a menstruating woman.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Rourke2007166ff_(hieroglyphs),_172_(menstruating_woman)-185">[161]</a> The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl, Tathemis, is also mentioned on a Greek <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, from 163 BCE, in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>: "Sometime after this, Nephoris [Tathemis's mother] defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians."<a href="#cite_note-187">[y]</a> The examination of <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> has shown no evidence of FGM. Citing the Australian pathologist <a href="/wiki/Grafton_Elliot_Smith" title="Grafton Elliot Smith">Grafton Elliot Smith</a>, who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century, Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the <a href="/wiki/Pudendal_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudendal cleft">pudendal cleft</a>, possibly to prevent a sexual violation. It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed, because soft tissues had deteriorated or been removed by the embalmers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001331-188">[163]</a> The Greek geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (c. 64 BCE – c. 23 CE) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE: "This is one of the customs most zealously pursued by them [the Egyptians]: to raise every child that is born and to circumcise [peritemnein] the males and excise [ektemnein] the females ..."<a href="#cite_note-189">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[z]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[aa]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a> (c. 20 BCE – 50 CE) also made reference to it: "the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth (year) of their age when the male begins to get seed, and the female to have a menstrual flow."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001333-194">[167]</a> It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (129 – c. 200 CE): "When [the clitoris] sticks out to a great extent in their young women, Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out."<a href="#cite_note-196">[ab]</a> Another Greek physician, <a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a> (mid-5th to mid-6th century CE), offered more detail in book 16 of his Sixteen Books on Medicine, citing the physician Philomenes. The procedure was performed in case the clitoris, or nymphê, grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing. "On this account, it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged," Aëtius wrote, "especially at that time when the girls were about to be married": <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The surgery is performed in this way: Have the girl sit on a chair while a muscled young man standing behind her places his arms below the girl's thighs. Have him separate and steady her legs and whole body. Standing in front and taking hold of the clitoris with a broad-mouthed forceps in his left hand, the surgeon stretches it outward, while with the right hand, he cuts it off at the point next to the pincers of the forceps. It is proper to let a length remain from that cut off, about the size of the membrane that's between the nostrils, so as to take away the excess material only; as I have said, the part to be removed is at that point just above the pincers of the forceps. Because the clitoris is a skinlike structure and stretches out excessively, do not cut off too much, as a urinary fistula may result from cutting such large growths too deeply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001327–328-197">[169]</a></blockquote> The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge, <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> powder and wine or cold water, and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar, until the seventh day when <a href="/wiki/Calamine" title="Calamine">calamine</a>, rose petals, date pits, or a "genital powder made from baked clay" might be applied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001328-198">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Red_Sea_slave_trade">Red Sea slave trade</h3></div> Whatever the practice's origins, infibulation became linked to slavery. Research has indicated that linkes between the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> and female genital mutilation.<a href="#cite_note-ssrn.com-199">[171]</a> An investigation combining contemporary from data on slave shipments from 1400 to 1900 with data from 28 African countries has found that women belonging to ethnic groups historically victimized by the Red Sea slave trade were "significantly" more likely to suffer genital mutilation in the 21st-century, as well as "more in favour of continuing the practice".<a href="#cite_note-ssrn.com-199">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-telegraph.co.uk-200">[172]</a> Women trafficked in the Red Sea slave trade were sold as <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">concubines (sex slaves)</a> in the Islamic Middle East up until as late as in the mid 20th-century, and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">infibulation</a> was used to temporarily signal the virginity of girls, increasing their value on the slave market: "According to descriptions by early travellers, infibulated female slaves had a higher price on the market because infibulation was thought to ensure chastity and loyalty to the owner and prevented undesired pregnancies".<a href="#cite_note-ssrn.com-199">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-telegraph.co.uk-200">[172]</a> Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_dos_Santos" title="João dos Santos">João dos Santos</a>, who in 1609 wrote of a group near Mogadishu who had a "custome to sew up their Females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their Masters put in them". Thus, Mackie argues, a "practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961003,_1009-201">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_and_the_United_States">Europe and the United States</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="portrait" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg/220px-Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg/330px-Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg/440px-Isaac_Baker_Brown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Baker_Brown" title="Isaac Baker Brown">Isaac Baker Brown</a> "set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so".<a href="#cite_note-Allen2000p106-202">[174]</a></figcaption></figure> Some gynaecologists in 19th-century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2008-203">[175]</a> A British doctor, Robert Thomas, suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for <a href="/wiki/Nymphomania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nymphomania">nymphomania</a> in 1813.<a href="#cite_note-204">[176]</a> In 1825 <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> described a clitoridectomy performed in 1822 in Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_von_Graefe" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Ferdinand von Graefe">Karl Ferdinand von Graefe</a> on a 15-year-old girl who was masturbating excessively.<a href="#cite_note-205">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Baker_Brown" title="Isaac Baker Brown">Isaac Baker Brown</a>, an English gynaecologist, president of the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Society_of_London" title="Medical Society of London">Medical Society of London</a> and co-founder in 1845 of <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">St. Mary's Hospital</a>, believed that masturbation, or "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris, caused <a href="/wiki/Female_hysteria" title="Female hysteria">hysteria</a>, spinal irritation, fits, idiocy, mania, and death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElchalalBen-AmiGillisBrzezinski1997-206">[178]</a> He, therefore "set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary.<a href="#cite_note-Allen2000p106-202">[174]</a> Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866.<a href="#cite_note-Allen2000p106-202">[174]</a> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/J._Marion_Sims" title="J. Marion Sims">J. Marion Sims</a> followed Brown's work and in 1862 slit the <a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">neck of a woman's uterus</a> and amputated her clitoris, "for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGregor1998146-207">[179]</a> When Brown published his views in On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females (1866), doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the <a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical Society">Obstetrical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[180]</a> Later in the 19th century, A. J. Bloch, a surgeon in New Orleans, removed the clitoris of a two-year-old girl who was reportedly masturbating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoberman2005[httpsarchiveorgdetailstestosteronedrea00hobepage63_63]-209">[181]</a> According to a 1985 paper in the Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, clitoridectomy was performed in the United States into the 1960s to treat hysteria, erotomania and lesbianism.<a href="#cite_note-210">[182]</a> From the mid-1950s, <a href="/wiki/James_C._Burt" title="James C. Burt">James C. Burt</a>, a gynaecologist in Dayton, Ohio, performed non-standard repairs of <a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">episiotomies</a> after childbirth, adding <a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">more stitches</a> to make the vaginal opening smaller. From 1966 until 1989, he performed "love surgery" by cutting women's <a href="/wiki/Pubococcygeus_muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pubococcygeus muscle">pubococcygeus muscle</a>, repositioning the vagina and urethra, and removing the clitoral hood, thereby making their genital area more appropriate, in his view, for intercourse in the <a href="/wiki/Missionary_position" title="Missionary position">missionary position</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2014149–153-211">[183]</a> "Women are structurally inadequate for intercourse," he wrote; he said he would turn them into "horny little mice".<a href="#cite_note-212">[184]</a> In the 1960s and 1970s he performed these procedures without consent while repairing episiotomies and performing hysterectomies and other surgery; he said he had performed a variation of them on 4,000 women by 1975.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodriguez2014149–153-211">[183]</a> Following complaints, he was required in 1989 to stop practicing medicine in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-213">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition_and_legal_status">Opposition and legal status</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country" title="Female genital mutilation laws by country">Female genital mutilation laws by country</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_opposition_in_Kenya">Colonial opposition in Kenya</h3></div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_female_genital_mutilation_in_colonial_Kenya" title="Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya">Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:300px; border-width: 1px; font-size: 95%; color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; margin–top:1.5em;margin-bottom:1.5em;padding:2em"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #F9F9F9; color: #555555;">Muthirigu</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div class="poem"> Little knives in their sheaths That they may fight with the church, The time has come. Elders (of the church) When <a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Kenyatta</a> comes You will be given women's clothes And you will have to cook him his food. </div> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">— From the Muthirigu (1929), <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Kikuyu</a> dance-songs against church opposition to FGM<a href="#cite_note-214">[186]</a></cite></div> </div> Protestant missionaries in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">British East Africa</a> (present-day Kenya) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century, when Dr. <a href="/wiki/John_Arthur_(missionary)" title="John Arthur (missionary)">John Arthur</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> Mission (CSM) in Kikuyu. An important ethnic marker, the practice was known by the <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Kikuyu</a>, the country's main ethnic group, as irua for both girls and boys. It involved excision (Type II) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys. Unexcised Kikuyu women (irugu) were outcasts.<a href="#cite_note-215">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a>, general secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_Central_Association" title="Kikuyu Central Association">Kikuyu Central Association</a> and later Kenya's first prime minister, wrote in 1938 that, for the Kikuyu, the institution of FGM was the "<a href="/wiki/Sine_qua_non" title="Sine qua non">conditio sine qua non</a> of the whole teaching of tribal law, religion and morality". No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised, he wrote. A woman's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation. Her age and place within tribal history were traced to that day, and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events, an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyatta1962127–130-216">[188]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hulda_Stumpf,_Africa_Inland_Mission_conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Hulda_Stumpf%2C_Africa_Inland_Mission_conference.jpg/220px-Hulda_Stumpf%2C_Africa_Inland_Mission_conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Hulda_Stumpf%2C_Africa_Inland_Mission_conference.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="291" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hulda_Stumpf" title="Hulda Stumpf">Hulda Stumpf</a> (bottom left) was murdered in Kikuyu in 1930 after opposing FGM.</figcaption></figure> Beginning with the CSM in 1925, several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians; the CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated, which resulted in hundreds leaving or being expelled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiedler199675-217">[189]</a> In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM as the "sexual mutilation of women", and a person's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty, either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association.<a href="#cite_note-218">[190]</a> The stand-off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement; the 1929–1931 period is known in the country's historiography as the female circumcision controversy.<a href="#cite_note-219">[191]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Hulda_Stumpf" title="Hulda Stumpf">Hulda Stumpf</a>, an American missionary who opposed FGM in the girls' school she helped to run, was murdered in 1930, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Grigg" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Grigg">Edward Grigg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_and_administrators_of_Kenya" title="List of colonial governors and administrators of Kenya">governor of Kenya</a>, told the British <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a> that the killer had tried to circumcise her.<a href="#cite_note-220">[192]</a> There was some opposition from Kenyan women themselves. At the mission in Tumutumu, <a href="/wiki/Karatina" title="Karatina">Karatina</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Marion_Scott_Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Marion Scott Stevenson">Marion Scott Stevenson</a> worked, a group calling themselves Ngo ya Tuiritu ("Shield of Young Girls"), the membership of which included Raheli Warigia (mother of <a href="/wiki/Gakaara_wa_Wanja%C5%A9" title="Gakaara wa Wanjaũ">Gakaara wa Wanjaũ</a>), wrote to the Local Native Council of South Nyeri on 25 December 1931: "[W]e of the Ngo ya Tuiritu heard that there are men who talk of female circumcision, and we get astonished because they (men) do not give birth and feel the pain and even some die and even others become infertile, and the main cause is circumcision. Because of that, the issue of circumcision should not be forced. People are caught like sheep; one should be allowed to cut her own way of either agreeing to be circumcised or not without being dictated on one's own body."<a href="#cite_note-221">[193]</a> Elsewhere, support for the practice from women was strong. In 1956 in Meru, eastern Kenya, when the council of male elders (the Njuri Nchecke) announced a ban on FGM in 1956, thousands of girls cut each other's genitals with razor blades over the next three years as a symbol of defiance. The movement came to be known as Ngaitana ("I will circumcise myself"), because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves. Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators.<a href="#cite_note-222">[194]</a> FGM was eventually outlawed in Kenya in 2001, although the practice continued, reportedly driven by older women.<a href="#cite_note-223">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_opposition">Growth of opposition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding:0.5em; color:#555555; font:95%">FGM opposition</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Nawal_El_Saadawi,_April_2012_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Nawal_El_Saadawi%2C_April_2012_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="960" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a> criticized FGM in 1970, one of the first African feminists to do so publicly.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border:0px"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; color:#555555;color: var(--color-base)">1920s–1980s timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="text-align:left; margin-left:2.0em; margin-right:1.5em;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1920s–1930s</div> <dl><dd>1920s: Egyptian Doctors' Society call for ban.<a href="#cite_note-Egyptiandoctors-224">[A 1]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1929: <a href="/wiki/Marion_Stevenson" title="Marion Stevenson">Marion Scott Stevenson</a>, Church of Scotland missionary in Kenya, calls FGM "sexual mutilation of women." <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Churches_of_Kenya" title="National Council of Churches of Kenya">National Council of Churches of Kenya</a> follow suit.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-225">[A 2]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Scottish missionaries <a href="/wiki/Female_circumcision_controversy_(Kenya,_1929%E2%80%931932)" class="mw-redirect" title="Female circumcision controversy (Kenya, 1929–1932)">require Kikuyu Christians</a> to take an oath against FGM; most leave to form their own churches.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Jan 1930: <a href="/wiki/Hulda_Stumpf" title="Hulda Stumpf">Hulda Stumpf</a> murdered in Kenya during protests about FGM.<a href="#cite_note-Stumpf-226">[A 3]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1930s: Religious leaders and British women lead campaign against FGM in Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-Sudan1930s-227">[A 4]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1935: <a href="/wiki/Salama_Moussa" title="Salama Moussa">Salama Moussa</a> writes about FGM in his book Ma Heia al Nahda ("What is Renaissance?").<a href="#cite_note-Egypt1935-228">[A 5]</a></dd></dl> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1940s–1960s</div> <dl><dd>1946: Sudan, under <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Anglo-Egyptian control</a>, bans infibulation; the law is barely enforced.<a href="#cite_note-Sudan1946-229">[A 6]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>May 1951: Egyptian medical journal, Al Doktor, issues booklet on dangers of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-Egypt1950s-230">[A 7]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1957–1958: Egyptian journalist Amina al Sa'eed and Hawwaa magazine editor Rabee' Gheith publish articles on FGM.<a href="#cite_note-Egypt1950s-230">[A 7]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Late 1950s: <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Women%27s_Union" title="Sudanese Women's Union">Sudanese Women's Union</a> campaigns against FGM in their magazine, Sawt el Maraa.<a href="#cite_note-Sudan1950s-231">[A 8]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1959: Egypt bans infibulation in state-run hospitals; allows partial clitoridectomy if parents request it.<a href="#cite_note-Egypt1959ban-232">[A 9]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>UN asks the WHO to investigate FGM; WHO responds that it is not a medical issue.<a href="#cite_note-UNWHO-233">[A 10]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1960s: Central African Republic, Ghana and Guinea, after gaining independence, pass laws restricting FGM.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>1969: Guinean gynaecologist Aja Tounkara Diallo Fatimata begins 28-year practice of performing fake clitoridectomies to satisfy families.<a href="#cite_note-Fatimata-234">[A 11]</a></dd></dl> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1970s</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg/150px-Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg/225px-Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg/300px-Benoite_Groult_-_Com%C3%A9die_du_Livre_2010_-_P1390493.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benoite_Groult" class="mw-redirect" title="Benoite Groult">Benoite Groult</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg/150px-Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg/225px-Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>1970: <a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a> criticizes FGM in Al-Mar'a wa Al-Jins (Women and Sex).<a href="#cite_note-Saadawi1-235">[A 12]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1972: Saadawi's The Naked Face of Women describes her own circumcision.<a href="#cite_note-Saadawi2-236">[A 13]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1975: UN <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Year" title="International Women's Year">International Women's Year</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>American social scientist <a href="/wiki/Rose_Oldfield_Hayes" title="Rose Oldfield Hayes">Rose Oldfield Hayes</a> calls it "female genital mutilation" in paper on Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes-237">[A 14]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEte_Groult" title="Benoîte Groult">Benoîte Groult</a> calls FGM "the best kept secret in the world" in her book Ainsi soit-elle.<a href="#cite_note-Groult-238">[A 15]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a> begins writing about FGM in Women's International Network News (WIN News).</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1976–1985: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Decade_for_Women" title="United Nations Decade for Women">United Nations Decade for Women</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dd>1976: <a href="/wiki/Jill_Tweedie" title="Jill Tweedie">Jill Tweedie</a> calls FGM "ritual mutilation of the female genitalia."<a href="#cite_note-Tweedie-239">[A 16]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1977: <a href="/wiki/Asma_El_Dareer" title="Asma El Dareer">Asma El Dareer</a> begins her survey of FGM in Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas-240">[A 17]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>March 1977: <a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a> of Somalia's Ministry of Health speaks against FGM to Somali Democratic Women's Organization.<a href="#cite_note-Ismail-241">[A 18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Topping-242">[A 19]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1978: <a href="/wiki/Mary_Daly" title="Mary Daly">Mary Daly</a> criticizes FGM in her book <a href="/wiki/Gyn/Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyn/Ecology">Gyn/Ecology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Daly-243">[A 20]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Senegalese writer <a href="/wiki/Awa_Thiam" title="Awa Thiam">Awa Thiam</a> writes about FGM in her book <a href="/wiki/La_Parole_aux_N%C3%A9gresses" class="mw-redirect" title="La Parole aux Négresses">La Parole aux Négresses</a> (Speak out Black Sisters, 1986).<a href="#cite_note-Thiam-244">[A 21]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1979: UN conference in <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a> calls on women's groups to mobilize against FGM.<a href="#cite_note-Lusaka-245">[A 22]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>February: WHO holds seminar in <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children".<a href="#cite_note-Khartoum-246">[A 23]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>February: The <a href="/wiki/Babiker_Bedri_Scientific_Association_for_Women%27s_Studies" title="Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies">Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies</a> (BBSAWS) forms in Khartoum, aiming to fight FGM in Sudan.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Autumn: <a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a> publishes The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, the first to estimate global figures.<a href="#cite_note-Hosken-247">[A 24]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>October: Cairo Family Planning Association holds seminar, "Bodily Mutilation of Females".<a href="#cite_note-Cairo-248">[A 25]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>December: UN General Assembly adopts <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN1979-249">[A 26]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <hr /> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1980s</div> <dl><dd>1980: British writer Scilla McLean writes report on FGM for Minority Rights Group in France.<a href="#cite_note-McLean-250">[A 27]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>March: <a href="/wiki/Robin_Morgan" title="Robin Morgan">Robin Morgan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Steinem" title="Gloria Steinem">Gloria Steinem</a> call it "female genital mutilation" in Ms magazine.<a href="#cite_note-Ms-251">[A 28]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>July: African women boycott session featuring <a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a> at UN's <a href="/wiki/Mid-Decade_Conference_on_Women,_Copenhagen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Decade Conference on Women, Copenhagen">Mid-Decade Conference on Women, Copenhagen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Copenhagen-252">[A 29]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg/150px-Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg/225px-Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg/300px-Efua_Dorkenoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Efua_Dorkenoo" title="Efua Dorkenoo">Efua Dorkenoo</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>1981: French Association of Anthropologists publishes statement that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism."<a href="#cite_note-French-253">[A 30]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>March: English researcher <a href="/wiki/Lilian_Passmore_Sanderson" title="Lilian Passmore Sanderson">Lilian Passmore Sanderson</a> publishes Against the Mutilation of Women.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1982: <a href="/wiki/Asma_El_Dareer" title="Asma El Dareer">Asma El Dareer</a> publishes Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and its Consequences.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas-240">[A 17]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Raqiya_Haji_Dualeh_Abdalla" title="Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla">Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla</a> publishes Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Abdalla-254">[A 31]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1983: <a href="/wiki/Efua_Dorkenoo" title="Efua Dorkenoo">Efua Dorkenoo</a> founds <a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Women%27s_Health,_Research_and_Development" title="Foundation for Women's Health, Research and Development">FORWARD</a> in London.<a href="#cite_note-Forward-255">[A 32]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>1984: <a href="/wiki/Inter-African_Committee_on_Traditional_Practices_Affecting_the_Health_of_Women_and_Children" title="Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children">Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices</a> founded in Dakar, Senegal, calls for an end to the practice.<a href="#cite_note-Inter-African-256">[A 33]</a></dd></dl> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">References</div> <div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Egyptiandoctors-224"><a href="#cite_ref-Egyptiandoctors_224-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevenson-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson_225-0">^</a> James Karanja, The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church, Cuvillier Verlag, 2009, p. 93, n. 631. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stumpf-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Stumpf_226-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Janice_Boddy" title="Janice Boddy">Janice Boddy</a>, Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan, Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sudan1930s-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Sudan1930s_227-0">^</a> Boddy 2007, pp. 269–270. </li> <li id="cite_note-Egypt1935-228"><a href="#cite_ref-Egypt1935_228-0">^</a> Seham Abd el Salam, "A Comprehensive Approach for Communication about Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt," in George C. Denniston, et al. (eds.), Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice, Springer, 1999, p. 318. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sudan1946-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Sudan1946_229-0">^</a> Boddy 2007, pp. 202, 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-Egypt1950s-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Egypt1950s_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Egypt1950s_230-1">b</a> El Salam 1999, pp. 318–319; UNICEF 2013, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sudan1950s-231"><a href="#cite_ref-Sudan1950s_231-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Rogaia_Mustafa_Abusharaf" title="Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf">Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf</a>, "Revisiting Feminist Discourses on Inbulation: The Hosken Report," in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-Egypt1959ban-232"><a href="#cite_ref-Egypt1959ban_232-0">^</a> Elizabeth Heger Boyle, Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 92, 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNWHO-233"><a href="#cite_ref-UNWHO_233-0">^</a> Boyle 2002, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fatimata-234"><a href="#cite_ref-Fatimata_234-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newint.org/features/1997/06/05/update/">"Female genital mutilation"</a>, New International, 5 June 1997. </li> <li id="cite_note-Saadawi1-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Saadawi1_235-0">^</a> Jenna Krajeski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/03/14/rebellion-2">"Rebellion"</a>, The New Yorker, 14 March 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-Saadawi2-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Saadawi2_236-0">^</a> Nawal El Saadawi, "The Struggle to End Female Genital Mutilation," in Jennifer Browdy de Hernandez, et al, African Women Writing Resistance, University of Wisconsin Press, 2010, pp. 193, 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayes-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_237-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/643328">Oldfield Hayes 1975</a>, p. 618. </li> <li id="cite_note-Groult-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Groult_238-0">^</a> Lora Wildenthal, The Language of Human Rights in West Germany, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tweedie-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Tweedie_239-0">^</a> Jill Tweedie, It's Only Me, Robson Books, 1980, p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_240-1">b</a> Thomas 2000, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ismail-241"><a href="#cite_ref-Ismail_241-0">^</a> Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA201">201</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Topping-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Topping_242-0">^</a> Alexandra Topping, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/23/somaliland-womens-rights-gender-violence">"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'"</a>, The Guardian, 23 June 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Daly_243-0">^</a> Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology, Beacon Press, 1978, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thiam-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Thiam_244-0">^</a> Wildenthal 2012, p. 250, n. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lusaka-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Lusaka_245-0">^</a> Gloria Steinem, Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions, Henry Holt & Co, 2012 [1984], p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-Khartoum-246"><a href="#cite_ref-Khartoum_246-0">^</a> Wildenthal 2012, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hosken-247"><a href="#cite_ref-Hosken_247-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cairo-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Cairo_248-0">^</a> el Salam 1999, p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-UN1979-249"><a href="#cite_ref-UN1979_249-0">^</a> Elizabeth Fee, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173844">"Review of The Hosken Report"</a>, Signs, 5(4), Summer 1980 (pp. 807–809), p. 809. </li> <li id="cite_note-McLean-250"><a href="#cite_ref-McLean_250-0">^</a> Lynn M. Thomas, "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ms-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Ms_251-0">^</a> The International Crime of Female Genital Mutilation," Ms. magazine, March 1980. </li> <li id="cite_note-Copenhagen-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Copenhagen_252-0">^</a> Boyle 2002, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-French-253"><a href="#cite_ref-French_253-0">^</a> Birgitte Bagnol, Esmeralda Mariano, "Politics of naming sexual practices," in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Pambazuka Press, 2011, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-Abdalla-254"><a href="#cite_ref-Abdalla_254-0">^</a> Abdalla 2007, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA202">202</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Forward-255"><a href="#cite_ref-Forward_255-0">^</a> Wildenthal 2012, p.. 250, n.. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-Inter-African-256"><a href="#cite_ref-Inter-African_256-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anika_Rahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Anika Rahman">Anika Rahman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahid_Toubia" title="Nahid Toubia">Nahid Toubia</a>, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, Zed Books, 2000, p. 10. </li> </ol></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:FGM_opposition_timeline" title="Template:FGM opposition timeline"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:FGM_opposition_timeline" title="Template talk:FGM opposition timeline"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:FGM_opposition_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:FGM opposition timeline"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> One of the earliest campaigns against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s, when the Egyptian Doctors' Society called for a ban.<a href="#cite_note-258">[ac]</a> There was a parallel campaign in Sudan, run by religious leaders and British women. Infibulation was banned there in 1946, but the law was unpopular and barely enforced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoddy2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidT77ui7IPNwkCpgPA202_202],_299-259">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[ad]</a> The Egyptian government banned infibulation in state-run hospitals in 1959, but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200292,_103-263">[200]</a> (Egypt banned FGM entirely in 2007.) In 1959, the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM, but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200241-264">[201]</a> Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011281-265">[202]</a> The Egyptian physician and feminist <a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a> criticized FGM in her book Women and Sex (1972); the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director-general of public health.<a href="#cite_note-Khaleeli2010-266">[203]</a> She followed up with a chapter, "The Circumcision of Girls", in her book The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World (1980), which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I did not know what they had cut off from my body, and I did not try to find out. I just wept, and called out to my mother for help. But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side. Yes, it was her, I could not be mistaken, in flesh and blood, right in the midst of these strangers, talking to them and smiling at them, as though they had not participated in slaughtering her daughter just a few moments ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Saadawi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu5n9zUZuVI8CpgPA14_14]-267">[204]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg/170px-Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg/255px-Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Edna_Adan_Ismail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a> raised the health consequences of FGM in 1977.</figcaption></figure> In 1975, Rose Oldfield Hayes, an American social scientist, became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM, aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan. Her article in American Ethnologist called it "female genital mutilation", rather than female circumcision, and brought it to wider academic attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes197521-268">[205]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a>, who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health, discussed the health consequences of FGM in 1977 with the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Women%27s_Democratic_Organization" title="Somali Women's Democratic Organization">Somali Women's Democratic Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA201_201]-269">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[207]</a> Two years later <a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a>, an Austrian-American feminist, published The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females (1979),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosken1994-18">[17]</a> the first to offer global figures. She estimated that 110,529,000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan20082-271">[208]</a> The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2003139-272">[209]</a> Describing FGM as a "training ground for male violence", Hosken accused female practitioners of "participating in the destruction of their own kind".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosken19945-273">[210]</a> The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the <a href="/wiki/World_Conference_on_Women,_1980" title="World Conference on Women, 1980">UN's Mid-Decade Conference on Women</a> in Copenhagen in July 1980.<a href="#cite_note-274">[211]</a> In 1979, the WHO held a seminar, "Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children", in Khartoum, Sudan, and in 1981, also in Khartoum, 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the <a href="/wiki/Babikir_Badri" class="mw-redirect" title="Babikir Badri">Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies</a> (BBSAWS), "Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it!" Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-275">[212]</a> It recommended that the "goal of all African women" should be the eradication of FGM and that, to sever the link between FGM and religion, clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as sunna.<a href="#cite_note-276">[213]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Inter-African_Committee_on_Traditional_Practices_Affecting_the_Health_of_Women_and_Children" title="Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children">Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children</a>, founded in 1984 in Dakar, Senegal, called for an end to the practice, as did the UN's <a href="/wiki/World_Conference_on_Human_Rights" title="World Conference on Human Rights">World Conference on Human Rights</a> in Vienna in 1993. The conference listed FGM as a form of <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a>, marking it as a human-rights violation, rather than a medical issue.<a href="#cite_note-277">[214]</a> Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM. In 2003 the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> ratified the <a href="/wiki/Maputo_Protocol" title="Maputo Protocol">Maputo Protocol</a> on the rights of women, which supported the elimination of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-278">[215]</a> By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated, although several fell short of a ban.<a href="#cite_note-282">[ae]</a> As of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, UNICEF reported that "in most countries in Africa and the Middle East with representative data on attitudes (23 out of 30), the majority of girls and women think the practice should end", and that "even among communities that practice FGM, there is substantial opposition to its continuation".<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg/300px-Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg/450px-Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg/600px-Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country" title="Female genital mutilation laws by country">Female genital mutilation laws by country</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Specific criminal provision or national law prohibiting FGM</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  General criminal provision that might be used to prosecute FGM</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Partial or subnational FGM criminalisation, or unclear legal status</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  FGM not criminalised</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No data</div></figcaption></figure> In December 1993, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> included FGM in resolution 48/104, the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Elimination_of_Violence_Against_Women" title="Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women">Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women</a>, and from 2003 sponsored <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Zero_Tolerance_for_Female_Genital_Mutilation" title="International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation">International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation</a>, held every 6 February.<a href="#cite_note-283">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[220]</a> UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence-based <a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">social norms approach</a>, using ideas from <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> about how communities reach decisions about FGM, and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the demise of footbinding in China.<a href="#cite_note-285">[221]</a> In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2005-30">[28]</a> UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint program in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40 percent within the 0–15 age group and eliminate it from at least one country by 2012, goals that were not met and which they later described as unrealistic.<a href="#cite_note-UNFPA–UNICEF2013-286">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[af]</a> In 2008 several UN bodies recognized FGM as a human-rights violation,<a href="#cite_note-289">[224]</a> and in 2010 the UN called upon healthcare providers to stop carrying out the procedures, including reinfibulation after childbirth and symbolic nicking.<a href="#cite_note-UN2010Askew-12">[11]</a> In 2012 the General Assembly passed resolution 67/146, "Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations".<a href="#cite_note-UN-290">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-practising_countries">Non-practising countries</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Overview">Overview</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_female_genital_mutilation" title="Prevalence of female genital mutilation">Prevalence of female genital mutilation</a></div> Immigration spread the practice to Australia, <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_New_Zealand" title="Female genital mutilation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, Europe, and North America, all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults.<a href="#cite_note-291">[226]</a> Sweden outlawed FGM in 1982 with the Act Prohibiting the Genital Mutilation of Women, the first Western country to do so.<a href="#cite_note-EigeSweden-292">[227]</a> Several former colonial powers, including Belgium, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, introduced new laws or made clear that it was covered by existing legislation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200297-293">[228]</a> As of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, legislation banning FGM had been passed in 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p8-279">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_the_United_States" title="Female genital mutilation in the United States">Female genital mutilation in the United States</a></div> In the United States, an estimated 513,000 women and girls had experienced FGM or were at risk as of 2012.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2016-294">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[ag]</a> A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994, asking for "cultural asylum" on the grounds that her young daughters (who were American citizens) might be cut if she took them to Nigeria,<a href="#cite_note-298">[232]</a> and in 1996 <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Kasinga" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter of Kasinga">Fauziya Kasinga</a> from <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> became the first to be officially granted asylum to escape FGM.<a href="#cite_note-299">[233]</a> In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non-medical reasons, and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the country for the purpose of FGM.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2016-294">[229]</a>: 2  The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006, when <a href="/wiki/Khalid_Adem" title="Khalid Adem">Khalid Adem</a>, who had emigrated from Ethiopia, was sentenced to ten years for aggravated battery and cruelty to children after severing his two-year-old daughter's clitoris with a pair of scissors.<a href="#cite_note-300">[234]</a> A federal judge ruled in 2018 that the 1996 Act was unconstitutional, arguing that FGM is a "local criminal activity" that should be regulated by states.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt21Nov2018-301">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[ah]</a> Twenty-four states had legislation banning FGM as of 2016,<a href="#cite_note-CDC2016-294">[229]</a>: 2  and in 2021 the STOP FGM Act of 2020 was signed into federal law.<a href="#cite_note-303">[236]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> opposes all forms of the practice, including pricking the clitoral skin.<a href="#cite_note-305">[ai]</a> Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994, when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah, who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut.<a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth1994-306">[238]</a> In 1997 section 268 of its <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Code_(Canada)" title="Criminal Code (Canada)">Criminal Code</a> was amended to ban FGM, except where "the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm".<a href="#cite_note-307">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p8-279">[216]</a> As of February 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, there had been no prosecutions. Officials have expressed concern that thousands of Canadian girls are at risk of being taken overseas to undergo the procedure, so-called "vacation cutting".<a href="#cite_note-308">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom">Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom</a></div> According to the European Parliament, 500,000 women in Europe had undergone FGM as of March 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013195-309">[241]</a> In France up to 30,000 women were thought to have experienced it as of 1995. According to Colette Gallard, a family-planning counsellor, when FGM was first encountered in France, the reaction was that Westerners ought not to intervene. It took the deaths of two girls in 1982, one of them three months old, for that attitude to change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallard19951592-310">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rowling-311">[243]</a> In 1991 a French court ruled that the <a href="/wiki/Convention_Relating_to_the_Status_of_Refugees" title="Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees">Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees</a> offered protection to FGM victims; the decision followed an asylum application from <a href="/wiki/Aminata_Diop" title="Aminata Diop">Aminata Diop</a>, who fled an FGM procedure in Mali.<a href="#cite_note-312">[244]</a> The practice is outlawed by several provisions of France's penal code that address bodily harm causing permanent mutilation or torture.<a href="#cite_note-313">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rowling-311">[243]</a> The first civil suit was in 1982,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallard19951592-310">[242]</a> and the first criminal prosecution in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth1994-306">[238]</a> In 1999 a woman was given an eight-year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls.<a href="#cite_note-314">[246]</a> By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases.<a href="#cite_note-Rowling-311">[243]</a> Around 137,000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised, as of 2011.<a href="#cite_note-315">[247]</a> Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_Female_Circumcision_Act_1985" title="Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985">Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985</a>.<a href="#cite_note-316">[248]</a> This was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Female_Genital_Mutilation_Act_2003" title="Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003">Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_Female_Genital_Mutilation_(Scotland)_Act_2005" title="Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005">Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005</a>, which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents.<a href="#cite_note-317">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[aj]</a> The United Nations <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women</a> (CEDAW) asked the government in July 2013 to "ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM".<a href="#cite_note-320">[251]</a> The first charges in England and Wales were brought in 2014 against a physician and another man; the physician had stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth. Both men were acquitted in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-321">[252]</a> The first successful conviction was that of a Ugandan mother, who was found guilty at the Central Criminal Court of England and Wales on 1 February 2019.<a href="#cite_note-322">[253]</a> On 8 March 2019, she was sentenced to 11 years in prison.<a href="#cite_note-323">[254]</a> The second successful conviction was another mother, 39-year-old Amina Noor, a Kenyan woman living in <a href="/wiki/Harrow,_London" title="Harrow, London">Harrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_London" title="North London">North London</a>, who had taken her (then) 3-year-old daughter to Kenya for mutilation in 2006, when the mother was aged 22. As of February 2024, she was sentenced to 7 years in prison. She was the first convicted person to have taken someone abroad for the act; she had herself been subjected to Female Genital Mutilation when she was 6 years old.