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Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-San_and_Khoikhoi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#San_and_Khoikhoi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 San and Khoikhoi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-San_and_Khoikhoi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Bantu_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Bantu_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 The Bantu people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Bantu_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Colonization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portuguese_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Portuguese role </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 Dutch role </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_colonization_(1652–1815)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_colonization_(1652–1815)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Dutch colonization (1652–1815) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_colonization_(1652–1815)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_colonisation,_Mfecane_and_Boer_Republics_(1815–1910)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_colonisation,_Mfecane_and_Boer_Republics_(1815–1910)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 British colonisation, Mfecane and Boer Republics (1815–1910) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-British_colonisation,_Mfecane_and_Boer_Republics_(1815–1910)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle British colonisation, Mfecane and Boer Republics (1815–1910) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-British_colonisation,_Mfecane_and_Boer_Republics_(1815–1910)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_at_the_Cape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_at_the_Cape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 British at the Cape </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_at_the_Cape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_exploration_of_the_interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_exploration_of_the_interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 European exploration of the interior </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_exploration_of_the_interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zulu_militarism_and_expansionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zulu_militarism_and_expansionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Zulu militarism and expansionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zulu_militarism_and_expansionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boer_people_and_republics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boer_people_and_republics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Boer people and republics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boer_people_and_republics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_African_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_African_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 South African Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_African_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_State_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_State_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Free State Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_State_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natalia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natalia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Natalia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natalia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cape_Colony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cape_Colony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Cape Colony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cape_Colony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Natal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Griqua_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Griqua_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Griqua people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Griqua_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factional_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factional_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Factional conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factional_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wars_against_the_Xhosa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_against_the_Xhosa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1 Wars against the Xhosa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_against_the_Xhosa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_against_the_Zulu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_against_the_Zulu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.2 Wars against the Zulu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_against_the_Zulu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_with_the_Basotho" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_with_the_Basotho"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.3 Wars with the Basotho </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_with_the_Basotho-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_with_the_Ndebele" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_with_the_Ndebele"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.4 Wars with the Ndebele </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_with_the_Ndebele-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_with_the_Bapedi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_with_the_Bapedi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.5 Wars with the Bapedi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_with_the_Bapedi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_diamonds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_diamonds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Discovery of diamonds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_diamonds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_gold" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_gold"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Discovery of gold </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_gold-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Anglo–Boer_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Anglo–Boer_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 First Anglo–Boer War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Anglo–Boer_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Anglo–Boer_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Anglo–Boer_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 Second Anglo–Boer War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Anglo–Boer_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Union_of_South_Africa_(1910–1948)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Union_of_South_Africa_(1910–1948)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Union of South Africa (1910–1948) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Union_of_South_Africa_(1910–1948)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Union of South Africa (1910–1948) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Union_of_South_Africa_(1910–1948)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 First World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Second World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pro-German_and_pro-Nazi_attitudes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pro-German_and_pro-Nazi_attitudes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Pro-German and pro-Nazi attitudes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pro-German_and_pro-Nazi_attitudes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apartheid_era_(1948–1994)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apartheid_era_(1948–1994)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Apartheid era (1948–1994) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Apartheid_era_(1948–1994)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Apartheid era (1948–1994) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Apartheid_era_(1948–1994)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apartheid_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apartheid_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Apartheid legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apartheid_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UN_embargo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UN_embargo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 UN embargo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UN_embargo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extra-judicial_killings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extra-judicial_killings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Extra-judicial killings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extra-judicial_killings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_operations_in_frontline_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_operations_in_frontline_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Military operations in frontline states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_operations_in_frontline_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance_to_apartheid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance_to_apartheid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Resistance to apartheid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance_to_apartheid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_period_(1994–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_period_(1994–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Democratic period (1994–present) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Democratic_period_(1994–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Democratic period (1994–present) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Democratic_period_(1994–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Emigration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_burdens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_burdens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Financial burdens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_burdens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Labour relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poverty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poverty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Poverty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poverty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Corruption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Energy crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xenophobia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xenophobia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Xenophobia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xenophobia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2021_civil_unrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2021_civil_unrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 2021 civil unrest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2021_civil_unrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-apartheid_heads_of_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-apartheid_heads_of_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Post-apartheid heads of state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-apartheid_heads_of_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-VOC_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#VOC_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 VOC period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-VOC_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of South Africa</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" > 51 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_Suid-Afrika" title="Geskiedenis van Suid-Afrika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van Suid-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A5%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ جنوب إفريقيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ جنوب إفريقيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Sud%C3%A1frica" title="Historia de Sudáfrica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de Sudáfrica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C9%99nubi_Afrika_tarixi" title="Cənubi Afrika tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cənubi Afrika tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%91%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Паўднёва-Афрыканскай Рэспублікі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Паўднёва-Афрыканскай Рэспублікі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="История на Република Южна Африка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Република Южна Африка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_Sud-%C3%A0frica" title="Història de Sud-àfrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Sud-àfrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Jihoafrick%C3%A9_republiky" title="Dějiny Jihoafrické republiky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Jihoafrické republiky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbili_ya_South_Africa" title="Mbili ya South Africa – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Mbili ya South Africa" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_De_Affrica" title="Hanes De Affrica – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes De Affrica" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydafrikas_historie" title="Sydafrikas historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sydafrikas historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_S%C3%BCdafrikas" title="Geschichte Südafrikas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Südafrikas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B5una-Aafrika_Vabariigi_ajalugu" title="Lõuna-Aafrika Vabariigi ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lõuna-Aafrika Vabariigi ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Sud%C3%A1frica" title="Historia de Sudáfrica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Sudáfrica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegoafrikako_historia" title="Hegoafrikako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hegoafrikako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="تاریخ آفریقای جنوبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ آفریقای جنوبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Afrique_du_Sud" title="Histoire de l'Afrique du Sud – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Afrique du Sud" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Sur%C3%A1frica" title="Historia de Suráfrica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Suráfrica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4_%EA%B3%B5%ED%99%94%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="남아프리카 공화국의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="남아프리카 공화국의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Ju%C5%BEne_Afrike" title="Povijest