<a href="#cite_note-324">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_opposition">Criticism of opposition</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tolerance_versus_human_rights">Tolerance versus human rights</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg/200px-Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg/300px-Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg/400px-Obioma_Nnaemeka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1719" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Obioma_Nnaemeka" title="Obioma Nnaemeka">Obioma Nnaemeka</a> criticized the renaming of female circumcision to female genital mutilation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsconiferrhizomeorgGerminalwikipedia20180527025854httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA34_34]-325">[256]</a></figcaption></figure> Anthropologists[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have accused FGM eradicationists of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural colonialism</a>, and have been criticized in turn for their <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">moral relativism</a> and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverman2004420-326">[257]</a> According to critics of the eradicationist position, the <a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">biological reductionism</a> of the opposition to FGM, and the failure to appreciate FGM's cultural context, serves to "<a href="/wiki/Othering" class="mw-redirect" title="Othering">other</a>" practitioners and undermine their agency—in particular when parents are referred to as "mutilators".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby200583-327">[258]</a> Africans who object to the tone of FGM opposition risk appearing to defend the practice. The feminist theorist <a href="/wiki/Obioma_Nnaemeka" title="Obioma Nnaemeka">Obioma Nnaemeka</a>, herself strongly opposed to FGM, argued in 2005 that renaming the practice female genital mutilation had introduced "a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West's relevance (even indispensability) in purging [it]".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA33_33]-328">[259]</a> According to Ugandan law professor <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Tamale" title="Sylvia Tamale">Sylvia Tamale</a>, the early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo-Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices, including not only FGM but also <a href="/wiki/Dry_sex" title="Dry sex">dry sex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">levirate marriage</a>, required correction. African feminists "take strong exception to the imperialist, racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women", she wrote in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETamale2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA19_19–20]-329">[260]</a> Commentators highlight the voyeurism in the treatment of women's bodies as exhibits. Examples include images of women's vulvas after FGM or girls undergoing the procedure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA30_30–33]-330">[261]</a> The 1996 <a href="#Pulitzer">Pulitzer-prize-winning photographs</a> of a 16-year-old Kenyan girl experiencing FGM were published by 12 American newspapers, without her consent either to be photographed or to have the images published.<a href="#cite_note-331">[262]</a> The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism, with the former's focus on tolerance and the latter's on equal rights for women. According to the anthropologist Christine Walley, a common position in anti-FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of <a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">false consciousness</a> participating in their own oppression, a position promoted by feminists in the 1970s and 1980s, including Fran Hosken, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Daly" title="Mary Daly">Mary Daly</a> and Hanny Lightfoot-Klein.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalley2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA18_18],_34,_43,_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA60_60]-332">[263]</a> It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981, at the height of the early debates, that "a certain feminism resuscitates (today) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday's colonialism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011281-265">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_other_procedures">Comparison with other procedures</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosmetic_procedures">Cosmetic procedures</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty#Criticism" title="Labiaplasty">Labiaplasty § Criticism</a></div> Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question, broader than FGM, is why the female body is subjected to so much "abuse and indignity", including in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA38_38–39]-333">[264]</a> Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures.<a href="#cite_note-334">[265]</a> Ronán Conroy of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_in_Ireland" title="Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland">Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland</a> wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were "driving the advance" of FGM by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConroy2006-335">[266]</a> Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Fadwa_El_Guindi" title="Fadwa El Guindi">Fadwa El Guindi</a> compared FGM to <a href="/wiki/Breast_augmentation" title="Breast augmentation">breast enhancement</a>, in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men's sexual pleasure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA33_33]-336">[267]</a> <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEte_Groult" title="Benoîte Groult">Benoîte Groult</a>, the French feminist, made a similar point in 1975, citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildenthal2012148-337">[268]</a> Against this, the medical anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Carla_Obermeyer" title="Carla Obermeyer">Carla Obermeyer</a> argued in 1999 that FGM may be conducive to a subject's social well-being in the same way that <a href="/wiki/Rhinoplasty" title="Rhinoplasty">rhinoplasty</a> and male circumcision are.<a href="#cite_note-338">[269]</a> Despite the 2007 ban in Egypt, Egyptian women wanting FGM for their daughters seek amalyet tajmeel (cosmetic surgery) to remove what they see as excess genital tissue.<a href="#cite_note-339">[270]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg/220px-Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg/330px-Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg/440px-Martha_Nussbaum_wikipedia_10-10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>: a key moral and legal issue with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force.</figcaption></figure> Cosmetic procedures such as <a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty" title="Labiaplasty">labiaplasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_reduction" title="Clitoral hood reduction">clitoral hood reduction</a> do fall within the WHO's definition of FGM, which aims to avoid loopholes, but the WHO notes that these elective practices are generally not regarded as FGM.<a href="#cite_note-341">[ak]</a> Some legislation banning FGM, such as in Canada and the United States, covers minors only, but several countries, including Sweden and the United Kingdom, have banned it regardless of consent. Sweden, for example, has banned operations "on the outer female sexual organs with a view to mutilating them or bringing about some other permanent change in them, regardless of whether or not consent has been given for the operation".<a href="#cite_note-EigeSweden-292">[227]</a> Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter argue that the law seems to distinguish between Western and African genitals, and deems only African women (such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth) unfit to make their own decisions.<a href="#cite_note-342">[272]</a> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> argues that a key concern with FGM is that it is mostly conducted on children using physical force. The distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient, comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape. She argues further that the literacy of women in practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations, which reduces their ability to make informed choices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999123–124-343">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Analogy_to_other_genital-altering_procedures">Analogy to other genital-altering procedures</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">Gender-affirming surgery</a></div> FGM has been compared to other procedures that <a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">modify the human genitalia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">Conservatives</a> in the United States during the late 2010s and early 2020s have argued that FGM is similar to <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">gender-affirming surgery</a> for <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> individuals, which has led to bills being drafted in Republican states equating the two. Criticism of these ideas include the fact that the gender-affirming surgeries are approved by American medical authorities, are rare for minors, and are done after reviews by multiple medical professionals.<a href="#cite_note-345">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[276]</a> Formerly, FGM was widely referred to as "female circumcision" in the academic literature, but this "was rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests a fallacious analogy to <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">male circumcision</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119-6">[6]</a> It has been argued that the genital alteration of <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a> infants and children, who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to "fix", is analogous to FGM.<a href="#cite_note-347">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dishonour_(film)" title="Dishonour (film)">Dishonour</a> (a short film on FGM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emasculation" title="Emasculation">Emasculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Zero_Tolerance_for_Female_Genital_Mutilation" title="International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation">International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_FGM_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="No FGM Australia">No FGM Australia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> (Sex and Social Justice, 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature ... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119-6">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> For example, "a young woman must 'have her bath' before she has a baby."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabus2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNCJiAgAAQBAJpgPA40_40]-22">[21]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> UNICEF 2005: "The large majority of girls and women are cut by a traditional practitioner, a category which includes local specialists (cutters or exciseuses), traditional birth attendants and, generally, older members of the community, usually women. This is true for over 80 percent of the girls who undergo the practice in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, and Yemen. In most countries, medical personnel, including doctors, nurses, and certified midwives, are not widely involved in the practice."<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2005-30">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> UNICEF 2013: "These categories do not fully match the WHO typology. Cut, no flesh removed describes a practice known as nicking or pricking, which currently is categorized as Type IV. Cut, some flesh removed corresponds to Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type II (excision) combined. And sewn closed corresponds to Type III, infibulation."<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p48-20">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> A diagram in <a href="#WHO2016">WHO 2016</a>, copied from <a href="#CITEREFAbdulcadirCataniaHindinSay2016">Abdulcadir et al. 2016</a>, refers to Type 1a as circumcision.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016types-45">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> WHO (2018): Type 1 ... the partial or total removal of the clitoris ... and in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris)."<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018health-11">[10]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> WHO (2008): "[There is a] common tendency to describe Type I as removal of the prepuce, whereas this has not been documented as a traditional form of female genital mutilation. However, in some countries, medicalized female genital mutilation can include removal of the prepuce only (Type Ia) (Thabet and Thabet, 2003), but this form appears to be relatively rare (Satti et al., 2006). Almost all known forms of female genital mutilation that remove tissue from the clitoris also cut all or part of the clitoral glans itself."<a href="#cite_note-47">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Susan Izett and <a href="/wiki/Nahid_Toubia" title="Nahid Toubia">Nahid Toubia</a> (WHO, 1998): "[T]he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger, pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object."<a href="#cite_note-WHO1998-50">[44]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> WHO 2014: "Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and appositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation).<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>"Type IIIa, removal and apposition of the labia minora; Type IIIb, removal and apposition of the labia majora."<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> USAID 2008: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. ... Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan200813–14-53">[45]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Jasmine Abdulcadir (Swiss Medical Weekly, 2011): "In the case of infibulation, the urethral opening and part of the vaginal opening are covered by the scar. In a virgin infibulated woman the small opening left for the menstrual fluid and the urine is not wider than 2–3 mm; in sexually active women and after the delivery the vaginal opening is wider but the urethral orifice is often still covered by the scar."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Elizabeth Kelly, Paula J. Adams Hillard (Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2005): "Women commonly undergo reinfibulation after a vaginal delivery. In addition to reinfibulation, many women in Sudan undergo a second type of re-suturing called El-Adel, which is performed to recreate the size of the vaginal orifice to be similar to the size created at the time of primary infibulation. Two small cuts are made around the vaginal orifice to expose new tissues to suture, and then sutures are placed to tighten the vaginal orifice and perineum. This procedure, also called re-circumcision, is primarily performed after vaginal delivery, but can also be performed before marriage, after cesarean section, after divorce, and sometimes even in elderly women as a preparation before death."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491-32">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> WHO 2005: "In some areas (e.g. parts of Congo and mainland Tanzania), FGM entails the pulling of the labia minora and/or clitoris over a period of about 2 to 3 weeks. The procedure is initiated by an old woman designated for this task, who puts sticks of a special type in place to hold the stretched genital parts so that they do not revert back to their original size. The girl is instructed to pull her genitalia every day, to stretch them further, and to put additional sticks in to hold the stretched parts from time to time. This pulling procedure is repeated daily for a period of about two weeks, and usually, no more than four sticks are used to hold the stretched parts, as further pulling and stretching would make the genital parts unacceptably long."<a href="#cite_note-68">[57]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Berg and Underland (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, 2014): "There was evidence of under-reporting of complications. However, the findings show that the FGM/C procedure unequivocally causes immediate, and typically several, health complications during the FGM/C procedure and the short-term period. Each of the most common complications occurred in more than one of every ten girls and women who undergo FGM/C. The participants in these studies had FGM/C types I through IV, thus immediate complications such as bleeding and swelling occur in setting with all forms of FGM/C. Even FGM/C type I and type IV 'nick', the forms of FGM/C with least anatomical extent, presented immediate complications. The results document that multiple immediate and quite serious complications can result from FGM/C. These results should be viewed in light of long-term complications, such as obstetric and gynecological problems, and protection of human rights."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergUnderland20142-74">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> UNICEF 2013: "The percentage of girls and women of reproductive age (15 to 49) who have experienced any form of FGM/C is the first indicator used to show how widespread the practice is in a particular country ... A second indicator of national prevalence measures the extent of cutting among daughters aged 0 to 14, as reported by their mothers. Prevalence data for girls reflect their current – not final – FGM/C status, since many of them may not have reached the customary age for cutting at the time of the survey. They are reported as being uncut but are still at risk of undergoing the procedure. Statistics for girls under age 15 therefore need to be interpreted with a high degree of caution ..."<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_2013,_23-104">[91]</a> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> An additional complication in judging prevalence among girls is that, in countries running campaigns against FGM, women might not report that their daughters have been cut.<a href="#cite_note-106">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> UNICEF 2014: "If there is no reduction in the practice between now and 2050, the number of girls cut each year will grow from 3.6 million in 2013 to 6.6 million in 2050. But if the rate of progress achieved over the last 30 years is maintained, the number of girls affected annually will go from 3.6 million today to 4.1 million in 2050.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>"In either scenario, the total number of girls and women cut will continue to increase due to population growth. If nothing is done, the number of girls and women affected will grow from 133 million today to 325 million in 2050. However, if the progress made so far is sustained, the number will grow from 133 million to 196 million in 2050, and almost 130 million girls will be spared this grave assault to their human rights."<a href="#cite_note-112">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a> (1996): "Virtually every ethnography and report states that FGM is defended and transmitted by the women."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961003-130">[115]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="/wiki/Fadwa_El_Guindi" title="Fadwa El Guindi">Fadwa El Guindi</a> (2007): "Female circumcision belongs to the women's world, and ordinarily men know little about it or how it is performed—a fact that is widely confirmed in ethnographic studies."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735-131">[116]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Bettina Shell-Duncan (2008): "[T]he fact that the decision to perform FGC is often firmly in the control of women weakens the claim of gender discrimination."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShell-Duncan2008228-132">[117]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Bettina Shell-Duncan (2015): "[W]hen you talk to people on the ground, you also hear people talking about the idea that it's women's business. As in, it's for women to decide this. If we look at the data across Africa, the support for the practice is stronger among women than among men."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhazan2015-133">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a>, 1996: "Footbinding and infibulation correspond as follows. Both customs are nearly universal where practised; they are persistent and are practised even by those who oppose them. Both control sexual access to females and ensure female chastity and fidelity. Both are necessary for proper marriage and family honor. Both are believed to be sanctioned by tradition. Both are said to be ethnic markers, and distinct ethnic minorities may lack the practices. Both seem to have a past of contagious diffusion. Both are exaggerated over time and both increase with status. Both are supported and transmitted by women, are performed on girls about six to eight years old, and are generally not initiation rites. Both are believed to promote health and fertility. Both are defined as aesthetically pleasing compared with the natural alternative. Both are said to properly exaggerate the complementarity of the sexes, and both are claimed to make intercourse more pleasurable for the male."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie1996999–1000-136">[120]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> The eight countries are Djibouti, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Somalia, and the Gambia.<a href="#cite_note-156">[139]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a>, 1996: "FGM is pre-Islamic but was exaggerated by its intersection with the Islamic modesty code of family honor, female purity, virginity, chastity, fidelity, and seclusion."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961008-160">[142]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Maggie Michael, Associated Press, 2007: "[Egypt's] supreme religious authorities stressed that Islam is against female circumcision. It's prohibited, prohibited, prohibited," Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa said on the privately-owned al-Mahwar network."<a href="#cite_note-164">[145]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a>, 1996: "The Koran is silent on FGM, but several hadith (sayings attributed to Mohammed) recommend attenuating the practice for the woman's sake, praise it as noble but not commanded, or advise that female converts refrain from mutilation because even if pleasing to the husband it is painful to the wife."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961004–1005-166">[146]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, 2008: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunhiyop2008297-174">[153]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> The countries were Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Tanzania.<a href="#cite_note-178">[156]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Knight adds that Egyptologists are uncomfortable with the translation to uncircumcised, because there is no information about what constituted the circumcised state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001330-182">[159]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> "Sometime after this, Nephoris [Tathemis's mother] defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians. She asked that I give her 1,300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir, year 18 [163 BCE], she would repay me 2,400 drachmae on the spot."<a href="#cite_note-186">[162]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, c. 25 BCE: "One of the customs most zealously observed among the Aegyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and circumcise [περιτέμνειν, peritemnein] the males, and excise [ektemnein] the females, as is also customary among the Jews, who are also Aegyptians in origin, as I have already stated in my account of them."<a href="#cite_note-190">[165]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D*.html">Book XVI, chapter 4</a>, 16.4.9: "And then to the Harbour of Antiphilus, and, above this, to the Creophagi [meat-eaters], of whom the males have their sexual glands mutilated [kolobos] and the women are excised [ektemnein] in the Jewish fashion." </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Knight 2001 writes that there is one extant reference from antiquity, from <a href="/wiki/Xanthus_(historian)" title="Xanthus (historian)">Xanthus of Lydia</a> in the fifth century BCE, that may allude to FGM outside Egypt. Xanthus wrote, in a history of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>: "The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to 'castrate' their women." Knight argues that the "castration", which is not described, may have kept women youthful, in the sense of allowing the Lydian king to have intercourse with them without pregnancy. Knight concludes that it may have been a reference to sterilization, not FGM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001326-192">[166]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Knight adds that the attribution to Galen is suspect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2001336-195">[168]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a> calls the Egyptian Doctors' Society opposition the "first known campaign" against FGM.<a href="#cite_note-257">[196]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> Some states in Sudan banned FGM in 2008–2009, but as of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&action=edit">[update]</a>, there was no national legislation.<a href="#cite_note-260">[198]</a> The prevalence of FGM among women aged 14–49 was 89 percent in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElduma2018-261">[199]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> For example, UNICEF 2013 lists Mauritania as having passed legislation against FGM, but (as of that year) it was banned only from being conducted in government facilities or by medical personnel.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2013p8-279">[216]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>The following are countries in which FGM is common and in which restrictions are in place as of 2013. An asterisk indicates a ban:<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Benin (2003), Burkina Faso (1996*), Central African Republic (1966, amended 1996), Chad (2003), Côte d'Ivoire (1998), Djibouti (1995, amended 2009*), Egypt (2008*), Eritrea (2007*), Ethiopia (2004*), Ghana (1994, amended 2007), Guinea (1965, amended 2000*), Guinea-Bissau (2011*), Iraq (2011*), Kenya (2001, amended 2011*), Mauritania (2005), Niger (2003), Nigeria (2015*), Senegal (1999*), Somalia (2012*), Sudan, some states (2008–2009), Tanzania (1998), Togo (1998), Uganda (2010*), Yemen (2001*).<a href="#cite_note-280">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[218]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> Fifteen countries joined the program: Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Senegal and Sudan in 2008; Burkina Faso, Gambia, Uganda and Somalia in 2009; and Eritrea, Mali and Mauritania in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-287">[223]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> The Centers for Disease Control's previous estimate was 168,000 as of 1990.