Južne Afrike – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Južne Afrike" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Sudafrika" title="Historio di Sudafrika – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Sudafrika" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Afrika_Selatan" title="Sejarah Afrika Selatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Afrika Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Sudafrica" title="Storia del Sudafrica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del Sudafrica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של דרום אפריקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של דרום אפריקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Afrika_Kusini" title="Historia ya Afrika Kusini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Afrika Kusini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet%C5%B3_Afrikos_Respublikos_istorija" title="Pietų Afrikos Respublikos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pietų Afrikos Respublikos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_D%C3%A9l-afrikai_K%C3%B6zt%C3%A1rsas%C3%A1g_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="A Dél-afrikai Köztársaság történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A Dél-afrikai Köztársaság történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Историја на Јужноафриканската Република – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Јужноафриканската Република" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Afrika_Selatan" title="Sejarah Afrika Selatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Afrika Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Zuid-Afrika" title="Geschiedenis van Zuid-Afrika – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Zuid-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="南アフリカ共和国の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南アフリカ共和国の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8r-Afrikas_historie" title="Sør-Afrikas historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sør-Afrikas historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਦੱਖਣੀ ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕਾ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦੱਖਣੀ ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕਾ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DA%A9%DA%BE%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%81_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="دکھنی افریقہ دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دکھنی افریقہ دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د سویلي افریقا تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د سویلي افریقا تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Po%C5%82udniowej_Afryki" title="Historia Południowej Afryki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Południowej Afryki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_%C3%81frica_do_Sul" title="História da África do Sul – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da África do Sul" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%AE%D0%90%D0%A0" title="История ЮАР – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История ЮАР" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Republik%C3%ABs_Afrika_Jugore" title="Historia e Republikës Afrika Jugore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Republikës Afrika Jugore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Africa" title="History of South Africa – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of South Africa" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umlandvo_weNingizimu_Afrikha" title="Umlandvo weNingizimu Afrikha – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Umlandvo weNingizimu Afrikha" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Историја Јужноафричке Републике – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Јужноафричке Републике" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etel%C3%A4-Afrikan_historia" title="Etelä-Afrikan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Etelä-Afrikan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydafrikas_historia" title="Sydafrikas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sydafrikas historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCney_Afrika_tarihi" title="Güney Afrika tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Güney Afrika tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Історія Південно-Африканської Республіки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Південно-Африканської Республіки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Sudafrica" title="Storia del Sudafrica – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Storia del Sudafrica" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Nam_Phi" title="Lịch sử Nam Phi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Nam Phi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%9D%9E%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="南非历史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="南非历史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_South_Africa" title="Category:History of South Africa">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of South Africa</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Monomotapa_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Monomotapa_Map.jpg/250px-Monomotapa_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Monomotapa_Map.jpg/375px-Monomotapa_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Monomotapa_Map.jpg/500px-Monomotapa_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2038" data-file-height="1582" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Pre-colonial</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa#Middle_Stone_Age" title="Early history of South Africa">Middle Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa#Late_Stone_Age" title="Early history of South Africa">Late Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mutapa" title="Kingdom of Mutapa">Kingdom of Mutapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaditshwene" title="Kaditshwene">Kaditshwene</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">Dutch colonisation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaka_kaSenzangakhona" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaka kaSenzangakhona">Shaka kaSenzangakhona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingane_kaSenzangakhona" class="mw-redirect" title="Dingane kaSenzangakhona">Dingane kaSenzangakhona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpande_kaSenzangakhona" class="mw-redirect" title="Mpande kaSenzangakhona">Mpande kaSenzangakhona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetshwayo_kaMpande" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetshwayo kaMpande">Cetshwayo kaMpande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinuzulu_kaCetshwayo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo">Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo</a></li> <li>1887 Annexation (British)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)#British_colonization" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">British colonisation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Colony of Natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Republic" title="Natalia Republic">Natalia Republic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa#Boer_Wars" title="Military history of South Africa">Boer Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Raid" title="Jameson Raid">Jameson Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of South Africa during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">World War II</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">Legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Internal resistance to apartheid">Internal resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_South_African_apartheid_referendum" title="1992 South African apartheid referendum">Apartheid referendum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">Post-apartheid</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Nelson_Mandela" title="Presidency of Nelson Mandela">Mandela presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki#Presidency_of_South_Africa" title="Thabo Mbeki">Mbeki presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kgalema_Motlanthe#Presidency_(2008–2009)" title="Kgalema Motlanthe">Motlanthe presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma#President_of_South_Africa_(2009–2018)" title="Jacob Zuma">Zuma presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa#Presidency_(2018–present)" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Ramaphosa presidency</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_South_Africa" title="Economic history of South Africa">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of South African inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in South Africa">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa" title="Military history of South Africa">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Category:Political history of South Africa">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa#History" title="Religion in South Africa">Religious history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">Slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_South_Africa" title="Timeline of South Africa">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_South_Africa" title="List of years in South Africa">List of years in South Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; border-bottom:1px solid #ccc"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/16px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/24px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/32px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:South_Africa" title="Portal:South Africa">South Africa portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Africa" title="Template:History of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:History of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The first modern humans are believed to have inhabited <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> more than 100,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> In 1999, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> designated the region the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage site.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> South Africa's first known inhabitants have been referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Khwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwe">Khwe</a> and the San. Starting in about 1,000 BC, these groups were then joined by the Bantu ethnic groups who migrated from Western and Central Africa during what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a>. European exploration of the African coast began in the 13th century when Portugal sought an alternative route to the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> to China. In the 14th and 15th century, Portuguese explorers traveled down the west African Coast, detailing and mapping the coastline and in 1488 they rounded the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> established a trading post in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a> in 1652,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> European workers who settled at the Cape became known as the <a href="/wiki/Free_Burghers" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Burghers">Free Burghers</a> and gradually established farms in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Cape_Colony" title="Invasion of the Cape Colony">Invasion of the Cape Colony</a> by the British in 1795 and 1806, mass migrations collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_trek" class="mw-redirect" title="Great trek">Great Trek</a> occurred during which the Voortrekkers established several <a href="/wiki/Boer_republics" title="Boer republics">Boer Republics</a> in the interior of South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The discoveries of diamonds and gold in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the fortunes of the region, propelling it onto the world stage and introducing a shift away from an exclusively agrarian-based economy towards industrialisation and the development of urban infrastructure. The discoveries also led to new conflicts culminating in open warfare between the <a href="/wiki/Boers" title="Boers">Boer</a> settlers and the <a href="/wiki/Second_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Second British Empire">British Empire</a>, fought for control over the nascent South African mining industry.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Following the defeat of the Boers in the Anglo–Boer or <a href="/wiki/South_African_War" class="mw-redirect" title="South African War">South African War</a> (1899–1902), the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> was created as a <a href="/wiki/Associated_state" title="Associated state">self-governing</a> dominion of the British Empire on 31 May 1910 in terms of the <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_Act_1909" title="South Africa Act 1909">South Africa Act 1909</a>, which amalgamated the four previously separate British colonies: <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Colony of Natal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal Colony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a>. The country became a fully sovereign <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a> within the British Empire, in 1934 following enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Union_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Union Act">Status of the Union Act</a>. The monarchy came to an end on 31 May 1961, replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> as the consequence of a <a href="/wiki/1960_South_African_republic_referendum" title="1960 South African republic referendum">1960 referendum</a>, which legitimised the country becoming the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of South Africa">Republic of South Africa</a>. From 1948–1994, South African politics was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a>. Racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> were implemented in 1948. On 2 February 1990, <a href="/wiki/FW_de_Klerk" class="mw-redirect" title="FW de Klerk">FW de Klerk</a>, then president of South Africa and leader of the Nationalist Party, unbanned the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) and freed <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> from life imprisonment on Robben Island. The <a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">CODESA</a> talks negotiated the creation of a new <a href="/wiki/Non-racialism" title="Non-racialism">non-racial</a> democratic South Africa, for which de Klerk and Mandela were later awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>. These negotiations led to the creation of a democratic <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">constitution</a> for all South Africa. On 27 April 1994, after decades of ANC led resistance to white minority rule, armed guerrilla struggle, and international opposition to apartheid - which ended in crippling sanctions against the minority white government, the ANC achieved a majority in the country's first democratic election. Since then, despite a continually decreasing electoral majority,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> the ANC has ruled South Africa. The ANC has notionally been in alliance with the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Congress of South African Trade Unions">Congress of South African Trade Unions</a> since 1994.