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesSmithKiekeWilcox1997372-296">[231]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> The judge made his ruling during a case against members of the <a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a> community in Michigan accused of carrying out FGM.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt21Nov2018-301">[235]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> In 2010 the American Academy of Pediatrics suggested that "pricking or incising the clitoral skin" was a harmless procedure that might satisfy parents, but it withdrew the statement after complaints.<a href="#cite_note-304">[237]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Female_Genital_Mutilation_Act_2003" title="Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003">Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003</a>: "A person is guilty of an offence if he excises, infibulates or otherwise mutilates the whole or any part of a girl's labia majora, labia minora or clitoris", unless "necessary for her physical or mental health". Although the legislation refers to girls, it applies to women too.<a href="#cite_note-318">[250]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> WHO 2008: "Some practices, such as genital cosmetic surgery and hymen repair, which are legally accepted in many countries and not generally considered to constitute female genital mutilation, actually fall under the definition used here. It has been considered important, however, to maintain a broad definition of female genital mutilation in order to avoid loopholes that might allow the practice to continue."<a href="#cite_note-340">[271]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WHO2014-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_1-4">e</a> <a href="#WHO2014">WHO 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2023-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2023_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2023_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2023_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2023_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2023_3-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/female-genital-mutilation/">"Female genital mutilation (FGM)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>. Retrieved 5 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNICEF&rft.atitle=Female+genital+mutilation+%28FGM%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.unicef.org%2Ftopic%2Fchild-protection%2Ffemale-genital-mutilation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2016-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_4-9">j</a> <a href="#UNICEF2016">UNICEF 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2013p50-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p50_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p50_5-1">b</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999119_6-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNussbaum1999">Nussbaum 1999</a>, 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> For the circumcisers and blade: <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 2, 44–46; for the ages: 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011_9-10">k</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011">Abdulcadir et al. 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 15; <a href="#CITEREFToubiaSharief2003">Toubia & Sharief 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2018health-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2018health_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2018health_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2018health_11-2">c</a> <a href="#WHO2018">WHO 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-UN2010Askew-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UN2010Askew_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UN2010Askew_12-1">b</a> <a href="#UN2010">UN 2010</a>; <a href="#CITEREFAskewChaibanKalasaSen2016">Askew et al. 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShell-Duncan2008">Shell-Duncan 2008</a>, 225; <a href="#CITEREFSilverman2004">Silverman 2004</a>, 420, 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimeu2024" class="citation news cs1">Kimeu, Caroline (8 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/mar/08/dramatic-rise-in-women-and-girls-being-cut-new-fgm-data-reveals">"Dramatic rise in women and girls being cut, new FGM data reveals"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2024. <q>Many African countries have experienced a steady decline in the practice over the past few decades, but overall progress has stalled or been reversed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Dramatic+rise+in+women+and+girls+being+cut%2C+new+FGM+data+reveals&rft.date=2024-03-08&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Kimeu&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2024%2Fmar%2F08%2Fdramatic-rise-in-women-and-girls-being-cut-new-fgm-data-reveals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaranja2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidF1ezIgyomGICpgPA93_93],_n.&nbsp;631-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaranja2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidF1ezIgyomGICpgPA93_93],_n.&nbsp;631_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaranja2009">Karanja 2009</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1ezIgyomGIC&pg=PA93">93</a>, n. 631. </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2008pp4,22-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2008pp4,22_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2008pp4,22_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2008pp4,22_16-2">c</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 4, 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1975-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes1975_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes1975">Hayes 1975</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosken1994-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosken1994_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosken1994_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosken1994">Hosken 1994</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2013p48-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p48_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p48_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p48_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p48_20-3">d</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabus2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxZmWF3qxHo4CpgPA47_47]-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabus2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxZmWF3qxHo4CpgPA47_47]_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabus2008">Zabus 2008</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZmWF3qxHo4C&pg=PA47">47</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabus2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNCJiAgAAQBAJpgPA40_40]-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabus2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidNCJiAgAAQBAJpgPA40_40]_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabus2013">Zabus 2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCJiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">40</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA30_30]-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA30_30]_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA30">30</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsmaniAbdi20083–5-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsmaniAbdi20083–5_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsmaniAbdi20083–5_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAsmaniAbdi2008">Asmani & Abdi 2008</a>, 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum20012–3-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum20012–3_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2001">Gruenbaum 2001</a>, 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoubaMuasher198596–97-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoubaMuasher198596–97_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoubaMuasher1985">Kouba & Muasher 1985</a>, 96–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJO_SBQAAQBAJpgPA190_190]-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJO_SBQAAQBAJpgPA190_190]_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdalla2007">Abdalla 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JO_SBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA190">190</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 42–44 and table 5, 181 (for cutters), 46 (for home and anaesthesia). </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2005-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2005_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2005_30-1">b</a> <a href="#UNICEF2005">UNICEF 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491_32-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKellyHillard2005">Kelly & Hillard 2005</a>, 491. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakabi2007-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakabi2007_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWakabi2007">Wakabi 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 43–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013190-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013190_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013190_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacksonAkweongoSakeahHodgson2003-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacksonAkweongoSakeahHodgson2003_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacksonAkweongoSakeahHodgson2003">Jackson et al. 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloumanManongiKlepp2005-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloumanManongiKlepp2005_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKloumanManongiKlepp2005">Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElmusharafElhadiAlmroth2006-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElmusharafElhadiAlmroth2006_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElmusharafElhadiAlmroth2006">Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Elsevier2020-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elsevier2020_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elsevier2020_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulcadirBaderDubucAlexander2020" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Bader, Dina; Dubuc, Elise; Alexander, Sophie (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1701216319311077">"Hot topic survey: Discussing the results of experts' responses on controversial issues in FGM/C"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Obstetricians_and_Gynaecologists_of_Canada" title="Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada">Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada</a>. 42 (2): e26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jogc.2019.11.064">10.1016/j.jogc.2019.11.064</a>. Retrieved 22 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynaecology+Canada&rft.atitle=Hot+topic+survey%3A+Discussing+the+results+of+experts%27+responses+on+controversial+issues+in+FGM%2FC&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e26&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jogc.2019.11.064&rft.aulast=Abdulcadir&rft.aufirst=Jasmine&rft.au=Bader%2C+Dina&rft.au=Dubuc%2C+Elise&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1701216319311077&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReproductiveHealth2017-40"><a href="#cite_ref-ReproductiveHealth2017_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulcadirAlexanderDubucPallitto2017" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Alexander, Sophie; Dubuc, Elise; Pallitto, Christina; Petignat, Patrick; Say, Lale (15 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s12978-017-0361-y.pdf">"Female genital mutilation/cutting: sharing data and experiences to accelerate eradication and improve care"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_Health_(journal)" title="Reproductive Health (journal)">Reproductive Health</a>. 14 (Suppl 1): 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12978-017-0361-y">10.1186/s12978-017-0361-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5607488">5607488</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28950894">28950894</a>. Retrieved 22 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reproductive+Health&rft.atitle=Female+genital+mutilation%2Fcutting%3A+sharing+data+and+experiences+to+accelerate+eradication+and+improve+care&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2017-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5607488%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28950894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12978-017-0361-y&rft.aulast=Abdulcadir&rft.aufirst=Jasmine&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Sophie&rft.au=Dubuc%2C+Elise&rft.au=Pallitto%2C+Christina&rft.au=Petignat%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Say%2C+Lale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com%2Fcounter%2Fpdf%2F10.1186%2Fs12978-017-0361-y.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 189; <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 4, 23–28; <a href="#CITEREFAbdulcadirCataniaHindinSay2016">Abdulcadir et al. 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation">"Female genital mutilation"</a>. www.who.int. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129023511/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.who.int&rft.atitle=Female+genital+mutilation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews-room%2Ffact-sheets%2Fdetail%2Ffemale-genital-mutilation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2016types-45"><a href="#cite_ref-WHO2016types_45-0">^</a> <a href="#WHO2016">WHO 2016</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368486/box/ch1.box1">Box 1.1 "Types of FGM"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170908222703/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368486/box/ch1.box1">Archived</a> 8 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 25. Also see <a href="#CITEREFToubia1994">Toubia 1994</a> and <a href="#CITEREFHorowitzJacksonTeklemariam1995">Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO1998-50"><a href="#cite_ref-WHO1998_50-0">^</a> <a href="#WHO1998">WHO 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan200813–14-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan200813–14_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan200813–14_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderKhan2008">Yoder & Khan 2008</a>, 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNFPATypeIIIestimate-55"><a href="#cite_ref-UNFPATypeIIIestimate_55-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/resources/promoting-gender-equality">"Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150104112106/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/promoting-gender-equality">Archived</a> 4 January 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Nations Population Fund, April 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ismail2016p12-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Ismail2016p12_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIsmail2016">Ismail 2016</a>, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA43_43]-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA43_43]_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA43">43</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmail201614-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsmail201614_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsmail201614_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFIsmail2016">Ismail 2016</a>, 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190]-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190]_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdalla2007">Abdalla 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA190">190</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190–191],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA198_198]-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA190_190–191],_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA198_198]_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdalla2007">Abdalla 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA190">190–191</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA198">198</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198256–64-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198256–64_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Dareer1982">El Dareer 1982</a>, 56–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLightfoot-Klein1989">Lightfoot-Klein 1989</a>, 380; also see <a href="#CITEREFEl_Dareer1982">El Dareer 1982</a>, 42–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO_2008,_27-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_2008,_27_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_2008,_27_67-1">b</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="#WHO2005">WHO 2005</a>, 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see <a href="#CITEREFNzegwu2011">Nzegwu 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C&pg=PA262">262</a>; for the rest, <a href="#CITEREFBagnolMariano2011">Bagnol & Mariano 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C&pg=PA272">272–276</a> (272 for Uganda). </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMandara2000">Mandara 2000</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA98">98</a>, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see <a href="#CITEREFMandara2004">Mandara 2004</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergUnderlandOdgaard-JensenFretheim2014-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergUnderlandOdgaard-JensenFretheim2014_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergUnderlandOdgaard-JensenFretheim2014">Berg et al. 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201549-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201549_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReiselCreighton2015">Reisel & Creighton 2015</a>, 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergUnderland20142-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergUnderland20142_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergUnderland2014">Berg & Underland 2014</a>, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReiselCreighton2015">Reisel & Creighton 2015</a>, 49; <a href="#CITEREFIavazzoSardiGkegkes2013">Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013</a>; <a href="#CITEREFAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011">Abdulcadir et al. 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReiselCreighton201550_77-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFReiselCreighton2015">Reisel & Creighton 2015</a>, 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellyHillard2005491–492_78-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKellyHillard2005">Kelly & Hillard 2005</a>, 491–492. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaveSethiMorrone2011-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaveSethiMorrone2011_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaveSethiMorrone2011">Dave, Sethi & Morrone 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERushwan2013132-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERushwan2013132_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERushwan2013132_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRushwan2013">Rushwan 2013</a>, 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198237-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer198237_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Dareer1982">El Dareer 1982</a>, 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-RashidRashid2007-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RashidRashid2007_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RashidRashid2007_82-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRashidRashid2007">Rashid & Rashid 2007</a>, 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanksMeirikFarleyAkande2006-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanksMeirikFarleyAkande2006_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBanksMeirikFarleyAkande2006">Banks et al. 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr30/en/index.html">"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502223749/https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/fgm/fgm-obstetric-study-en.pdf?ua=1">Archived</a> 2 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergDenison2013">Berg & Denison 2013</a>; <a href="#CITEREFReiselCreighton2015">Reisel & Creighton 2015</a>, 51; <a href="#CITEREFSibianiRouzi2008">Sibiani & Rouzi 2008</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endfgm.eu/editor/files/2020/04/FGM_Global_-_ONLINE_PDF_VERSION_-_07.pdf">"Female genital mutilation/cutting: a call for a global response"</a> (PDF). End FGM European Network, U.S. End FGM/C Network and Equality Now. March 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Female+genital+mutilation%2Fcutting%3A+a+call+for+a+global+response&rft.pub=End+FGM+European+Network%2C+U.S.+End+FGM%2FC+Network+and+Equality+Now&rft.date=2020-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.endfgm.eu%2Feditor%2Ffiles%2F2020%2F04%2FFGM_Global_-_ONLINE_PDF_VERSION_-_07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013193-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013193_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-DHS-88"><a href="#cite_ref-DHS_88-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhsprogram.com/What-We-Do/Survey-Types/DHS.cfm">"DHS overview"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141016202457/http://www.dhsprogram.com/What-We-Do/Survey-Types/DHS.cfm">Archived</a> 16 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Demographic and Health Surveys; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.childinfo.org/mics5_questionnaire.html">"Questionnaires and Indicator List"</a>, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 134–135. </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoder2013p189TypeI-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Yoder2013p189TypeI_91-0">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 47, table 5.2; <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasheedAbd-EllahYousef2011-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasheedAbd-EllahYousef2011_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRasheedAbd-EllahYousef2011">Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOkekeAnyaehieEzenyeaku201270–73-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOkekeAnyaehieEzenyeaku201270–73_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOkekeAnyaehieEzenyeaku2012">Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012</a>, 70–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 47. For the years and country profiles: <a href="#UNICEFDjibouti">Djibouti</a>, UNICEF, December 2013; <a href="#UNICEFEritrea">Eritrea</a>, UNICEF, July 2013; <a href="#UNICEFSomalia">Somalia</a>, UNICEF, December 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a href="#UNICEFNigeria">Nigeria</a>, UNICEF, July 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a href="#MackieLeJeune2008">Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008</a>, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEFIndonesia2016-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEFIndonesia2016_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEFIndonesia2016_98-1">b</a> <a href="#UNICEFIndonesia2016">UNICEF Indonesia</a>, February 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2014pp89-90-99"><a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2014pp89-90_99-0">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2014">UNICEF 2014</a>, 89–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/06/16/qa-female-genital-mutilation#:~:text=FGM%20is%20also%20believed%20to,by%20Falasha%20Jews%20in%20Ethiopia.">"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is"</a>. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Q%26A+on+what+Female+Genital+Mutilation+is&rft.date=2010-06-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2010%2F06%2F16%2Fqa-female-genital-mutilation%23%3A~%3Atext%3DFGM%2520is%2520also%2520believed%2520to%2Cby%2520Falasha%2520Jews%2520in%2520Ethiopia.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilaatIbrahimAlbar2018" class="citation journal cs1">Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074365">"Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey"</a>. Annals of Saudi Medicine. 38 (2): 81–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5144%2F0256-4947.2018.81">10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0256-4947">0256-4947</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6074365">6074365</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29620540">29620540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Saudi+Medicine&rft.atitle=Reproductive+health+profile+and+circumcision+of+females+in+the+Hali+semi-urban+region%2C+Saudi+Arabia%3A+A+community-based+cross-sectional+survey&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074365%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0256-4947&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29620540&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5144%2F0256-4947.2018.81&rft.aulast=Milaat&rft.aufirst=Waleed+Abdullah&rft.au=Ibrahim%2C+Nahla+Khamis&rft.au=Albar%2C+Hussain+Mohammed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6074365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouziBergAlamoudiAlzaban2019" class="citation journal cs1">Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6549616">"Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"</a>. BMJ Open. 9 (5): e024684. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2018-024684">10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2044-6055">2044-6055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6549616">6549616</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31154295">31154295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Open&rft.atitle=Survey+on+female+genital+mutilation%2Fcutting+in+Jeddah%2C+Saudi+Arabia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e024684&rft.date=2019-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6549616%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2044-6055&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31154295&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2018-024684&rft.aulast=Rouzi&rft.aufirst=Abdulrahim+A&rft.au=Berg%2C+Rigmor+C&rft.au=Alamoudi%2C+Rana&rft.au=Alzaban%2C+Faten&rft.au=Sehlo%2C+Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6549616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF_2013,_23-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF_2013,_23_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF_2013,_23_104-1">b</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantera2018" class="citation web cs1">Cantera, Angel L Martínez (6 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/06/study-reveals-fgm-india-female-genital-mutilation">"'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27I+was+crying+with+unbearable+pain%27%3A+study+reveals+extent+of+FGM+in+India&rft.date=2018-03-06&rft.aulast=Cantera&rft.aufirst=Angel+L+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2018%2Fmar%2F06%2Fstudy-reveals-fgm-india-female-genital-mutilation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 25, 100; <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2016">UNICEF 2016</a>, 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 194; <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2014">UNICEF 2014</a>, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKandalaEzejimoforUthmanKomba2018">Kandala et al. 2018</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatcliffe2018" class="citation news cs1">Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/nov/07/fgm-rates-in-east-africa-drop-20-years-study-shows">"FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815062044/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/nov/07/fgm-rates-in-east-africa-drop-20-years-study-shows">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=FGM+rates+in+east+Africa+drop+from+71%25+to+8%25+in+20+years%2C+study+shows&rft.date=2018-11-07&rft.aulast=Ratcliffe&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2018%2Fnov%2F07%2Ffgm-rates-in-east-africa-drop-20-years-study-shows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2014">UNICEF 2014</a>, 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> For rural areas, <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 28; for wealth, 40; for education, 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2000275-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie2000275_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackie2000">Mackie 2000</a>, 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2013pp47,183-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013pp47,183_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013pp47,183_116-1">b</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 47, 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_eng.pdf">UNICEF 2005</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180928122738/http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_eng.pdf">Archived</a> 28 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 28–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">Archived</a> 5 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see <a href="#CITEREFYasinAl-TawilShabilaAl-Hadithi2013">Yasin et al. 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013196,_198-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013196,_198_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 196, 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141220043131/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_GIN.pdf">"Guinea"</a> (2012), UNICEF statistical profile, July 2014, 2/4. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Chad: <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 35–36; Nigeria: <a href="#CITEREFOkekeAnyaehieEzenyeaku2012">Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012</a>, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bassir,_Olumbe_1954-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Bassir,_Olumbe_1954_124-0">^</a> [Bassir, Olumbe (July 1954). "Marriage Rites among the Aku (Yoruba) of Freetown". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 24 (3): 251–256] </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211222125403/https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Images/PDF/sierra_leone_country_profile_v2_(october_2018).pdf">"FMG in Sierra Leone"</a> (PDF). 28TooMany, Registered Charity: No. 1150379. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Country%20Images/PDF/sierra_leone_country_profile_v2_(october_2018).pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FMG+in+Sierra+Leone&rft.pub=28TooMany%2C+Registered+Charity%3A+No.+1150379&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.28toomany.org%2Fstatic%2Fmedia%2Fuploads%2FCountry%2520Images%2FPDF%2Fsierra_leone_country_profile_v2_%28october_2018%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/4b20f02bc.html">"Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Sierra Leone: The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM); the government's position with respect to the practice; consequences of refusing to become an FGM practitioner in Bondo Society, specifically, if a daughter of a practitioner refuses to succeed her mother, 27 March 2009, SLE103015.E"</a>. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canada%3A+Immigration+and+Refugee+Board+of+Canada%2C+Sierra+Leone%3A+The+practice+of+female+genital+mutilation+%28FGM%29%3B+the+government%27s+position+with+respect+to+the+practice%3B+consequences+of+refusing+to+become+an+FGM+practitioner+in+Bondo+Society%2C+specifically%2C+if+a+daughter+of+a+practitioner+refuses+to+succeed+her+mother%2C+27+March+2009%2C+SLE103015.E&rft.pub=Immigration+and+Refugee+Board+of+Canada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fdocid%2F4b20f02bc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pulitzer.org/works/1996-Feature-Photography">"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography"</a>. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151007101527/http://www.pulitzer.org/works/1996-Feature-Photography">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stephanie+Welsh.+The+1996+Pulitzer+Prize+Winners%3A+Feature+Photography&rft.pub=The+Pulitzer+Prizes&rft.date=1996&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pulitzer.org%2Fworks%2F1996-Feature-Photography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA187_187]-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA187_187]_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdalla2007">Abdalla 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA187">187</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735,_42,_46-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735,_42,_46_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, 35, 42, 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie19961003-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie19961003_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackie1996">Mackie 1996</a>, 1003. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi200735_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShell-Duncan2008228-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShell-Duncan2008228_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShell-Duncan2008">Shell-Duncan 2008</a>, 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhazan2015-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhazan2015_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKhazan2015">Khazan 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1975620,_624-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes1975620,_624_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes1975">Hayes 1975</a>, 620, 624. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie1996999–1000-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie1996999–1000_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackie1996">Mackie 1996</a>, 999–1000. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmadu2000-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmadu2000_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmadu2000_138-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhmadu2000">Ahmadu 2000</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA284">284–285</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbusharaf2007">Abusharaf 2007</a>, 8; <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA36">36–37</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoddy2007">Boddy 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA112">112</a>; also see <a href="#CITEREFBoddy1989">Boddy 1989</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TK6NIp5uVwsC&pg=PA52">52–61</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005435–436-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005435–436_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2005">Gruenbaum 2005</a>, 435–436. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2005">Gruenbaum 2005</a>, 437; <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2001">Gruenbaum 2001</a>, 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA277_277–281]-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA277_277–281]_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagnolMariano2011">Bagnol & Mariano 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C&pg=PA277">277–281</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005437-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005437_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2005">Gruenbaum 2005</a>, 437. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer1983140-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Dareer1983140_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Dareer1983">El Dareer 1983</a>, 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 52. Also see figure 6.1, 54, and figures 8.1A – 8.1D, 90–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Gueye, Malick (4 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tostan.org/blog/social-norm-change-theorists-meet-again-keur-simbara-senegal">"Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170311194456/http://www.tostan.org/blog/social-norm-change-theorists-meet-again-keur-simbara-senegal">Archived</a> 11 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Tostan. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005432–433-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruenbaum2005432–433_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2005">Gruenbaum 2005</a>, 432–433. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2003147–148-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie2003147–148_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackie2003">Mackie 2003</a>, 147–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="#Diop2008">Diop et al. 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Associated Press. 26 January 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200831233712/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/26/us/doctor-loses-practice-over-genital-surgery.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Doctor+Loses+Practice+Over+Genital+Surgery&rft.date=1989-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F01%2F26%2Fus%2Fdoctor-loses-practice-over-genital-surgery.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Kenneth Mufuka, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123065512/http://www.irss.uoguelph.ca/article/viewFile/176/218">"Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960"</a>, International Review of Scottish Studies, 28, 2003, 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas2000">Thomas 2000</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA132">132</a>. For irua, <a href="#CITEREFKenyatta1962">Kenyatta 1962</a>, 129; for irugu as outcasts, <a href="#CITEREFKenyatta1962">Kenyatta 1962</a>, 127. Also see <a href="#CITEREFZabus2008">Zabus 2008</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZmWF3qxHo4C&pg=PA48">48</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyatta1962127–130-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyatta1962127–130_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKenyatta1962">Kenyatta 1962</a>, 127–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiedler199675-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiedler199675_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFiedler1996">Fiedler 1996</a>, 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas2000">Thomas 2000</a>, 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women", <a href="#CITEREFKaranja2009">Karanja 2009</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1ezIgyomGIC&pg=PA93">93</a>, n. 631. Also see <a href="#CITEREFStrayerMurray1978">Strayer & Murray 1978</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9kpLvKnZCR8C&pg=PA139">139ff</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoddy2007">Boddy 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241">241–245</a>; <a href="#CITEREFHyam1990">Hyam 1990</a>, 196; <a href="#CITEREFMurray1976">Murray 1976</a>, 92–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoddy2007">Boddy 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241">241</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA241">244</a>; <a href="#CITEREFRobert1996">Robert 1996</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=98eI044RjlwC&pg=PA230">230</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFwa_KihuraniWarigia_wa_JohannaMurigo_wa_Meshak2007">wa Kihurani, Warigia wa Johanna & Murigo wa Meshak 2007</a>, 118–120; <a href="#CITEREFPeterson2012">Peterson 2012</a>, 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas2000">Thomas 2000</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rhhRXiJIGEcC&pg=PA129">129–131</a> (131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in <a href="#CITEREFThomas1996">Thomas 1996</a> and <a href="#CITEREFThomas2003">Thomas 2003</a>, 89–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopping2014" class="citation news cs1">Topping, Alexandra (24 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/24/kenya-girls-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-secret">"Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731055249/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/24/kenya-girls-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-secret">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Kenyan+girls+taken+to+remote+regions+to+undergo+FGM+in+secret&rft.date=2014-07-24&rft.aulast=Topping&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2014%2Fjul%2F24%2Fkenya-girls-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-secret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoddy2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidT77ui7IPNwkCpgPA202_202],_299-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoddy2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidT77ui7IPNwkCpgPA202_202],_299_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoddy2007">Boddy 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T77ui7IPNwkC&pg=PA202">202</a>, 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 2, 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElduma2018-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElduma2018_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElduma2018">Elduma 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200292,_103-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyle200292,_103_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoyle2002">Boyle 2002</a>, 92, 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200241-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyle200241_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoyle2002">Boyle 2002</a>, 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011281-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011281_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagnolMariano2011281_265-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBagnolMariano2011">Bagnol & Mariano 2011</a>, 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-Khaleeli2010-266"><a href="#cite_ref-Khaleeli2010_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGruenbaum2001">Gruenbaum 2001</a>, 22; Khaleeli, Homa (15 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/15/nawal-el-saadawi-egyptian-feminist">"Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150926003949/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/15/nawal-el-saadawi-egyptian-feminist">Archived</a> 26 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Guardian. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Saadawi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu5n9zUZuVI8CpgPA14_14]-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Saadawi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu5n9zUZuVI8CpgPA14_14]_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Saadawi2007">El Saadawi 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u5n9zUZuVI8C&pg=PA14">14</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes197521-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes197521_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes1975">Hayes 1975</a>, 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA201_201]-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdalla2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA201_201]_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbdalla2007">Abdalla 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA201">201</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Topping, Alexandra (23 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/23/somaliland-womens-rights-gender-violence">"Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101055842/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/23/somaliland-womens-rights-gender-violence">Archived</a> 1 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Guardian. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan20082-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderKhan20082_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderKhan2008">Yoder & Khan 2008</a>, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackie2003139-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackie2003139_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackie2003">Mackie 2003</a>, 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosken19945-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosken19945_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosken1994">Hosken 1994</a>, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoyle2002">Boyle 2002</a>, 47; <a href="#CITEREFBagnolMariano2011">Bagnol & Mariano 2011</a>, 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Shahira Ahmed, "Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies", in Abusharaf 2007, 176–180. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Ahmed 2007, 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anika_Rahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Anika Rahman">Anika Rahman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahid_Toubia" title="Nahid Toubia">Nahid Toubia</a>, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, New York: Zed Books, 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kEG6GaudxQEC&pg=PA110">10–11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801123412/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEG6GaudxQEC&pg=PA110">Archived</a> 1 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; for Vienna, <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Emma Bonino, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/15/opinion/15iht-edbonino_ed3_.html">"A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150531165453/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/15/opinion/15iht-edbonino_ed3_.html">Archived</a> 31 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times, 15 September 2004; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110409114818/http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20the%20Rights%20of%20Women.pdf">Maputo Protocol</a>, 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2013p8-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p8_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p8_279-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2013p8_279-2">c</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <a href="#UNFPA–UNICEF2012">UNFPA–UNICEF Annual Report 2012</a>, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm">"48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060202074847/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm">Archived</a> 2 February 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Articles/2009/fgmc.aspx">"Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100213125942/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2009/fgmc.aspx">Archived</a> 13 February 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="#UNICEF2013">UNICEF 2013</a>, 15; <a href="#UNICEF2010">UNICEF 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-UNFPA–UNICEF2013-286"><a href="#cite_ref-UNFPA–UNICEF2013_286-0">^</a> <a href="#UNFPA2013">UNFPA 2013</a>, "Executive Summary", 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <a href="#UNFPA2013">UNFPA 2013</a>, Volume 1, viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-UN-290"><a href="#cite_ref-UN_290-0">^</a> <a href="#UNresolution2012">UN resolution, 20 December 2012</a>; Emma Bonino, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/opinion/global/banning-female-genital-mutilation.html">"Banning Female Genital Mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101060201/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/opinion/global/banning-female-genital-mutilation.html">Archived</a> 1 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times, 19 December 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Australia: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Documents/ReviewofAustraliasfemalegenitalmutilationlegalframework/Review%20of%20Australias%20female%20genital%20mutilation%20legal%20framework.pdf">"Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305202920/https://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Documents/ReviewofAustraliasfemalegenitalmutilationlegalframework/Review%20of%20Australias%20female%20genital%20mutilation%20legal%20framework.pdf">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> New Zealand: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961/0043/latest/DLM329734.html#DLM329734">"Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123061721/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961/0043/latest/DLM329734.html#DLM329734">Archived</a> 23 November 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Europe: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-violence/eliminating-female-genital-mutilation/index_en.htm">"Eliminating female genital mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140808183953/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-violence/eliminating-female-genital-mutilation/index_en.htm">Archived</a> 8 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, European Commission.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> United States: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/116">"18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140803012933/http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/116">Archived</a> 3 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Canada: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/section-268.html">Section 268</a>, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada. </li> <li id="cite_note-EigeSweden-292">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EigeSweden_292-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EigeSweden_292-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/current_situation_and_trends_of_female_genital_mutilation_in_sweden_en.pdf">"Current situation of female genital mutilation in Sweden"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112455/http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/current_situation_and_trends_of_female_genital_mutilation_in_sweden_en.pdf">Archived</a> 19 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle200297-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyle200297_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoyle2002">Boyle 2002</a>, 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC2016-294">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2016_294-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2016_294-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2016_294-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publichealthreports.org/documents/fgmutilation.pdf">"Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171221153549/http://www.publichealthreports.org/documents/fgmutilation.pdf">Archived</a> 21 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Public Health Reports. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March–April 2016, 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> Turkewitz, Julie (6 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/us/genital-cutting-cases-seen-more-as-immigration-rises.html">"Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180131004639/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/us/genital-cutting-cases-seen-more-as-immigration-rises.html">Archived</a> 31 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The New York Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesSmithKiekeWilcox1997372-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesSmithKiekeWilcox1997372_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesSmithKiekeWilcox1997">Jones et al. 1997</a>, 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> Rudloff, Patricia Dysart (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010220043053/http://www.law-lib.utoronto.ca/Diana/fulltext/rudl.htm">"In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings"</a>. Saint Mary's Law Journal, 877.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgan1994" class="citation news cs1">Egan, Timothy (4 March 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/us/an-ancient-ritual-and-a-mother-s-asylum-plea.html">"An Ancient Ritual and a Mother's Asylum Plea"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200903094757/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/us/an-ancient-ritual-and-a-mother-s-asylum-plea.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Ancient+Ritual+and+a+Mother%27s+Asylum+Plea&rft.date=1994-03-04&rft.aulast=Egan&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F03%2F04%2Fus%2Fan-ancient-ritual-and-a-mother-s-asylum-plea.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> Dugger, Celia W. (16 June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E1DB1439F935A25755C0A960958260">"June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200621232551/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C05E1DB1439F935A25755C0A960958260">Archived</a> 21 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The New York Times.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2000/03/28/kasinga7.pdf">"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170304040921/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2000/03/28/kasinga7.pdf">Archived</a> 4 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-georgia_x.htm">"Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170902134855/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-georgia_x.htm">Archived</a> 2 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Associated Press, 1 November 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidt21Nov2018-301">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt21Nov2018_301-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt21Nov2018_301-1">b</a> Schmidt, Samantha (21 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/judge-rules-that-federal-law-banning-female-genital-mutilation-is-unconstitutional/2018/11/21/a9455728-edd2-11e8-96d4-0d23f2aaad09_story.html">"Judge rules that federal law banning female genital mutilation is unconstitutional"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200820223532/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/judge-rules-that-federal-law-banning-female-genital-mutilation-is-unconstitutional/2018/11/21/a9455728-edd2-11e8-96d4-0d23f2aaad09_story.html">Archived</a> 20 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Washington Post. </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> Batha, Emma (7 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-law-fgm/us-toughens-ban-on-abhorrent-female-genital-mutilation-idUSKBN29C2OF">"U.S. toughens ban on 'abhorrent' female genital mutilation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210108140215/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-law-fgm/us-toughens-ban-on-abhorrent-female-genital-mutilation-idUSKBN29C2OF">Archived</a> 8 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Reuters. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/102/1/153.full">"Female Genital Mutilation"</a>. Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.102.1.153">10.1542/peds.102.1.153</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9651425">9651425</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130218221435/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/102/1/153.full">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Female+Genital+Mutilation&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.date=1998-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.102.1.153&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9651425&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F102%2F1%2F153.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Withdrawn policy: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Academy_of_Pediatrics_Board_of_Directors2010" class="citation journal cs1">American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1088.full">"Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors"</a>. Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2010-0187">10.1542/peds.2010-0187</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20421257">20421257</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020034936/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/125/5/1088.full">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Ritual+Genital+Cutting+of+Female+Minors&rft.volume=125&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1088-%3C%2Fspan%3E1093&rft.date=2010-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2010-0187&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20421257&rft.au=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics+Board+of+Directors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F125%2F5%2F1088.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Pam Belluck, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/07/health/policy/07cuts.html">"Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180118095546/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/07/health/policy/07cuts.html">Archived</a> 18 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times, 6 May 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth1994-306">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth1994_306-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth1994_306-1">b</a> Farnsworth, Clyde H. (21 July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/21/world/canada-gives-somali-mother-refugee-status.html">"Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170813224305/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/21/world/canada-gives-somali-mother-refugee-status.html">Archived</a> 13 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The New York Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/section-268.html">Section 268</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502191321/https://www.ag.gov.au/Publications/Documents/ReviewofAustraliasfemalegenitalmutilationlegalframework/Review%20of%20Australias%20female%20genital%20mutilation%20legal%20framework.pdf">Archived</a> 2 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Criminal Code of Canada. </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> Portenier, Giselle (6 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-when-will-canada-take-action-for-girls-who-endure-fgm/">"When will Canada take action for girls who endure FGM?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201202074503/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-when-will-canada-take-action-for-girls-who-endure-fgm/">Archived</a> 2 December 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Globe and Mail. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013195-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoderWangJohansen2013195_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013">Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013</a>, 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallard19951592-310">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallard19951592_310-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallard19951592_310-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGallard1995">Gallard 1995</a>, 1592. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rowling-311">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rowling_311-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowling_311-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowling_311-2">c</a> Megan Rowling <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.trust.org//item/?map=france-reduces-genital-cutting-with-prevention-prosecutions-lawyer/">"France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101055918/http://news.trust.org/item/?map=france-reduces-genital-cutting-with-prevention-prosecutions-lawyer%2F">Archived</a> 1 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> Jana Meredyth Talton, "Asylum for Genital-Mutilation Fugitives: Building a Precedent", <a href="/wiki/Ms._(magazine)" title="Ms. (magazine)">Ms.</a>, January/February 1992, 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/current_situation_and_trends_of_female_genital_mutilation_in_france_en.pdf">"Current situation of female genital mutilation in France"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207130739/http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/current_situation_and_trends_of_female_genital_mutilation_in_france_en.pdf">Archived</a> 7 February 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Gollaher" title="David Gollaher">David Gollaher</a>, Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery, New York: Basic Books, 2000, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> Alison Macfarlane and <a href="/wiki/Efua_Dorkenoo" title="Efua Dorkenoo">Efua Dorkenoo</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/FGM%20EN%20City%20Estimates.pdf">"Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150815112821/http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/FGM%20EN%20City%20Estimates.pdf">Archived</a> 15 August 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="City University of London">City University of London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equality_Now" title="Equality Now">Equality Now</a>, 21 July 2014, 3.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Study%20to%20map%20the%20current%20situation%20and%20trends%20on%20FGM%20-Country%20reports%20-%20MH3212540ENN.pdf">"Country Report: United Kingdom"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112338/http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Study%20to%20map%20the%20current%20situation%20and%20trends%20on%20FGM%20-Country%20reports%20-%20MH3212540ENN.pdf">Archived</a> 19 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> For an early article on FGM in the UK, see <a href="#CITEREFBlackDebelle1995">Black & Debelle 1995</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1985/38/contents">Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101055729/http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ilr/article/view/36076">Archived</a> 1 January 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/31">Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170714134537/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/31">Archived</a> 14 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2005/8/contents">"Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005"</a>, legislation.gov.uk. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/31">"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170714134537/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/31">Archived</a> 14 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, legislation.gov.uk, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/female_genital_mutilation/#a02">"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130908183829/http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/female_genital_mutilation/#a02">Archived</a> 8 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women." </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <a href="#CEDAW2013">CEDAW, July 2013</a>, 6, paras 36, 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> Sandra Laville, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/feb/04/doctor-not-guilty-fgm-dhanuson-dharmasena">"Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206042151/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/feb/04/doctor-not-guilty-fgm-dhanuson-dharmasena">Archived</a> 6 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Guardian, 4 February 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-47094707">"FGM: Mother guilty of genital mutilation of daughter"</a>. BBC News. 1 February 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=FGM%3A+Mother+guilty+of+genital+mutilation+of+daughter&rft.date=2019-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-47094707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-47502089">"Mother jailed for 11 years over FGM"</a>. BBC News. 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mother+jailed+for+11+years+over+FGM&rft.date=2019-03-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-london-47502089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c4ngz2redmdo.amp">"FGM: Woman jailed for taking girl, 3, for mutilation loses appeal"</a>. BBC News. 4 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=FGM%3A+Woman+jailed+for+taking+girl%2C+3%2C+for+mutilation+loses+appeal&rft.date=2024-07-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fc4ngz2redmdo.amp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsconiferrhizomeorgGerminalwikipedia20180527025854httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA34_34]-325"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsconiferrhizomeorgGerminalwikipedia20180527025854httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA34_34]_325-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNnaemeka2005">Nnaemeka 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://conifer.rhizome.org/Germinal/wikipedia/20180527025854/https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&pg=PA34">34</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverman2004420-326"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESilverman2004420_326-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSilverman2004">Silverman 2004</a>, 420. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby200583-327"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirby200583_327-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirby2005">Kirby 2005</a>, 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA33_33]-328"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA33_33]_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNnaemeka2005">Nnaemeka 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&pg=PA33">33</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETamale2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA19_19–20]-329"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETamale2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidxSqIrrswbG0CpgPA19_19–20]_329-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTamale2011">Tamale 2011</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C&pg=PA19">19–20</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA30_30–33]-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA30_30–33]_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNnaemeka2005">Nnaemeka 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&pg=PA30">30–33</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKorieh2005">Korieh 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&pg=PA121">121–122</a>; for the photographs, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pulitzer.org/works/1996-Feature-Photography">"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography"</a>. The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151007101527/http://www.pulitzer.org/works/1996-Feature-Photography">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stephanie+Welsh.+The+1996+Pulitzer+Prize+Winners%3A+Feature+Photography&rft.pub=The+Pulitzer+Prizes&rft.date=1996&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pulitzer.org%2Fworks%2F1996-Feature-Photography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalley2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA18_18],_34,_43,_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA60_60]-332"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalley2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA18_18],_34,_43,_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidt_5a39rTNB8CpgPA60_60]_332-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalley2002">Walley 2002</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_5a39rTNB8C&pg=PA18">18</a>, 34, 43, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_5a39rTNB8C&pg=PA60">60</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA38_38–39]-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENnaemeka2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXjctVvOzzcQCpgPA38_38–39]_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNnaemeka2005">Nnaemeka 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XjctVvOzzcQC&pg=PA38">38–39</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnsdotterEssén2010">Johnsdotter & Essén 2010</a>, 32; <a href="#CITEREFBerer2007">Berer 2007</a>, 1335. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConroy2006-335"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConroy2006_335-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConroy2006">Conroy 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA33_33]-336"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl_Guindi2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8VQxt634pfcCpgPA33_33]_336-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl_Guindi2007">El Guindi 2007</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8VQxt634pfcC&pg=PA33">33</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildenthal2012148-337"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildenthal2012148_337-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWildenthal2012">Wildenthal 2012</a>, 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Carla_Obermeyer" title="Carla Obermeyer">Obermeyer, Carla</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/649659">"Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809185753/https://www.jstor.org/stable/649659">Archived</a> 9 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106 (hereafter Obermeyer 1999), 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> Sara Abdel Rahim, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://timep.org/commentary/midwives-doctors-searching-safer-circumcisions-egypt#">"From Midwives to Doctors: Searching for 'Safer' Circumcisions in Egypt?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730231539/http://timep.org/commentary/midwives-doctors-searching-safer-circumcisions-egypt">Archived</a> 30 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Tahrir_Institute_for_Middle_East_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy">The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy</a>, 25 September 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <a href="#WHO2008">WHO 2008</a>, 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnsdotterEssén2010">Johnsdotter & Essén 2010</a>, 33; <a href="#CITEREFEssénJohnsdotter2004">Essén & Johnsdotter 2004</a>, 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999123–124-343"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1999123–124_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNussbaum1999">Nussbaum 1999</a>, 123–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> Also see <a href="/wiki/Yuli_Tamir" title="Yuli Tamir">Yael Tamir</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://new.bostonreview.net/BR21.3/Tamir.html">"Hands Off Clitoridectomy"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140808051255/http://new.bostonreview.net/BR21.3/Tamir.html">Archived</a> 8 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Boston Review, Summer 1996; <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://new.bostonreview.net/BR21.5/nussbaum.html">"Double Moral Standards?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140808051257/http://new.bostonreview.net/BR21.5/nussbaum.html">Archived</a> 8 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Boston Review, October/November 1996. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCariboniBauer2022" class="citation web cs1">Cariboni, Diana; Bauer, Sydney (22 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-texas-trans-healthcare/">"US bill equates trans healthcare with 'genital mutilation'"</a>. openDemocracy. Retrieved 14 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=openDemocracy&rft.atitle=US+bill+equates+trans+healthcare+with+%27genital+mutilation%27&rft.date=2022-12-22&rft.aulast=Cariboni&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opendemocracy.net%2Fen%2F5050%2Ffemale-genital-mutilation-fgm-texas-trans-healthcare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKearns2022" class="citation web cs1">Kearns, Madeleine (25 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/10/gender-affirmation-the-new-female-genital-mutilation/">"'Gender Affirmation': The New Female Genital Mutilation"</a>. National Review. Retrieved 24 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=%27Gender+Affirmation%27%3A+The+New+Female+Genital+Mutilation&rft.date=2022-10-25&rft.aulast=Kearns&rft.aufirst=Madeleine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalreview.com%2F2022%2F10%2Fgender-affirmation-the-new-female-genital-mutilation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/crcl/vol40_1/ehrenreich.pdf">[1]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517021052/http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/crcl/vol40_1/ehrenreich.pdf">Archived</a> 17 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'", Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (71–140), 74–75.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">Gregorio, I. W. (26 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/should-surgeons-perform-irreversible-genital-surgery-children-589353">"Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?"</a>. Newsweek. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025114/https://www.newsweek.com/should-surgeons-perform-irreversible-genital-surgery-children-589353">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Should+Surgeons+Perform+Irreversible+Genital+Surgery+on+Children%3F&rft.date=2017-04-26&rft.aulast=Gregorio&rft.aufirst=I.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fshould-surgeons-perform-irreversible-genital-surgery-children-589353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> Books and book chapters <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbusharaf2007" class="citation book cs1">Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JO_SBQAAQBAJ">"Introduction: The Custom in Question"</a>. In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0102-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0102-4"><bdi>978-0-8122-0102-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310102815/https://books.google.com/books?id=JO_SBQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+Custom+in+Question&rft.btitle=Female+Circumcision%3A+Multicultural+Perspectives&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0102-4&rft.aulast=Abusharaf&rft.aufirst=Rogaia+Mustafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJO_SBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdalla2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raqiya_Haji_Dualeh_Abdalla" title="Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla">Abdalla, Raqiya D.</a> (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27My+Grandmother+Called+it+the+Three+Feminine+Sorrows%27%3A+The+Struggle+of+Women+Against+Female+Circumcision+in+Somalia&rft.btitle=Female+Circumcision%3A+Multicultural+Perspectives&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Abdalla&rft.aufirst=Raqiya+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmadu2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fuambai_Ahmadu" title="Fuambai Ahmadu">Ahmadu, Fuambai</a> (2000). "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rites+and+Wrongs%3A+An+Insider%2FOutsider+Reflects+on+Power+and+Excision&rft.btitle=Female+%22Circumcision%22+in+Africa%3A+Culture+Controversy+and+Change&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=Lynne+Rienner+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Ahmadu&rft.aufirst=Fuambai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lewis_Allen" title="Peter Lewis Allen">Allen, Peter Lewis</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wagesofsinsexdis00alle">The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-01460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-01460-9"><bdi>978-0-226-01460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wages+of+Sin%3A+Sex+and+Disease%2C+Past+and+Present&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-226-01460-9&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Peter+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwagesofsinsexdis00alle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsmaniAbdi2008" class="citation book cs1">Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf">De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam</a> (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221230457/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De-linking+Female+Genital+Mutilation%2FCutting+from+Islam&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=Frontiers+in+Reproductive+Health%2C+USAID&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Asmani&rft.aufirst=Ibrahim+Lethome&rft.au=Abdi%2C+Maryam+Sheikh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unfpa.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpub-pdf%2FDe-linking%2520FGM%2520from%2520Islam%2520final%2520report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagnolMariano2011" class="citation book cs1">Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C">"Politics of Naming Sexual Practices"</a>. African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85749-016-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85749-016-2"><bdi>978-0-85749-016-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801123522/https://books.google.com/books?id=xSqIrrswbG0C">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Politics+of+Naming+Sexual+Practices&rft.btitle=African+Sexualities%3A+A+Reader&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pub=Fahamu%2FPambazuka&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-85749-016-2&rft.aulast=Bagnol&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rft.au=Mariano%2C+Esmeralda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSqIrrswbG0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker-Benfield1999" class="citation book cs1">Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. 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The Language of Human Rights in West Germany. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+Human+Rights+in+West+Germany&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Wildenthal&rft.aufirst=Lora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWensinck2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wensinck, A. J. (2012) [1986]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA20">"K̲h̲itān"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E. J.</a>; Lewis, B.; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Vol. 5. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 20–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07819-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210930010842/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA20">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=K%CC%B2h%CC%B2it%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07819-2&rft.aulast=Wensinck&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcJQ3AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabus2008" class="citation book cs1">Zabus, Chantal (2008). "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts". In Borch, Merete Falck (ed.). Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies. New York: Rodopi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Excised+Body+in+African+Texts+and+Contexts&rft.btitle=Bodies+and+Voices%3A+The+Force-field+of+Representation+and+Discourse+in+Colonial+and+Postcolonial+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Zabus&rft.aufirst=Chantal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabus2013" class="citation book cs1">Zabus, Chantal (2013). "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic". In Bertacco, Simon (ed.). Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures. New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Writing+with+an+Accent%27%3A+From+Early+Decolonization+to+Contemporary+Gender+Issues+in+the+African+Novel+in+French%2C+English%2C+and+Arabic&rft.btitle=Language+and+Translation+in+Postcolonial+Literatures&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Zabus&rft.aufirst=Chantal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> Journal articles <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulcadirMargairazBoulvainIrion2011" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4414%2Fsmw.2011.13137">"Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting"</a>. Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4414%2Fsmw.2011.13137">10.4414/smw.2011.13137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1424-3997">1424-3997</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21213149">21213149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Swiss+Medical+Weekly&rft.atitle=Care+of+women+with+female+genital+mutilation%2Fcutting&rft.volume=140&rft.pages=w13137&rft.date=2011-01-06&rft.issn=1424-3997&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21213149&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4414%2Fsmw.2011.13137&rft.aulast=Abdulcadir&rft.aufirst=Jasmine&rft.au=Margairaz%2C+Christiane&rft.au=Boulvain%2C+Michel&rft.au=Irion%2C+Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4414%252Fsmw.2011.13137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulcadirCataniaHindinSay2016" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FAOG.0000000000001686">10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-233X">1873-233X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27741194">27741194</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46830711">46830711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Obstetrics+%26+Gynecology&rft.atitle=Female+Genital+Mutilation%3A+A+Visual+Reference+and+Learning+Tool+for+Health+Care+Professionals&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E958-%3C%2Fspan%3E963&rft.date=2016-11&rft.issn=1873-233X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46830711%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27741194&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FAOG.0000000000001686&rft.aulast=Abdulcadir&rft.aufirst=Jasmine&rft.au=Catania%2C+Lucrezia&rft.au=Hindin%2C+Michelle+Jane&rft.au=Say%2C+Lale&rft.au=Petignat%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Abdulcadir%2C+Omar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSibianiRouzi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282%2808%2901813-X/fulltext">"Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation"</a>. Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2008.10.035">10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5653">1556-5653</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19028385">19028385</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210828084004/https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282%2808%2901813-X/fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fertility+and+Sterility&rft.atitle=Sexual+function+in+women+with+female+genital+mutilation&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E722-%3C%2Fspan%3E724&rft.date=2008-09&rft.issn=1556-5653&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19028385&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2008.10.035&rft.aulast=Sibiani&rft.aufirst=Sharifa+A.&rft.au=Rouzi%2C+Abdulrahim+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fertstert.org%2Farticle%2FS0015-0282%252808%252901813-X%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="hrav" class="citation journal cs1">American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Bioethics (July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.102.1.153">"Female genital mutilation"</a>. Pediatrics. 102 (1 Pt 1): 153–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.102.1.153">10.1542/peds.102.1.153</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-4005">0031-4005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9651425">9651425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Female+genital+mutilation&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1+Pt+1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E156&rft.date=1998-07&rft.issn=0031-4005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9651425&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.102.1.153&rft.au=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics%2C+Committee+on+Bioethics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1542%252Fpeds.102.1.153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2010-1568">"Ritual genital cutting of female minors [withdrawn]"</a>. Pediatrics. 126 (1): 191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2010-1568">10.1542/peds.2010-1568</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1098-4275">1098-4275</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20530070">20530070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Ritual+genital+cutting+of+female+minors+%5Bwithdrawn%5D&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=191&rft.date=2010-07&rft.issn=1098-4275&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20530070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2010-1568&rft.au=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics+Board+of+Directors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1542%252Fpeds.2010-1568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAskewChaibanKalasaSen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5013096">"A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM"</a>. Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (9): 619–620. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2016-103553">10.1136/medethics-2016-103553</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-6800">0306-6800</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5013096">5013096</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27059789">27059789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+repeat+call+for+complete+abandonment+of+FGM&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E619-%3C%2Fspan%3E620&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5013096%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0306-6800&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27059789&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fmedethics-2016-103553&rft.aulast=Askew&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Chaiban%2C+Ted&rft.au=Kalasa%2C+Benoit&rft.au=Sen%2C+Purna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5013096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanksMeirikFarleyAkande2006" class="citation journal cs1">Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). 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BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39252.646042.3A">10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-1833">1756-1833</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1906631">1906631</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17599983">17599983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Cosmetic+genitoplasty%3A+It%27s+female+genital+mutilation+and+should+be+prosecuted&rft.volume=334&rft.issue=7608&rft.pages=1335.2-1335&rft.date=2007-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1906631%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1756-1833&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17599983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.39252.646042.3A&rft.aulast=Berer&rft.aufirst=Marge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1906631&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergUnderlandOdgaard-JensenFretheim2014" class="citation journal cs1">Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. 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BMJ Open. 4 (11): e006316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2014-006316">10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2044-6055">2044-6055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4244458">4244458</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25416059">25416059</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Open&rft.atitle=Effects+of+female+genital+cutting+on+physical+health+outcomes%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e006316&rft.date=2014-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4244458%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2044-6055&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25416059&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2014-006316&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=Rigmor+C.&rft.au=Underland%2C+Vigdis&rft.au=Odgaard-Jensen%2C+Jan&rft.au=Fretheim%2C+Atle&rft.au=Vist%2C+Gunn+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4244458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergDenison2013" class="citation journal cs1">Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3783896">"A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review"</a>. Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07399332.2012.721417">10.1080/07399332.2012.721417</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1096-4665">1096-4665</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3783896">3783896</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23489149">23489149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Care+for+Women+International&rft.atitle=A+tradition+in+transition%3A+factors+perpetuating+and+hindering+the+continuance+of+female+genital+mutilation%2Fcutting+%28FGM%2FC%29+summarized+in+a+systematic+review&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E837-%3C%2Fspan%3E859&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3783896%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1096-4665&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23489149&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07399332.2012.721417&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=Rigmor+C.&rft.au=Denison%2C+Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3783896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFemale+genital+mutilation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergUnderland2014" class="citation book cs1">Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0097695/pdf/PubMedHealth_PMH0097695.pdf">Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C)</a> (PDF). Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-82-8121-856-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-82-8121-856-7"><bdi>978-82-8121-856-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1890-1298">1890-1298</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29320014">29320014</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210828084004/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK464798/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK464798.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. 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UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change, 2008–2012, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/FGM-report%2012_4_2013.pdf">Volume 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/FGMC_Final%20Evaluation%20Report_Volume%20II_September09.pdf">Volume 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/admin-resource/ENG_FGM%20executive%20summary%20proof%205.pdf">"Executive Summary"</a>, New York: UNFPA, UNICEF, September 2013.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="UNFPA–UNICEF2012"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNICEF-UNFPA%20Joint%20Programme%20AR_final_v14.pdf">Joint Program on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change</a>, Annual report 2012, New York: UNFPA–UNICEF, 2012.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="MackieLeJeune2008"><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Mackie, Gerry</a>; LeJeune, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014151512/http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/UNICEF.pdf">"Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory"</a>, Innocenti Working Paper No. XXX, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="UNICEF2005">Miller, Michael; Moneti, Francesca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_eng.pdf">Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation</a>, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="UNICEF2010">Moneti, Francesca; Parker, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/fgm_insight_eng.pdf">The Dynamics of Social Change</a>, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="UNICEFNigeria"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Nigeria/FGMC_NGA.pdf">"Nigeria"</a>, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, July 2014.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="UNICEFSomalia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Somalia/FGMC_SOM.pdf">"Somalia"</a>, Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting, UNICEF, December 2013.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="WHO2016"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368483/">WHO Guidelines on the Management of Health Complications from Female Genital Mutilation</a>, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27359024">27359024</a></cite></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/578531-fgm-survivors-narrate-experiences-dealing-with-absence-of-the-clitoris.html">FGM: Survivors narrate experiences dealing with absence of the clitoris.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150702080920/http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/library/Pdf/CIRCUMCISION%2C%20FEMALE1960-1980.pdf">"Circumcision, female"</a>, The Kinsey Institute (bibliography 1960s–1980s).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/female-genital-mutilation">FGM archive</a>, The Guardian.</li> <li>Haworth, Abigail (18 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/18/female-genital-mutilation-circumcision-indonesia">"The day I saw 248 girls suffering genital mutilation"</a>, The Observer.</li> <li>Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa. New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Westley, David M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706041625/http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=ejab">"Female circumcision and infibulation in Africa"</a>, Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography, 4 (bibliography up to 1997).</li></ul> Personal stories <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">El Saadawi, Nawal</a> (1975). <a href="/wiki/Woman_at_Point_Zero" title="Woman at Point Zero">Woman at Point Zero</a>. London: Zed Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waris_Dirie" title="Waris Dirie">Dirie, Waris</a> and Miller, Cathleen (1998). <a href="/wiki/Desert_Flower" title="Desert Flower">Desert Flower</a>. New York: William Morrow.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauziya_Kassindja" title="Fauziya Kassindja">Kassindja, Fauziya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Layli_Miller-Muro" title="Layli Miller-Muro">Miller-Muro, Layli</a> (1998). Do They Hear You When You Cry. New York: Delacorte Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaan_Hirsi_Ali" title="Ayaan Hirsi Ali">Ali, Ayaan Hirsi</a> (2007). <a href="/wiki/Infidel:_My_Life" title="Infidel: My Life">Infidel: My Life</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Female_genital_mutilation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Female_genital_mutilation" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li>Film: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dishonour.ca">Dishonour.ca</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Female_genital_mutilation92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Female_genital_mutilation" title="Template:Female genital mutilation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Female_genital_mutilation" title="Template talk:Female genital mutilation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Female_genital_mutilation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Female genital mutilation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Female_genital_mutilation92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Female genital mutilation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">Clitoridectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Dysmenorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gishiri_cutting" title="Gishiri cutting">Gishiri cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keloid" title="Keloid">Keloid scars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">Rectovaginal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal fistula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_female_genital_mutilation" title="Prevalence of female genital mutilation">Prevalence by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_laws_by_country" title="Female genital mutilation laws by country">Laws by country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_the_Gambia" title="Female genital mutilation in the Gambia">FGM in the Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_India" title="Female genital mutilation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_female_genital_mutilation_in_colonial_Kenya" title="Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya">colonial Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Female genital mutilation in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_New_Zealand" title="Female genital mutilation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Nigeria" title="Female genital mutilation in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Female genital mutilation in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Sudan" title="Female genital mutilation in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_the_United_States" title="Female genital mutilation in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_female_genital_mutilation" title="Religious views on female genital mutilation">Religious views on FGM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers/groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early writers and activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raqiya_Haji_Dualeh_Abdalla" title="Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla">Raqiya Haji Dualeh Abdalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janice_Boddy" title="Janice Boddy">Janice Boddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Daly" title="Mary Daly">Mary Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efua_Dorkenoo" title="Efua Dorkenoo">Efua Dorkenoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asma_El_Dareer" title="Asma El Dareer">Asma El Dareer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEte_Groult" title="Benoîte Groult">Benoîte Groult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Oldfield_Hayes" title="Rose Oldfield Hayes">Rose Oldfield Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran_Hosken" title="Fran Hosken">Fran Hosken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edna_Adan_Ismail" title="Edna Adan Ismail">Edna Adan Ismail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawal_El_Saadawi" title="Nawal El Saadawi">Nawal El Saadawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilian_Passmore_Sanderson" title="Lilian Passmore Sanderson">Lilian Passmore Sanderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Stevenson" title="Marion Stevenson">Marion Scott Stevenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulda_Stumpf" title="Hulda Stumpf">Hulda Stumpf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahid_Toubia" title="Nahid Toubia">Nahid Toubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amina_Warsame" title="Amina Warsame">Amina Warsame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuambai_Ahmadu" title="Fuambai Ahmadu">Fuambai Ahmadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaan_Hirsi_Ali" title="Ayaan Hirsi Ali">Ayaan Hirsi Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waris_Dirie" title="Waris Dirie">Waris Dirie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Gruenbaum" title="Ellen Gruenbaum">Ellen Gruenbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asha_Ismail" title="Asha Ismail">Asha Ismail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molly_Melching" title="Molly Melching">Molly Melching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layli_Miller-Muro" title="Layli Miller-Muro">Layli Miller-Muro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_Momoh" title="Comfort Momoh">Comfort Momoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Walker" title="Alice Walker">Alice Walker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babiker_Bedri_Scientific_Association_for_Women%27s_Studies" title="Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies">Babiker Bedri Scientific Association for Women's Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_Now" title="Equality Now">Equality Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Women%27s_Health,_Research_and_Development" title="Foundation for Women's Health, Research and Development">FORWARD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-African_Committee_on_Traditional_Practices_Affecting_the_Health_of_Women_and_Children" title="Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children">Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_Action_and_Information_Network_for_the_Bodily_Integrity_of_Women" title="Research Action and Information Network for the Bodily Integrity of Women">RAINBO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tostan" title="Tostan">Tostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirih_Justice_Center" title="Tahirih Justice Center">Tahirih Justice Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Zero_Tolerance_for_Female_Genital_Mutilation" title="International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation">Zero Tolerance Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woman_at_Point_Zero" title="Woman at Point Zero">Woman at Point Zero</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman,_Why_Do_You_Weep%3F" title="Woman, Why Do You Weep?">Woman, Why Do You Weep?</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessing_the_Secret_of_Joy" title="Possessing the Secret of Joy">Possessing the Secret of Joy</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Flower" title="Desert Flower">Desert Flower</a> (1998)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moolaad%C3%A9" title="Moolaadé">Moolaadé</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Flower_(film)" title="Desert Flower (film)">Desert Flower</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/My_Body_My_Rules" title="My Body My Rules">My Body My Rules</a> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_re_Kasinga" title="In re Kasinga">Matter of Kasinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_Female_Circumcision_Act_1985" title="Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985">Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_Genital_Mutilation_Act_2003" title="Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003">Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_Female_Genital_Mutilation_(Scotland)_Act_2005" title="Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005">2005 (Scotland) Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_Act_1989_(Amendment)_(Female_Genital_Mutilation)_Act_2019" title="Children Act 1989 (Amendment) (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 2019">Children Act 1989 (Amendment) (Female Genital Mutilation) Act 2019</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_genital_mutilation" title="Category:Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Activists_against_female_genital_mutilation" title="Category:Activists against female genital mutilation">Activists against female genital mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Violence_against_women195" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Violence_against_women_footer" title="Template:Violence against women footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Violence_against_women_footer" title="Template talk:Violence against women footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Violence_against_women_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Violence against women footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Violence_against_women195" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_during_childbirth" title="Abuse during childbirth">Abuse during childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid_attack" title="Acid attack">Acid attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ironing" title="Breast ironing">Breast ironing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_burning" title="Bride burning">Bride burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Dating abuse">Dating abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_domestic_violence" title="Outline of domestic violence">outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">and pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry_death" title="Dowry death">Dowry death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eve_teasing" title="Eve teasing">Eve teasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Female genital mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gishiri_cutting" title="Gishiri cutting">Gishiri cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide" title="Female infanticide">Female infanticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">Foot binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leblouh" title="Leblouh">Force-feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_abortion" title="Forced abortion">Forced abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_pregnancy" title="Forced pregnancy">Forced pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_pregnant_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder of pregnant women">Murder of pregnant women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptio" title="Raptio">Raptio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_police" title="Islamic religious police">Islamic religious police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guidance_Patrol" title="Guidance Patrol">Guidance Patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kano_State_Hisbah_Corps" title="Kano State Hisbah Corps">Kano State Hisbah Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polisi_Syariat_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Polisi Syariat Islam">Polisi Syariat Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_prostitutes" title="Violence against prostitutes">Violence against prostitutes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual assault, rape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campus_sexual_assault" title="Campus sexual assault">Campus sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_sexual_assault" title="Mass sexual assault">Mass sexual assault</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape" title="Pregnancy from rape">and pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_regarding_rape" title="Laws regarding rape">laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_rape" title="Types of rape">Types of rape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape_by_deception" title="Rape by deception">by deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">corrective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Date_rape" title="Date rape">date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_rape" title="Gang rape">gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">genocidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_halala" title="Nikah halala">halala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marital_rape" title="Marital rape">marital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_rape" title="Prison rape">prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_rape" title="Statutory rape">statutory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">Sexual violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Convention" title="Istanbul Convention">Istanbul Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecution_of_gender-targeted_crimes" title="Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes">Prosecution of gender-targeted crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Elimination_of_Violence_against_Women" title="International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women">November 25th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Zero_Tolerance_for_Female_Genital_Mutilation" title="International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation">February 