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] High rates of <a href="/wiki/Crime_in_South_Africa" title="Crime in South Africa">crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Africa" title="Corruption in South Africa">corruption</a>, unemployment, low economic growth, <a href="/wiki/South_African_energy_crisis" title="South African energy crisis">an ongoing energy crisis</a>, and poorly maintained infrastructure are some of the problems challenging contemporary South Africa. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history_(before_1652)">Early history (before 1652)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history (before 1652)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Early history of South Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/People_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="People of Africa">People of Africa</a></div> Scientists researching the periods before written historical records were made have established that the territory of what is now referred to generically as South Africa was one of the important centers of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>. It was inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a> since at least 2.5 million years ago. <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">Modern human</a> settlement occurred around 125,000 years ago in the Middle Stone Age, as shown by archaeological discoveries at <a href="/wiki/Klasies_River_Caves" title="Klasies River Caves">Klasies River Caves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The first human habitation is associated with a DNA group originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa and still prevalent in the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoi">Khoi</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a>). Southern Africa was later populated by <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu-speaking people</a> who <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">migrated from the western region of central Africa</a> during the early centuries AD. Professor <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> discovered the skull of a 2.51 million year old <a href="/wiki/Taung_Child" title="Taung Child">Taung Child</a> in 1924, the first example of <a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Australopithecus africanus</a> ever found. Following in Dart's footsteps <a href="/wiki/Robert_Broom" title="Robert Broom">Robert Broom</a> discovered a new much more robust hominid in 1938 <a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">Paranthropus robustus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Kromdraai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kromdraai">Kromdraai</a>, and in 1947 uncovered several more examples of Australopithecus africanus at <a href="/wiki/Sterkfontein" title="Sterkfontein">Sterkfontein</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos cave</a> in 2002, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as the earliest example ever discovered of abstract art or symbolic art created by <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Many more species of early hominid have come to light in recent decades. The oldest is <a href="/wiki/Little_Foot" title="Little Foot">Little Foot</a>, a collection of footbones of an unknown hominid between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, discovered at Sterkfontein by <a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Clarke" title="Ronald J. Clarke">Ronald J. Clarke</a>. An important recent find was that of 1.9 million year old <a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Australopithecus sediba</a>, discovered in 2008. In 2015, the discovery near Johannesburg of a previously unknown species of Homo was announced, named <a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">Homo naledi</a>. It has been described as one of the most important paleontological discoveries in modern times.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="San_and_Khoikhoi">San and Khoikhoi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: San and Khoikhoi">edit</a>]</div> The descendants of the Middle Paleolithic populations are thought to be the aboriginal <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a> tribes. These are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>, a modern European portmanteau of these two tribes' names. The settlement of southern Africa by the Khoisan corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations#Within_Africa" title="Early human migrations">earliest separation</a> of the extant Homo sapiens populations altogether, associated in genetic science with what is described in scientific terms as matrilinear <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L0" title="Haplogroup L0">haplogroup L0</a> (mtDNA) and patrilinear <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_A_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)">haplogroup A</a> (Y-DNA), originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The San and Khoikhoi are essentially distinguished only by their respective occupations. Whereas the San were hunter-gatherers, the Khoikhoi were pastoral herders.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The initial origin of the Khoikhoi remains uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Archaeological discoveries of livestock bones on the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Peninsula" title="Cape Peninsula">Cape Peninsula</a> indicate that the Khoikhoi began to settle there by about 2000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese mariners, who were the first Europeans at the Cape, encountered pastoral Khoikhoi with livestock. Later, English and Dutch seafarers in the late 16th and 17th centuries exchanged metals for cattle and sheep with the Khoikhoi. The conventional view is that availability of livestock was one reason why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a staging post where the port city of Cape Town is today situated. The establishment of the staging post by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> at the Cape in 1652 soon brought the Khoikhoi into conflict with Dutch settlers over land ownership. Competition between Dutch and Khoikhoi pastoralists over grazing land led to livestock theft and conflict.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The Khoikhoi were ultimately expelled from the peninsula by force, after a succession of wars. The first Khoikhoi–Dutch War broke out in 1659, the second in 1673, and the third 1674–1677.<a href="#cite_note-sahistory-21">[21]</a> By the time of their defeat and expulsion from the Cape Peninsula and surrounding districts, the Khoikhoi population was decimated by a <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox epidemic">smallpox epidemic</a> introduced by Dutch sailors against which the Khoikhoi had no natural resistance or indigenous medicines.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Bantu_people">The Bantu people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Bantu people">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples_of_South_Africa" title="Bantu peoples of South Africa">Bantu peoples of South Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Makuleke1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Makuleke1.JPG/220px-Makuleke1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Makuleke1.JPG/330px-Makuleke1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Makuleke1.JPG/440px-Makuleke1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Looking out over the floodplains of the Luvuvhu River (right) and the Limpopo River (far distance and left)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a> was one of the major demographic movements in human prehistory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Bantu-speaking communities reached southern Africa from the <a href="/wiki/Congo_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo basin">Congo basin</a> as early as the 4th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Some groups, ancestral to today's <a href="/wiki/Nguni_people" title="Nguni people">Nguni peoples</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Swazi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ndebele_people_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndebele people (South Africa)">Ndebele</a>), preferred to live near the eastern coast of what is present-day South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> Others, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Sotho%E2%80%93Tswana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sotho–Tswana">Sotho–Tswana</a> peoples (<a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Tswana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedi_people" title="Pedi people">Pedi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sotho_people" title="Sotho people">Sotho</a>), settled in the interior on the plateau known as the <a href="/wiki/Highveld" title="Highveld">Highveld</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> while today's <a href="/wiki/Venda_people" title="Venda people">Venda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsonga_people" title="Tsonga people">Tsonga peoples</a> made their homes in the north-eastern areas of present-day South Africa. The Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mapungubwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapungubwe">Mapungubwe</a>, which was located near the northern border of present-day South Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers adjacent to present-day <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, was the first indigenous kingdom in southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300. It developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned because of climatic changes in the 14th century. Smiths created objects of iron, copper and gold both for local decorative use and for foreign trade. The kingdom controlled trade through the east African ports to <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and throughout southern Africa, making it wealthy through the exchange of gold and ivory for imports such as Chinese porcelain and Persian glass beads.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Specifics of the contact between Bantu-speakers and the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a> ethnic group remain largely unresearched, although <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> proof of assimilation exists, as several southern <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>) are theorised in that they incorporate many <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">click consonants</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan languages</a>, as possibilities of such developing independently are valid as well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization">Colonization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Colonization">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portuguese_role">Portuguese role</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Portuguese role">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Portugal in the Age of Discovery">Portugal in the Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" title="Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India">Discovery of the sea route to India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bartolomeu_Dias,_South_Africa_House_(cut).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG/220px-Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="489" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG/330px-Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG/440px-Bartolomeu_Dias%2C_South_Africa_House_%28cut%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="1439" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Bartolomeu Dias at the High Commission of South Africa in London. He was the first European navigator to sail around the southernmost tip of Africa.</figcaption></figure> The Portuguese mariner <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> was the first European to explore the coastline of South Africa in 1488, while attempting to discover a trade route to the Far East via the southernmost cape of South Africa, which he named Cabo das Tormentas, meaning <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Storms" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape of Storms">Cape of Storms</a>. In November 1497, a fleet of Portuguese ships under the command of the Portuguese mariner <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> rounded the Cape of Good Hope. By 16 December, the fleet had passed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fish_River" title="Great Fish River">Great Fish River</a> on the east coast of South Africa, where Dias had earlier turned back. Da Gama gave the name <a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Natal" class="mw-redirect" title="Early history of Natal">Natal</a> to the coast he was passing, which in Portuguese means Christmas. Da Gama's fleet proceeded northwards to Zanzibar and later sailed eastwards, eventually reaching <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and opening the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Route" title="Cape Route">Cape Route</a> between Europe and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Many Portuguese words are still found along the coast of South Africa including Saldanha, Algoa, Natal, Agulhas, Benguela and Lucia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dutch_role">Dutch role</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dutch role">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (May 2017)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Maritime_history_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company">Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company (VOC)</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Dutch_Expedition_to_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dutch Expedition to Indonesia">First Dutch Expedition to Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Dutch_Expedition_to_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia">Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brouwer_Route" title="Brouwer Route">Brouwer Route</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten" title="Jan Huyghen van Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/180px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/270px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg/360px-Vereenigde_Oostindische_Compagnie_spiegelretourschip_Amsterdam_replica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a><figcaption>Replica of an <a href="/wiki/East_Indiaman" title="East Indiaman">East Indiaman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_East_Indies_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="United East Indies Company">United East Indies Company</a> (VOC). The Dutch East India Company was a major force behind the <a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Golden Age of Dutch exploration</a> (c. 1590s–1720s) and <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Netherlandish_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography">Netherlandish cartography</a> (c. 1570s–1670s).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dutch_colonization_(1652–1815)">Dutch colonization (1652–1815)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dutch colonization (1652–1815)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (May 2017)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">History of South Africa (1652–1815)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_South_Africa" title="Economic history of South Africa">Economic history of South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa" title="Military history of South Africa">Military history of South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi%E2%80%93Dutch_Wars" title="Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars">Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Maritime_history_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company">Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Category:Military history of the Dutch East India Company">Military history of the Dutch East India Company</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_exploration_in_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery">Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Town" title="History of Cape Town">History of Cape Town</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stellenbosch" title="Stellenbosch">Stellenbosch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swellendam" title="Swellendam">Swellendam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graaff-Reinet" title="Graaff-Reinet">Graaff-Reinet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franschhoek" title="Franschhoek">Franschhoek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">Huguenots in South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Dutch" title="Cape Dutch">Cape Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorsland_Trek" title="Dorsland Trek">Dorsland Trek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_South_Africa" title="Christianity in South Africa">Christianity in South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaner Calvinism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church_in_South_Africa" title="Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa">Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_Dutch_architecture" title="Cape Dutch architecture">Cape Dutch architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman-Dutch_law" title="Roman-Dutch law">Roman-Dutch law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_African_wine" title="South African wine">South African wine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay,_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/220px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/330px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg/440px-Aernout_Smit_Table_Bay%2C_1683_William_Fehr_Collection_Cape_Town.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Table_Bay" title="Table Bay">Table Bay</a> with ships of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), c. 1683.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg/220px-Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg/330px-Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg/440px-Jan_van_Riebeeck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a>, first Commander of the Dutch East India Company colony</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg/220px-Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg/330px-Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg/440px-Vignoble_de_Groot_Constantia_Afrique_du_Sud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Groot_Constantia" title="Groot Constantia">Groot Constantia</a>, the oldest <a href="/wiki/Wine_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine estate">wine estate</a> in South Africa, was founded in 1685 by <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Stel" title="Simon van der Stel">Simon van der Stel</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_African_wine" title="South African wine">South African wine</a> industry (New World wine) is among the lasting legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC era</a>. The recorded <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_South_Africa" title="Economic history of South Africa">economic history of South Africa</a> began with the VOC period.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (in the Dutch of the day: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement at the Cape in 1652. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice route</a> to the East, had no intention of colonizing the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could be serviced and restock on supplies.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a> reached Table Bay on 6 April 1652.<a href="#cite_note-Noble-141-28">[28]</a> The VOC had settled at the Cape in order to supply their trading ships. The Cape and the VOC had to import Dutch farmers to establish farms to supply the passing ships as well as to supply the growing VOC settlement. The small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the Khoikhoi.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> The free burghers were ex-VOC soldiers and gardeners, who were unable to return to Holland when their contracts were completed with the VOC.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The VOC also brought some 71,000 slaves to Cape Town from India, Indonesia, East Africa, Mauritius, and Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg/220px-Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg/330px-Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg/440px-Jan_Van_Riebeeck_Statue_Cape_Town.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1418" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Statue of Jan van Riebeeck">statue</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Jan van Riebeeck</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, in Heerengracht Street.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cape_Town,_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Cape_Town%2C_Castle_of_Good_Hope_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Castle_of_Good_Hope" title="Castle of Good Hope">Castle of Good Hope</a> (<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasteel_de_Goede_Hoop" class="extiw" title="nl:Kasteel de Goede Hoop">Kasteel de Goede Hoop</a> in Dutch), Cape Town. Founded officially in 1652, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Town" title="History of Cape Town">Kaapstad</a>/Cape Town is the oldest <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban area</a> in South Africa.</figcaption></figure> The majority of burghers had <a href="/wiki/Dutch_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch (ethnic group)">Dutch ancestry</a> and belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a>, but there were also some Germans, who often happened to be <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a>. In 1688, the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>, Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under its Catholic ruler, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">King Louis XIV</a>. Van Riebeeck considered it impolitic to enslave the local Khoi and San aboriginals, so the VOC began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch East India Company in Indonesia">Dutch colonies in Indonesia</a>. Eventually, van Riebeeck and the VOC began to make <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a> out of the Khoikhoi and the San. The descendants of unions between the Dutch settlers and the Khoi-San and Malay slaves became known officially as the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coloureds" title="Cape Coloureds">Cape Coloureds</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Malays" title="Cape Malays">Cape Malays</a>, respectively. A significant number of the offspring from the white and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto-<a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> speaking white population. The racially mixed genealogical origins of many <a href="/wiki/White_South_Africans" title="White South Africans">white South Africans</a> have been traced to interracial unions at the Cape between the European occupying population and imported Asian and African slaves, the indigenous Khoi and San, and their mixed-ethnicity descendants.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Stel" title="Simon van der Stel">Simon van der Stel</a>, the first Governor of the Dutch settlement, famous for his development of the lucrative South African wine industry, was himself of mixed race-origin.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_colonisation,_Mfecane_and_Boer_Republics_(1815–1910)">British colonisation, Mfecane and Boer Republics (1815–1910)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: British colonisation, Mfecane and Boer Republics (1815–1910)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_at_the_Cape">British at the Cape</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: British at the Cape">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_Cape_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="British Cape Colony">British Cape Colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">History of South Africa (1815–1910)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/170px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/255px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png/340px-Punch_Rhodes_Colossus.png 2x" data-file-width="2069" data-file-height="2681" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Rhodes_Colossus" title="The Rhodes Colossus">The Rhodes Colossus</a>—<a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> spanning "Cape to Cairo"</figcaption></figure> In 1787, shortly before the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, a faction within the politics of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Patriottentijd" title="Patriottentijd">Patriot Party</a> attempted to overthrow the regime of <a href="/wiki/Stadtholder" title="Stadtholder">stadtholder</a> <a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V</a>. Though the revolt was crushed, it was resurrected after the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries_theatre_of_the_War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition">French invasion of the Netherlands</a> in 1794/1795 which resulted in the stadtholder fleeing the country. The Patriot revolutionaries then proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>, which was closely allied to revolutionary France. In response, the stadtholder, who had taken up residence in England, issued the <a href="/wiki/Kew_Letters" title="Kew Letters">Kew Letters</a>, ordering colonial governors to surrender to the British. The British then <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Cape_Colony_(1795)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of the Cape Colony (1795)">seized the Cape in 1795</a> to prevent it from falling into French hands. The Cape was relinquished back to the Dutch in 1803.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 1805, the British inherited the Cape as a prize during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">again seizing</a> the Cape from the French controlled <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a> which had replaced the Batavian Republic.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape Colony, other than as a strategically located port. As one of their first tasks they outlawed the use of the Dutch language in 1806 with the view of converting the European settlers to the British language and culture.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cape_Articles_of_Capitulation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cape Articles of Capitulation (page does not exist)">Cape Articles of Capitulation</a> of 1806 allowed the colony to retain "all their rights and privileges which they have enjoyed hitherto",<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and this launched South Africa on a divergent course from the rest of the British Empire, allowing the continuance of <a href="/wiki/Roman-Dutch_law" title="Roman-Dutch law">Roman-Dutch law</a>. British <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> of the area was recognised at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> in 1815, the Dutch accepting a payment of 6 million pounds (equivalent to £31,2 billion in 2023)<a href="#cite_note-:4-37">[37]</a> for the colony.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> This had the effect of forcing more of the Dutch colonists to move (or trek) away from British administrative reach. Much later, in 1820 the British authorities persuaded about 5,000 middle-class British immigrants (most of them "in trade") to leave Great Britain. Many of the <a href="/wiki/1820_Settlers" title="1820 Settlers">1820 Settlers</a> eventually settled in <a href="/wiki/Grahamstown" class="mw-redirect" title="Grahamstown">Grahamstown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port_Elizabeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Elizabeth">Port Elizabeth</a>. British policy with regard to South Africa would vacillate with successive governments, but the overarching imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India while incurring as little expense as possible within the colony. This aim was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, who soon developed a distaste for British authority.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_exploration_of_the_interior">European exploration of the interior</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: European exploration of the interior">edit</a>]</div> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jacob_Gordon" title="Robert Jacob Gordon">Robert Jacob Gordon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> was the first European to explore parts of the interior while commanding the Dutch garrison at the renamed <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>, from 1780 to 1795. The four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings known collectively as the Gordon Atlas, as well as in his journals, which were only discovered in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Early relations between the European settlers and the Xhosa, the first Bantu peoples they met when they ventured inward, were peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids from 1779.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> The British explorers <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> and William Oswell, setting out from a mission station in the northern Cape Colony, are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari desert in 1849.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingstone a gold medal for his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ngami" title="Lake Ngami">Lake Ngami</a> in the desert.