6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_rapist" title="Serial rapist">Serial rapist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Violence_against_women" title="Category:Violence against women">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_female_reproductive_system174" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Female_genital_procedures" title="Template:Female genital procedures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Female_genital_procedures" title="Template talk:Female genital procedures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Female_genital_procedures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Female genital procedures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_female_reproductive_system174" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and procedures involving the <a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">female reproductive system</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Gynecological_surgery" title="Gynecological surgery">Gynecological surgery</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oophorectomy" title="Oophorectomy">Oophorectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salpingoophorectomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Salpingoophorectomy">Salpingoophorectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falloposcopy" title="Falloposcopy">Falloposcopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salpingectomy" title="Salpingectomy">Salpingectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_ligation" title="Tubal ligation">Tubal ligation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essure" title="Essure">Essure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_reversal" title="Tubal reversal">Tubal reversal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitoplasty" title="Genitoplasty">Genitoplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterectomy" title="Hysterectomy">Hysterectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterotomy" title="Hysterotomy">Hysterotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_exenteration" title="Pelvic exenteration">Pelvic exenteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_artery_embolization" title="Uterine artery embolization">Uterine artery embolization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus_transplantation" title="Uterus transplantation">Transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cavity" title="Uterine cavity">Uterine cavity</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hysteroscopy" title="Hysteroscopy">Hysteroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_aspiration" title="Vacuum aspiration">Vacuum aspiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_biopsy" title="Endometrial biopsy">Endometrial biopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_ablation" title="Endometrial ablation">Endometrial ablation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myometrium" title="Myometrium">Myometrium</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_myomectomy" title="Uterine myomectomy">Uterine myomectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colposcopy" title="Colposcopy">Colposcopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_conization" title="Cervical conization">Cervical conization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loop_electrical_excision_procedure" title="Loop electrical excision procedure">LEEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cerclage" title="Cervical cerclage">Cervical cerclage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_screening" title="Cervical screening">Cervical screening</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pap_test" title="Pap test">pap test</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervicectomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervicectomy">Cervicectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessary" title="Pessary">Pessary</a> insertion</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginectomy" title="Vaginectomy">Vaginectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culdoscopy" title="Culdoscopy">Culdoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culdocentesis" title="Culdocentesis">Culdocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_husband_stitch" class="mw-redirect" title="The husband stitch">husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymenotomy" title="Hymenotomy">Hymenotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colpocleisis" title="Colpocleisis">Colpocleisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymenorrhaphy" title="Hymenorrhaphy">Hymenorrhaphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_wet_mount" title="Vaginal wet mount">Vaginal wet mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_transplantation" title="Vaginal transplantation">Vaginal transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulvectomy" title="Vulvectomy">Vulvectomy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty" title="Labiaplasty">Labiaplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_reduction" title="Clitoral hood reduction">Clitoral hood reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulectomy" title="Vestibulectomy">Vestibulectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_ultrasonography" title="Gynecologic ultrasonography">Gynecologic ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterosalpingography" title="Hysterosalpingography">Hysterosalpingography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feminism532" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feminism" title="Template:Feminism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminism" title="Template talk:Feminism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feminism532" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_feminism" title="Timeline of feminism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_second-wave_feminism" title="Timeline of second-wave feminism">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth-wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Majority-Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">States of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Utah" title="Women's suffrage in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Virginia" title="Women's suffrage in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wyoming" title="Women's suffrage in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Eco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism">Gender-critical or trans-exclusionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">Activism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Post-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_post-structuralist_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French post-structuralist feminism">French</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Trans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic and racial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Kurdish (Jineology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_feminism" title="Sámi feminism">Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_feminism" title="Mizrahi feminism">Mizrahi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li>Female genital mutilation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy_in_feminist_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchy in feminist thought">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">Post-structuralist discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriality_(gender_studies)" title="Seriality (gender studies)">Seriality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_France" title="Feminism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Germany" title="Feminism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Greece" title="Feminism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Indonesia" title="Feminism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Feminism in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Japan" title="Feminism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Latin_America" title="Feminism in Latin America">Latin America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina" title="Feminism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Brazil" title="Feminism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chile" title="Feminism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mexico" title="Feminism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nepal" title="Feminism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Feminism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_New_Zealand" title="Feminism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Norway" title="Feminism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Poland" title="Feminism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Feminism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Korea" title="Feminism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Sweden" title="Feminism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Taiwan" title="Feminism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Thailand" title="Feminism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">History of women</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminists" title="List of feminists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_art_critics" title="List of feminist art critics">Art critics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecofeminist_authors" title="List of ecofeminist authors">Ecofeminist authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_economists" title="List of feminist economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_feminists" title="List of Muslim feminists">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_philosophers" title="List of feminist philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_poets" title="List of feminist poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">Rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Suffragists and suffragettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_rights_activists" title="List of women's rights activists">Women's rights activists</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_literature" title="List of feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_feminist_literature" title="List of American feminist literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_comic_books" title="List of feminist comic books">Comic books</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_parties" title="List of feminist parties">Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_studies_journals" title="List of women's studies journals">Women's studies journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_peacekeeping" title="Women in peacekeeping">Women in peacekeeping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/16px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/24px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/32px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism" title="Category:Feminism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_feminism_articles" title="Index of feminism articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="x18px_Women&#039;s_health729" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women%27s_health" title="Template:Women's health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women%27s_health" title="Template talk:Women's health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women%27s_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women's health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="x18px_Women&#039;s_health729" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Women%27s_health_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/12px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/18px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/24px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="412" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Reproductive health</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Reproductive tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">External female genitalia (vulva)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">Clitoris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">Clitoral hood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">Labia minora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">Labia majora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenatal care">Antenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolescent pregnancy">Adolescent pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperemesis_gravidarum" title="Hyperemesis gravidarum">Hyperemesis gravidarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">Miscarriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Obstetrical bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">Gestational diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preeclampsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Preeclampsia">Preeclampsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclampsia" title="Eclampsia">Eclampsia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_births" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple births">Multiple births</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstructed_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstructed labor">Obstructed labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesarian_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarian section">Cesarian section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">Retained placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_fistulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical fistulae">Obstetrical fistulae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">Rectovaginal fistula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal deaths">Maternal deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillbirths" class="mw-redirect" title="Stillbirths">Stillbirths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother-to-child transmission">Mother-to-child transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sterilization">Sterilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_life_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive life plan">Reproductive life plan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">Childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fostering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fostering">Fostering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Oral contraceptive pill">Oral contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive prevalence">Contraceptive prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_parenthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned parenthood">Planned parenthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_hygiene" title="Feminine hygiene">Feminine hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_aids" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual aids">Menstrual aids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_menstrual_pad" title="Cloth menstrual pad">Cloth menstrual pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cup" title="Menstrual cup">Menstrual cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampon" title="Tampon">Tampon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_napkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary napkin">Sanitary pad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Dysmenorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorrhagia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorrhagia">Menorrhagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenorrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenorrhoea">Amenorrhoea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">Hormone replacement therapy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sexual health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sexually_transmittedinfections72" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">Sexually transmitted infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papilloma_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papilloma virus">Human papilloma virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV vaccine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Female genital mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">Clitoridectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_binding" title="Breast binding">Breast binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast health">Breast health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ironing" title="Breast ironing">Breast ironing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecological disorders">Gynaecological disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginitis" title="Vaginitis">Vaginitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leblouh" title="Leblouh">Leblouh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences">Sex differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Non-reproductive health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Violence_against_women114" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_during_childbirth" title="Abuse during childbirth">Abuse during childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">Intimate partner violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">Gender discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">Non-communicable diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cancer10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cancer" title="Uterine cancer">Uterine cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">Endometrial cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">Cervical cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papanicolaou_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Papanicolaou test">Papanicolaou test</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">Ovarian cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">Hip fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">Anaemia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract">Urinary tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Urinary incontinence</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sociocultural factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disadvantaged" title="Disadvantaged">Disadvantaged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare inequality">Healthcare inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">Gender disparities in health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Politics, research and advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_elimination_of_violence_against_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration on the elimination of violence against women">Declaration on the elimination of violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">International Day of the Girl Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission on the Status of Women">Commission on the Status of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">UN Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Research_on_Women%27s_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Research on Women's Health">Office of Research on Women's Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative" title="Women's Health Initiative">Women's Health Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Research_on_Women" title="International Center for Research on Women">International Center for Research on Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurses%27_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Health_Study" title="Black Women's Health Study">Black Women's Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartwright_Inquiry" title="Cartwright Inquiry">Cartwright Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Women%27s_Health_Research" title="Society for Women's Health Research">Society for Women's Health Research</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Women's health by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_Ethiopia" title="Women's health in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_India" title="Women's health in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">Family planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_Russia" title="Women's reproductive health in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control in the United States</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /><a href="/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" title="Category:Women's health">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Women's health">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Women%27s_Health" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Women's Health">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208373#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1704" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208373#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1704" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208373#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/922599/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7648122-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh93002781">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&oldid=1274676533">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_genital_mutilation&oldid=1274676533</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_genital_mutilation" title="Category:Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Female_genital_modification" title="Category:Female genital modification">Female genital modification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Violence_against_women" title="Category:Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Violence_against_women_in_Africa" title="Category:Violence 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[\"CITEREFShorter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSibianiRouzi2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrayerMurray1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTamale2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1813\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTopping2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToubia1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToubiaSharief2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakabi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWensinck2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWildenthal2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkerson1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYasinAl-TawilShabilaAl-Hadithi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoderKhan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoderWangJohansen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZabus2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZabus2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFwa_KihuraniWarigia_wa_JohannaMurigo_wa_Meshak2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Diop2008\"] = 1,\n [\"IzettToubia1932\"] = 1,\n [\"MackieLeJeune2008\"] = 1,\n [\"Pulitzer\"] = 1,\n [\"Type_I\"] = 1,\n [\"Type_II\"] = 1,\n [\"Type_III\"] = 1,\n [\"Type_IV\"] = 1,\n [\"UN\"] = 1,\n [\"UN2010\"] = 1,\n [\"UNFPA2013\"] = 1,\n [\"UNFPA–UNICEF2012\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEF2005\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEF2010\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEF2013\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEF2014\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEF2016\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFDjibouti2013\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFEritrea\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFIndonesia2016\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFNigeria\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFSomalia\"] = 1,\n [\"UNICEFpress2July2007\"] = 1,\n [\"UNresolution2012\"] = 1,\n [\"WHO2005\"] = 1,\n [\"WHO2008\"] = 1,\n [\"WHO2014\"] = 1,\n [\"WHO2016\"] = 1,\n [\"WHO2018\"] = 1,\n [\"classification\"] = 1,\n [\"comparison\"] = 1,\n [\"defibulation\"] = 1,\n [\"deinfibulation\"] = 1,\n [\"hrav\"] = 1,\n [\"reinfibulation\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"' \\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 9,\n [\"As of\"] = 7,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 4,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 3,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 50,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 64,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 14,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section begin\"] = 2,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section end\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Female genital mutilation\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 37,\n [\"Endplainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"FGM opposition timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Female genital mutilation\"] = 1,\n [\"Feminism\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 82,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 5,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"PMID\"] = 1,\n [\"Paragraph break\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 22,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 4,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sex and the law\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 135,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Urogenital surgical and other procedures\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Violence against women/end\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 45,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikicite\"] = 24,\n [\"Wikiquote-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Women's health\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","13.4"],["?","220","13.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","13.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","11.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","8.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","80","4.9"],["(for generator)","40","2.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","2.4"],["[others]","300","18.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-99xjz","timestamp":"20250215190028","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Female genital mutilation","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Female_genital_mutilation","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208373","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q208373","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-26T00:11:59Z","dateModified":"2025-02-08T17:30:47Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c3\/Campaign_road_sign_against_female_genital_mutilation_%28cropped%29_2.jpg","headline":"ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia"}</script> </body> </html>