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zulu_militarism_and_expansionism">Zulu militarism and expansionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Zulu militarism and expansionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Difaqane" class="mw-redirect" title="Difaqane">Difaqane</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this section is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_South_Africa##" title="Talk:History of South Africa">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>. (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/400px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/600px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/800px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2031" data-file-height="1741" /></a><figcaption>The rise of the Zulu Empire <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  under Shaka forced other chiefdoms and clans to flee across a wide area of southern Africa. Clans fleeing the Zulu war zone <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  included the <a href="/wiki/Soshangane" title="Soshangane">Soshangane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zwangendaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwangendaba">Zwangendaba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ndebele_people_(Zimbabwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)">Ndebele</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hlubi_people" title="Hlubi people">Hlubi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Ngwane</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mfengu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mfengu">Mfengu</a>. Some clans were caught between the Zulu Empire and advancing <a href="/wiki/Voortrekkers" class="mw-redirect" title="Voortrekkers">Voortrekkers</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  such as the <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"> .</figcaption></figure> The Zulu people are part of the Nguni ethnic group and were originally a minor clan in what is today northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca. 1709 by <a href="/wiki/Zulu_kaNtombela" class="mw-redirect" title="Zulu kaNtombela">Zulu kaNtombela</a>. The 1820s saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a>, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. <a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Sotho</a>-speakers know this period as the <a href="/wiki/Difaqane" class="mw-redirect" title="Difaqane">difaqane</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Forced_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced migration">forced migration</a>"); <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>-speakers call it the mfecane ("crushing").<a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a> Various theories have been advanced for the causes of the difaqane, ranging from ecological factors to competition in the ivory trade.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Another theory attributes the epicentre of Zulu violence to the slave trade out of Delgoa Bay in Mozambique situated to the north of Zululand.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Most historians recognise that the Mfecane wasn't just a series of events caused by the founding of the Zulu kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka Zulu</a> came into power.<a href="#cite_note-Etherington2004-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[25]</a> In 1818, <a href="/wiki/Nguni_people" title="Nguni people">Nguni</a> tribes in Zululand created a militaristic kingdom between the <a href="/wiki/Tugela_River" title="Tugela River">Tugela River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pongola_River" title="Pongola River">Pongola River</a>, under the driving force of <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka</a> kaSenzangakhona, son of the chief of the Zulu clan.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Shaka built large <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">armies</a>, breaking from clan tradition by placing the armies under the control of his own officers rather than of hereditary chiefs. He then set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His <a href="/wiki/Impis" class="mw-redirect" title="Impis">impis</a> (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingShaka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingShaka.jpg/170px-KingShaka.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingShaka.jpg/255px-KingShaka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingShaka.jpg/340px-KingShaka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shaka_Zulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaka Zulu">Shaka Zulu</a> in traditional <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu</a> military garb</figcaption></figure> The Zulu resulted in the mass movement of many tribes who in turn tried to dominate those in new territories, leading to widespread warfare and waves of displacement spread throughout southern Africa and beyond. It accelerated the formation of several new nation-states, notably those of the Sotho (present-day <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Swazi</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)). It caused the consolidation of groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_people" title="Northern Ndebele people">Matebele</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mfengu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mfengu">Mfengu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Makololo" class="mw-redirect" title="Makololo">Makololo</a>. In 1828 Shaka was killed by his half-brothers <a href="/wiki/Dingane" title="Dingane">Dingaan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umhlangana" class="mw-redirect" title="Umhlangana">Umhlangana</a>. The weaker and less-skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence. Estimates for the death toll resulting from the Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million.<a href="#cite_note-Walter1969-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hanson2007-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boer_people_and_republics">Boer people and republics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Boer people and republics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a></div> After 1806, a number of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>-speaking inhabitants of the Cape Colony trekked inland, first in small groups. Eventually, in the 1830s, large numbers of Boers migrated in what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a> Among the initial reasons for their leaving the Cape colony were the English language rule. Religion was a very important aspect of the settlers culture and the bible and church services were in Dutch. Similarly, schools, justice and trade up to the arrival of the British, were all managed in the Dutch language. The language law caused friction, distrust and dissatisfaction. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/300px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/450px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg/600px-TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>An account of the first <a href="/wiki/Trekboer" class="mw-redirect" title="Trekboer">trekboers</a></figcaption></figure> Another reason for Dutch-speaking white farmers trekking away from the Cape was the abolition of slavery by the British government on Emancipation Day, 1 December 1838. The farmers complained they could not replace the labour of their slaves without losing an excessive amount of money.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The farmers had invested large amounts of capital in slaves. Owners who had purchased enslaved people on credit or put them up as surety against loans faced financial ruin. Britain had allocated the sum of 1,200,000 British Pounds (equivalent to £5,53 billion in 2023)<a href="#cite_note-:4-37">[37]</a> as compensation to the Dutch settlers, on condition the Dutch farmers had to lodge their claims in Britain as well as the fact that the value of the enslaved people was many times the allocated amount. This caused further dissatisfaction among the Dutch settlers. The settlers, incorrectly, believed that the Cape Colony administration had taken the money due to them as payment for freeing their slaves. Those settlers who were allocated money could only claim it in Britain in person or through an agent. The commission charged by agents was the same as the payment for one slave, thus those settlers only claiming for one slave would receive nothing.<a href="#cite_note-krugerp-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_African_Republic">South African Republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: South African Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Transvaal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Transvaal.svg/200px-Flag_of_Transvaal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Transvaal.svg/300px-Flag_of_Transvaal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Transvaal.svg/400px-Flag_of_Transvaal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_South_African_Republic" title="Flag of the South African Republic">Flag of the South African Republic</a>, often referred to as the Vierkleur (meaning four-coloured)</figcaption></figure> The South African Republic (Dutch: Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek or ZAR, not to be confused with the much later <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of South Africa">Republic of South Africa</a>), is often referred to as The Transvaal and sometimes as the Republic of Transvaal. It was an independent and internationally recognised nation-state in southern Africa from 1852 to 1902. Independent sovereignty of the republic was formally recognised by <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Sand_River_Convention" title="Sand River Convention">Sand River Convention</a> on 17 January 1852.<a href="#cite_note-Eybers-55">[55]</a> The republic, under the premiership of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kruger" title="Paul Kruger">Paul Kruger</a>, defeated British forces in the <a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a> and remained independent until the end of the Second Boer War on 31 May 1902, when it was forced to surrender to the British. The territory of the South African Republic became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_State_Republic">Free State Republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Free State Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg/200px-Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg/400px-Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Orange_Free_State" title="Flag of the Orange Free State">Flag of the Republic of the Orange Free State</a></figcaption></figure>The independent Boer republic of <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> evolved from colonial Britain's <a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Sovereignty" title="Orange River Sovereignty">Orange River Sovereignty</a>, enforced by the presence of British troops, which lasted from 1848 to 1854 in the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers, named Transorange. Britain, due to the military burden imposed on it by the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> in Europe, then withdrew its troops from the territory in 1854, when the territory along with other areas in the region was claimed by the Boers as an independent Boer republic, which they named the Orange Free State. In March 1858, after land disputes, cattle rustling and a series of raids and counter-raids, the Orange Free State declared war on the <a href="/wiki/Basotho" class="mw-redirect" title="Basotho">Basotho</a> kingdom, which it failed to defeat. A succession of wars were conducted between the Boers and the Basotho for the next 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The name Orange Free State was again changed to the <a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a>, created by Britain after the latter occupied it in 1900 and then annexed it in 1902 during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>. The colony, with an estimated population of less than 400,000 in 1904<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange Free State Province">Orange Free State Province</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natalia">Natalia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Natalia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natalia_Republic" title="Natalia Republic">Natalia Republic</a></div> Natalia was a short-lived Boer republic established in 1839 by Boer <a href="/wiki/Voortrekkers" class="mw-redirect" title="Voortrekkers">Voortrekkers</a> emigrating from the Cape Colony. In 1824 a party of 25 men under British Lieutenant F G Farewell arrived from the Cape Colony and established a settlement on the northern shore of the Bay of Natal, which would later become the port of Durban, so named after <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_D%27Urban" title="Benjamin D'Urban">Benjamin D'Urban</a>, a governor of the Cape Colony. Boer Voortrekkers in 1838 established the Republic of Natalia in the surrounding region, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Pietermaritzburg" title="Pietermaritzburg">Pietermaritzburg</a>. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 British colonial forces attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella. The attack failed, with British forces then retreating back to Durban, which the Boers besieged. A local trader <a href="/wiki/Dick_King" title="Dick King">Dick King</a> and his servant Ndongeni, who later became folk heroes, were able to escape the blockade and ride to Grahamstown, a distance of 600 km (372.82 miles) in 14 days to raise British reinforcements. The reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the siege was broken and the Voortrekkers retreated.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The Boers accepted British annexation in 1844. Many of the Natalia Boers who refused to acknowledge British rule trekked over the <a href="/wiki/Drakensberg" title="Drakensberg">Drakensberg</a> mountains to settle in the Orange Free State and Transvaal republics.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cape_Colony">Cape Colony</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cape Colony">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/History of South Africa">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope">Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg/220px-Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg/330px-Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg/440px-Sir_Harry_G_W_Smith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="2139" /></a><figcaption>Harry Smith</figcaption></figure> Between 1847 and 1854, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Harry_Smith,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet">Harry Smith</a>, governor and high commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed territories far to the north of the original British and Dutch settlement. Smith's expansion of the Cape Colony resulted in conflict with disaffected Boers in the Orange River Sovereignty who in 1848 mounted an abortive rebellion at Boomplaats, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of the Cape Mounted Rifles.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Annexation also precipitated a war between British colonial forces and the indigenous Xhosa nation in 1850, in the eastern coastal region.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Starting from the mid-1800s, the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape of Good Hope</a>, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began moving towards greater independence from Britain. In 1854, it was granted its first locally elected legislature, the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Parliament">Cape Parliament</a>. In 1872, after a long political struggle, it attained <a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">responsible government</a> with a locally accountable executive and Prime Minister. The Cape nonetheless remained nominally part of the British Empire, even though it was self-governing in practice. The Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibited any discrimination on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections were held according to the non-racial <a href="/wiki/Cape_Qualified_Franchise" title="Cape Qualified Franchise">Cape Qualified Franchise</a> system, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race. Initially, a period of strong economic growth and social development ensued. However, an ill-informed British attempt to force the states of southern Africa into a British federation led to inter-ethnic tensions and the <a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a>. Meanwhile, the discovery of diamonds around <a href="/wiki/Kimberley,_Northern_Cape" title="Kimberley, Northern Cape">Kimberley</a> and gold in the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">Transvaal</a> led to a later return to instability, particularly because they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a>. As Cape Prime Minister, Rhodes curtailed the multi-racial franchise, and his expansionist policies set the stage for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natal">Natal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Natal">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Colony of Natal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg/220px-Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg/330px-Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg/440px-Indians_arriving_in_South_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Indian indentured labourers arriving in Durban</figcaption></figure> Indian slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch colonies in India</a> had been introduced into the Cape area of South Africa by the Dutch settlers in 1654.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> By the end of 1847, following annexation by Britain of the former Boer republic of Natalia, nearly all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of the Boer settlers was replaced by subsidised British immigrants of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> By 1860, with slavery having been abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonists in <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal</a> (now <a href="/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal" title="KwaZulu-Natal">kwaZulu-Natal</a>) turned to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> to resolve a labour shortage, as men of the local Zulu warrior nation were refusing to work on the plantations and farms established by the colonists. In that year, the <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">SS</a> Truro arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 Indians on board.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured</a> Indian servants and labourers arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians," building the base for what would become the largest Indian diasporic community outside India.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> By 1893, when the lawyer and social activist <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. The <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> struggle of Gandhi's <a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a> failed; until the <a href="#Post-apartheid_period_(1994–present)">1994 advent of democracy</a>, Indians in South Africa were subject to most of the discriminatory laws that applied to all non-white inhabitants of the country.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Griqua_people">Griqua people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Griqua people">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua people</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg/220px-Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg/330px-Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg/440px-Nicolaas_Waterboer_-_Griqua_leader_and_politician_of_the_Cape_Colony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Nicolaas Waterboer, Griqualand ruler, 1852–1896</figcaption></figure> By the late 1700s, the Cape Colony population had grown to include a large number of mixed-race so-called "<a href="/wiki/Coloureds" title="Coloureds">coloureds</a>" who were the offspring of extensive interracial relations between male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi women, and enslaved women imported from Dutch colonies in the East.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Members of this mixed-race community formed the core of what was to become the Griqua people. Under the leadership of a former slave named Adam Kok, these "coloureds" or Basters (meaning mixed race or multiracial) as they were named by the Dutch—a word derived from baster, meaning "bastard"<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>—started trekking northward into the interior, through what is today named Northern Cape Province. The trek of the Griquas to escape the influence of the Cape Colony has been described as "one of the great epics of the 19th century."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> They were joined on their long journey by a number of San and Khoikhoi aboriginal people, local African tribesmen, and also some white renegades. Around 1800, they started crossing the northern frontier formed by the Orange River, arriving ultimately in an uninhabited area, which they named Griqualand.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In 1825, a faction of the Griqua people was induced by Dr <a href="/wiki/John_Philip_(missionary)" title="John Philip (missionary)">John Philip</a>, superintendent of the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> in Southern Africa, to relocate to a place called <a href="/wiki/Philippolis" title="Philippolis">Philippolis</a>, a mission station for the San, several hundred miles southeast of Griqualand. Philip's intention was for the Griquas to protect the missionary station there against <a href="/wiki/Banditti" class="mw-redirect" title="Banditti">banditti</a> in the region, and as a bulwark against the northward movement of white settlers from the Cape Colony. Friction between the Griquas and the settlers over land rights resulted in British troops being sent to the region in 1845. It marked the beginning of nine years of British intervention in the affairs of the region, which the British named Transorange.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> In 1861, to avoid the imminent prospect of either being colonised by the Cape Colony or coming into conflict with the expanding Boer Republic of <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a>, most of the Philippolis Griquas embarked on a further trek. They moved about 500 miles eastward, over the Quathlamba (today known as the <a href="/wiki/Drakensberg" title="Drakensberg">Drakensberg</a> mountain range), settling ultimately in an area officially designated as "Nomansland", which the Griquas renamed Griqualand East.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> East Griqualand was subsequently annexed by Britain in 1874 and incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The original Griqualand, north of the Orange River, was annexed by Britain's Cape Colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world's richest deposit of diamonds at Kimberley, so named after the British Colonial Secretary, Earl Kimberley.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Although no formally surveyed boundaries existed, Griqua leader <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Waterboer" title="Nicolaas Waterboer">Nicolaas Waterboer</a> claimed the diamond fields were situated on land belonging to the Griquas.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The Boer republics of <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">Transvaal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> also vied for ownership of the land, but Britain, being the preeminent force in the region, won control over the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led an unsuccessful rebellion against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factional_conflicts">Factional conflicts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Factional conflicts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_against_the_Xhosa">Wars against the Xhosa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Wars against the Xhosa">edit</a>]</div> In early South Africa, European notions of national boundaries and land ownership had no counterparts in African political culture. To Moshoeshoe the BaSotho chieftain from Lesotho, it was customary tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented acceptance of land use under his authority.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> To European settlers in Southern Africa, the same form of tribute was believed to constitute purchase and permanent ownership of the land under independent authority. As European settlers started establishing permanent farms after trekking across the country in search of prime agricultural land, they encountered resistance from the local Bantu people who had originally migrated southwards from central Africa hundreds of years earlier. The consequent frontier wars became known as the <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a> (which were also referred to in contemporary discussion as the <a href="/wiki/Kaffir_(racial_term)" title="Kaffir (racial term)">Kafir</a> Wars or the Cape Frontier Wars<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>). In the southeastern part of South Africa, Boer settlers and the Xhosa clashed along the Great Fish River, and in 1779 the First Xhosa War broke out. For nearly 100 years subsequently, the Xhosa fought the settlers sporadically, first the Boers or Afrikaners and later the British. In the Fourth Xhosa War, which lasted from 1811 to 1812, the British colonial authorities forced the Xhosa back across the Great Fish River and established forts along this boundary.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The increasing economic involvement of the British in southern Africa from the 1820s, and especially following the discovery of first diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, resulted in pressure for land and African labour, and led to increasingly tense relations with Southern African states.<a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a> In 1818 differences between two Xhosa leaders, Ndlambe and Ngqika, ended in Ngqika's defeat, but the British continued to recognise Ngqika as the paramount chief. He appealed to the British for help against Ndlambe, who retaliated in 1819 during the Fifth Frontier War by attacking the British colonial town of Grahamstown. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_against_the_Zulu">Wars against the Zulu</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Wars against the Zulu">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg/200px-Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg/300px-Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg/400px-Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1058" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Cetshwayo_kaMpande" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetshwayo kaMpande">Cetshwayo</a> (ca. 1875)</figcaption></figure>In the eastern part of what is today South Africa, in the region named Natalia by the Boer trekkers, the latter negotiated an agreement with Zulu King <a href="/wiki/Dingane_kaSenzangakhona" class="mw-redirect" title="Dingane kaSenzangakhona">Dingane kaSenzangakhona</a> allowing the Boers to settle in part of the then Zulu kingdom. Cattle rustling ensued and a party of Boers under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Piet_Retief" title="Piet Retief">Piet Retief</a> were killed. Subsequent to the killing of the Retief party, the Boers fought against the Zulus, at the Ncome River on 16 December 1838. The Boers took a defensive position with the high banks of the Ncome River forming a natural barrier to their rear with their ox waggons as barricades between themselves and the attacking Zulu army in the clash known historically as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blood_River" title="Battle of Blood River">Battle of Blood River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In the later annexation of the Zulu kingdom by imperial Britain, an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War" title="Anglo-Zulu War">Anglo-Zulu War</a> was fought in 1879. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its army. Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, had presented an ultimatum on 11 December 1878, to the Zulu king Cetshwayo with which the Zulu king could not comply. Bartle Frere then sent <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_2nd_Baron_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford">Lord Chelmsford</a> to invade Zululand. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including an overwhelming victory by the Zulu at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Isandlwana" title="Battle of Isandlwana">Battle of Isandlwana</a>, as well as for being a landmark in the timeline of imperialism in the region. Britain's eventual defeat of the Zulus, marking the end of the Zulu nation's independence, was accomplished with the assistance of Zulu collaborators who harboured cultural and political resentments against centralised Zulu authority.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area today named <a href="/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="KwaZulu-Natal Province">KwaZulu-Natal Province</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_with_the_Basotho">Wars with the Basotho</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Wars with the Basotho">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg/220px-King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg/330px-King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg/440px-King_Moshoeshoe_of_the_Basotho_with_his_ministers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2107" data-file-height="2405" /></a><figcaption>King Moshoeshoe with his advisors</figcaption></figure> From the 1830s onwards, numbers of white settlers from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and started arriving in the fertile southern part of territory known as the Lower Caledon Valley, which was occupied by Basotho cattle herders under the authority of the Basotho founding monarch <a href="/wiki/Moshoeshoe_I" title="Moshoeshoe I">Moshoeshoe I</a>. In 1845, a treaty was signed between the British colonists and Moshoeshoe, which recognised white settlement in the area. No firm boundaries were drawn between the area of white settlement and Moshoeshoe's kingdom, which led to border clashes. Moshoeshoe was under the impression he was loaning grazing land to the settlers in accordance with African precepts of occupation rather than ownership, while the settlers believed they had been granted permanent land rights. Afrikaner settlers in particular were loath to live under Moshoesoe's authority and among Africans.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Vaal Rivers called the <a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Sovereignty" title="Orange River Sovereignty">Orange River Sovereignty</a>, decided a discernible boundary was necessary and proclaimed a line named the Warden Line, dividing the area between British and Basotho territories. This led to conflict between the Basotho and the British, who were defeated by Moshoeshoe's warriors at the battle of Viervoet in 1851. As punishment to the Basotho, the governor and commander-in-chief of the Cape Colony, George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshoeshoe was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, a battle broke out on the Berea Plateau in 1852, where the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers through the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Sand_River_Convention" title="Sand River Convention">Sand River Convention</a>. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of the Orange Free State.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> A succession of wars followed from 1858 to 1868 between the Basotho kingdom and the Boer republic of <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In the battles that followed, the Orange Free State tried unsuccessfully to capture Moshoeshoe's mountain stronghold at <a href="/wiki/Thaba_Bosiu" title="Thaba Bosiu">Thaba Bosiu</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Sotho</a> conducted raids in Free State territories. Both sides adopted scorched-earth tactics, with large swathes of pasturage and cropland being destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Faced with starvation, Moshoeshoe signed a peace treaty on 15 October 1858, though crucial boundary issues remained unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-Beck_2000,_p._74-90">[90]</a> War broke out again in 1865. After an unsuccessful appeal for aid from the British Empire, Moshoeshoe signed the 1866 treaty of Thaba Bosiu, with the Basotho ceding substantial territory to the Orange Free State. On 12 March 1868, the British parliament declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate and part of the British Empire. Open hostilities ceased between the Orange Free State and the Basotho.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The country was subsequently named <a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a> and is presently named <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_with_the_Ndebele">Wars with the Ndebele</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Wars with the Ndebele">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G.S._Smithard;_J.S._Skelton_(1909)_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg/220px-G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg/330px-G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg/440px-G.S._Smithard%3B_J.S._Skelton_%281909%29_-_The_Voortrekkers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3128" data-file-height="2282" /></a><figcaption>Boer Voortrekkers depicted in an early artist's rendition</figcaption></figure>In 1836, when Boer Voortrekkers (pioneers) arrived in the northwestern part of present-day South Africa, they came into conflict with a Ndebele sub-group that the settlers named "Matabele", under chief Mzilikazi. A series of battles ensued, in which Mzilikazi was eventually defeated. He withdrew from the area and led his people northwards to what would later become the Matabele region of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Other members of the Ndebele ethnic language group in different areas of the region similarly came into conflict with the Voortrekkers, notably in the area that would later become the Northern Transvaal. In September 1854, 28 Boers accused of cattle rustling were killed in three separate incidents by an alliance of the Ndebele chiefdoms of Mokopane and Mankopane. Mokopane and his followers, anticipating retaliation by the settlers, retreated into the mountain caves known as Gwasa, (or Makapansgat in Afrikaans). In late October, Boer commandos supported by local Kgatla tribal collaborators laid siege to the caves. By the end of the siege, about three weeks later, Mokopane and between 1,000 and 3,000 people had died in the caves. The survivors were captured and allegedly enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_with_the_Bapedi">Wars with the Bapedi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Wars with the Bapedi">edit</a>]</div> The Bapedi wars, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Sekhukhune" title="Sekhukhune">Sekhukhune wars</a>, consisted of three separate campaigns fought between 1876 and 1879 against the <a href="/wiki/Pedi_people" title="Pedi people">Bapedi</a> under their reigning monarch <a href="/wiki/Sekhukhune" title="Sekhukhune">King Sekhukhune I</a>, in the northeastern region known as <a href="/wiki/Sekhukhuneland" title="Sekhukhuneland">Sekhukhuneland</a>, bordering on <a href="/wiki/Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>. Further friction was caused by the refusal of Sekhukhune to allow prospectors to search for gold in territory he considered to be sovereign and independent under his authority. The First Sekhukhune War of 1876 was conducted by the Boers, and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekhukhune War of 1878/1879 were conducted by the British.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> During the final campaign, <a href="/wiki/Sekhukhune" title="Sekhukhune">Sekukuni</a> (also spelled Sekhukhune) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered to a combined deputation of Boer and British forces on 2 December 1879. Sekhukhune, members of his family and some Bapedi generals were subsequently imprisoned in Pretoria for two years, with Sekhukhuneland becoming part of the Transvaal Republic. No gold was ever discovered in the annexed territory.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_diamonds">Discovery of diamonds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Discovery of diamonds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CecilRhodes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CecilRhodes.jpg/170px-CecilRhodes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CecilRhodes.jpg/255px-CecilRhodes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/CecilRhodes.jpg/340px-CecilRhodes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Cecil John Rhodes, co-founder of De Beers Consolidated Mines at Kimberley</figcaption></figure>The first diamond discoveries between 1866 and 1867 were alluvial, on the southern banks of the Orange River. By 1869, diamonds were found at some distance from any stream or river, in hard rock called blue ground, later called <a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">kimberlite</a>, after the mining town of <a href="/wiki/Kimberley,_Northern_Cape" title="Kimberley, Northern Cape">Kimberley</a> where the diamond diggings were concentrated. The diggings were located in an area of vague boundaries and disputed land ownership. Claimants to the site included the South African (Transvaal) Republic, the Orange Free State Republic, and the mixed-race <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua</a> nation under <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Waterboer" title="Nicolaas Waterboer">Nicolaas Waterboer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Cape Colony Governor Henry Barkly persuaded all claimants to submit themselves to a decision of an arbitrator and so Robert W Keate, Lieutenant-Governor of Natal was asked to arbitrate.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Keate awarded ownership to the Griquas. Waterboer, fearing conflict with the Boer republic of Orange Free State, subsequently asked for and received British protection. Griqualand then became a separate Crown Colony renamed <a href="/wiki/Griqualand_West" title="Griqualand West">Griqualand West</a> in 1871, with a Lieutenant-General and legislative council.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The Crown Colony of Griqualand West was annexed into the Cape Colony in 1877, enacted into law in 1880.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> No material benefits accrued to the Griquas as a result of either colonisation or annexation; they did not receive any share of the diamond wealth generated at Kimberley. The Griqua community became subsequently dissimulated.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> By the 1870s and 1880s the mines at Kimberley were producing 95% of the world's diamonds.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The widening search for gold and other resources were financed by the wealth produced and the practical experience gained at Kimberley.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Revenue accruing to the Cape Colony from the Kimberley diamond diggings enabled the Cape Colony to be granted responsible government status in 1872, since it was no longer dependent on the British Treasury and hence allowing it to be fully self-governing in similar fashion to the federation of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and some of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian states">Australian states</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The wealth derived from Kimberley diamond mining, having effectively tripled the customs revenue of the Cape Colony from 1871 to 1875, also doubled its population, and allowed it to expand its boundaries and railways to the north.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In 1888, British mining magnate <a href="/wiki/Cecil_John_Rhodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cecil John Rhodes">Cecil John Rhodes</a> co-founded <a href="/wiki/De_Beers_Consolidated_Mines" class="mw-redirect" title="De Beers Consolidated Mines">De Beers Consolidated Mines</a> at Kimberley, after buying up and amalgamating the individual claims with finance provided by the Rothschild dynasty. Abundant, cheap African labour was central to the success of Kimberley diamond mining, as it would later also be to the success of gold mining on the <a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand" title="Witwatersrand">Witwatersrand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> It has been suggested in some academic circles that the wealth produced at Kimberley was a significant factor influencing the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>, in which European powers had by 1902 competed with each other in drawing arbitrary boundaries across almost the entire continent and dividing it among themselves.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_gold">Discovery of gold</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Discovery of gold">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(1896).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Johannesburg%2C_South_Africa_%281896%29.jpg/300px-Johannesburg%2C_South_Africa_%281896%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Johannesburg%2C_South_Africa_%281896%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="135" /></a><figcaption>Johannesburg before gold mining transformed it into a bustling modern city</figcaption></figure>Although many tales abound, there is no conclusive evidence as to who first discovered gold or the manner in which it was originally discovered in the late 19th century on the Witwatersrand (meaning White Waters Ridge) of the Transvaal.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The discovery of gold in February 1886 at a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand in particular precipitated a gold rush by prospectors and fortune seekers from all over the world. Except in rare outcrops, however, the main gold deposits had over many years become covered gradually by thousands of feet of hard rock. Finding and extracting the deposits far below the ground called for the capital and engineering skills that would soon result in the deep-level mines of the Witwatersrand producing a quarter of the world's gold, with the "instant city" of Johannesburg arising astride the main Witwatersrand gold reef.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Within two years of gold being discovered on the Witwatersrand, four mining finance houses had been established. The first was formed by Hermann Eckstein in 1887, eventually becoming Rand Mines. Cecil Rhodes and Charles Rudd followed, with their Gold Fields of South Africa company. Rhodes and Rudd had earlier made fortunes from diamond mining at Kimberley.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> In 1895 there was an investment boom in Witwatersrand gold-mining shares. The precious metal that underpinned international trade would dominate South African exports for decades to come.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Of the leading 25 foreign industrialists who were instrumental in opening up deep level mining operations at the Witwatersrand gold fields, 15 were Jewish, 11 of the total were from Germany or Austria, and nine of that latter category were also Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The commercial opportunities opened by the discovery of gold attracted many other people of European Jewish origin. The Jewish population of South Africa in 1880 numbered approximately 4,000; by 1914 it had grown to more than 40,000, mostly migrants from Lithuania.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian has described it, was "dangerous, brutal and onerous", and therefore unpopular among local black Africans.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Recruitment of black labour began to prove difficult, even with an offer of improved wages. In mid-1903 there remained barely half of the 90,000 black labourers who had been employed in the industry in mid-1899.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The decision was made to start importing Chinese indentured labourers who were prepared to work for far less wages than local African labourers. The first 1,000 indentured Chinese labourers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese labourers were working in the gold mines.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Anglo–Boer_War">First Anglo–Boer War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: First Anglo–Boer War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/History of South Africa">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Africa_late19thC_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/South_Africa_late19thC_map.png/220px-South_Africa_late19thC_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/South_Africa_late19thC_map.png/330px-South_Africa_late19thC_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/South_Africa_late19thC_map.png/440px-South_Africa_late19thC_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption>Regional geography during the period of the Anglo–Boer wars: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a>/Transvaal <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  British <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal Colony</a></figcaption></figure>The Transvaal Boer republic was forcefully annexed by Britain in 1877, during Britain's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. Long-standing Boer resentment turned into full-blown rebellion in the Transvaal and the first <a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">Anglo–Boer War</a>, also known as the Boer Insurrection, broke out in 1880.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a decisive Boer victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Majuba_Hill" title="Battle of Majuba Hill">Battle of Majuba Hill</a> (27 February 1881). The republic regained its independence as the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ("<a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a>"), or ZAR. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kruger" title="Paul Kruger">Paul Kruger</a>, one of the leaders of the uprising, became President of the ZAR in 1883. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat at Majuba as an aberration, forged ahead with their desire to federate the Southern African colonies and republics. They saw this as the best way to come to terms with the fact of a white Afrikaner majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The cause of the Anglo–Boer wars has been attributed to a contest over which nation would control and benefit most from the <a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand gold mines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> The enormous wealth of the mines was in the hands of European "<a href="/wiki/Randlord" title="Randlord">Randlords</a>" overseeing the mainly British foreign managers, mining foremen, engineers and technical specialists, characterised by the Boers as uitlander, meaning aliens. The "aliens" objected to being denied parliamentary representation and the right to vote, and they complained also of bureaucratic government delays in the issuing of licenses and permits, and general administrative incompetence on the part of the government.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In 1895, a column of mercenaries in the employ of Cecil John Rhodes' Rhodesian-based Charter Company and led by Captain <a href="/wiki/Leander_Starr_Jameson" title="Leander Starr Jameson">Leander Starr Jameson</a> had entered the ZAR with the intention of sparking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and installing a British administration there. The armed incursion became known as the <a href="/wiki/Jameson_Raid" title="Jameson Raid">Jameson Raid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> It ended when the invading column was ambushed and captured by Boer commandos. President Kruger suspected the insurgency had received at least the tacit approval of the Cape Colony government under the premiership of <a href="/wiki/Cecil_John_Rhodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cecil John Rhodes">Cecil John Rhodes</a>, and that Kruger's South African Republic faced imminent danger. Kruger reacted by forming an alliance with the neighbouring Boer republic of Orange Free State. This did not prevent the outbreak of a Second Anglo–Boer war. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Anglo–Boer_War">Second Anglo–Boer War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Second Anglo–Boer War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hobhouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hobhouse.jpg/170px-Hobhouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hobhouse.jpg/255px-Hobhouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Hobhouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emily_Hobhouse" title="Emily Hobhouse">Emily Hobhouse</a> campaigned against the appalling conditions of the <a href="/wiki/British_concentration_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="British concentration camps">British concentration camps</a> in South Africa, thus influencing British public opinion against the war.</figcaption></figure> Renewed tensions between Britain and the Boers peaked in 1899 when the British demanded voting rights for the 60,000 foreign whites on the Witwatersrand. Until that point, President <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kruger" title="Paul Kruger">Paul Kruger</a>'s government had excluded all foreigners from the <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">franchise</a>. Kruger rejected the British demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops from the borders of the South African Republic. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Anglo–Boer War</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/South_African_War" class="mw-redirect" title="South African War">South African War</a> lasted longer than the first, with British troops being supplemented by colonial troops from Southern Rhodesia, Canada, India, Australia and New Zealand. It has been estimated that the total number of British and colonial troops deployed in South Africa during the war outnumbered the population of the two Boer Republics by more than 150,000.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> By June 1900, <a href="/wiki/Pretoria" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a>, the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer <a href="/wiki/Bittereinder" title="Bittereinder">bittereinders</a> (meaning those who would fight to the bitter end) continued for two more years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> tactics. The Boers kept on fighting. The British suffragette <a href="/wiki/Emily_Hobhouse" title="Emily Hobhouse">Emily Hobhouse</a> visited British concentration camps in South Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions there. By 1902, 26,000 Boer women and children had died of disease and neglect in the camps.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The Anglo–Boer War affected all ethnic groups in South Africa. Black people were recruited or conscripted by both sides into working for them either as combatants or non-combatants to sustain the respective war efforts of both the Boers and the British. The official statistics of blacks killed in action are inaccurate. Most of the bodies were dumped in unmarked graves. It has, however, been verified that 17,182 <a href="/wiki/Black_people#Southern_Africa" title="Black people">black people</a> died mainly of diseases in the Cape concentration camps alone, but this figure is not accepted historically as a true reflection of the overall numbers. Concentration camp superintendents did not always record the deaths of black inmates in the camps.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> From the outset of hostilities in October 1899 to the signing of peace on 31 May 1902 the war claimed the lives of 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In terms of the peace agreement known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vereeniging" title="Treaty of Vereeniging">Treaty of Vereeniging</a>, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Union_of_South_Africa_(1910–1948)">Union of South Africa (1910–1948)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Union of South Africa (1910–1948)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1910%E2%80%931948)" title="History of South Africa (1910–1948)">History of South Africa (1910–1948)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uniegebou_in_Pretoria,_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg/220px-Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg/330px-Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg/440px-Uniegebou_in_Pretoria%2C_Suid-Afrika_c1925.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1376" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Union_Buildings" title="Union Buildings">Union Buildings</a>, government administrative centre, Pretoria, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1925</figcaption></figure> During the years immediately following the Anglo–Boer wars, Britain set about unifying the four colonies including the former Boer republics into a single self-governed country called the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a>. This was accomplished after several years of negotiations, when the <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_Act_1909" title="South Africa Act 1909">South Africa Act 1909</a> consolidated the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State into one nation. Under the provisions of the act, the Union became an independent <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominion</a> of the British Empire, governed under a form of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, with the British monarch represented by a Governor-General. This status was affirmed and further defined at the 1926 Imperial Conference, where the Balfour Declaration officially recognized the Dominions, including South Africa, as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs."<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Prosecutions before the courts of the Union of South Africa were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. The <a href="/wiki/High_Commissioner#British_Colonial_usage" class="mw-redirect" title="High Commissioner">British High Commission territories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bechuanaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Bechuanaland">Bechuanaland</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a>) continued under direct rule from Britain.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Among other harsh segregationist laws, including denial of voting rights to black people, the Union parliament enacted the 1913 Natives' Land Act, which earmarked only eight percent of South Africa's available land for black occupancy. White people, who constituted 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. The Land Act would form a cornerstone of legalised racial discrimination for the next nine decades.<a href="#cite_note-Natives'_Land_Act-129">[129]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DFMalanPortret.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/DFMalanPortret.jpg/170px-DFMalanPortret.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/DFMalanPortret.jpg/255px-DFMalanPortret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/DFMalanPortret.jpg/340px-DFMalanPortret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Fran%C3%A7ois_Malan" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel François Malan">Daniel François Malan</a>, National Party leader from 1934 to 1953</figcaption></figure> General <a href="/wiki/Louis_Botha" title="Louis Botha">Louis Botha</a> headed the first government of the new Union, with General <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> as his deputy. Their South African National Party, later known as the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Party" title="South African Party">South African Party</a> or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white-unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Barry_Hertzog" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Hertzog">General Barry Hertzog</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> (NP) in 1914. The National Party championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups, and independence from Britain.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Union's affairs reached a climax in September 1914, when impoverished Boers, anti-British Boers and bitter-enders launched a rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed, and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In 1924 the Afrikaner-dominated National Party came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Afrikaans, previously regarded as a low-level Dutch patois, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union. English and Dutch became the two official languages in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-coetzee-133">[133]</a> The Union of South Africa came to an end after a <a href="/wiki/South_African_republic_referendum,_1960" class="mw-redirect" title="South African republic referendum, 1960">referendum on 5 October 1960</a>, in which a majority of white South Africans voted in favour of unilateral withdrawal from the <a href="/wiki/British_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commonwealth">British Commonwealth</a> and the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of South Africa">Republic of South Africa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: First World War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of South Africa during World War I">Military history of South Africa during World War I</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png/300px-British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png/450px-British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png/600px-British_Empire_1921_IndianSubcontinent.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> is red on the map, at its territorial zenith in the late 1910s and early 1920s. (<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> highlighted in purple.) South Africa, bottom centre, lies between both halves of the Empire.</figcaption></figure> At the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, South Africa joined Great Britain and the Allies against the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. Both Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Louis_Botha" title="Louis Botha">Louis Botha</a> and Defence Minister <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> were former <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a> generals who had previously fought against the British, but they now became active and respected members of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Cabinet" title="Imperial War Cabinet">Imperial War Cabinet</a>. Elements of the South African Army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the government; they rose in an open revolt known as the <a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">Maritz Rebellion</a>. The government declared martial law on 14 October 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts defeated the rebellion. The rebel leaders were prosecuted, fined heavily and sentenced to imprisonment ranging from six to seven years.<a href="#cite_note-google2012-134">[134]</a> Public opinion in South Africa split along racial and ethnic lines. The British elements strongly supported the war, and formed by far the largest military component. Likewise the Indian element (led by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>) generally supported the war effort. Afrikaners were split, with some like Botha and Smuts taking a prominent leadership role in the British war effort. This position was rejected by many rural Afrikaners who supported the Maritz Rebellion. The trade union movement was divided. Many urban blacks supported the war expecting it would raise their status in society. Others said it was not relevant to the struggle for their rights. The Coloured element was generally supportive and many served in a Coloured Corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better themselves after the war.<a href="#cite_note-google2012-134">[134]</a> With a population of roughly 6 million, between 1914–1918, over 250,000 South Africans of all races voluntarily served their country. Thousands more served in the <a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="British Army during World War I">British Army</a> directly, with over 3,000 joining the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps" title="Royal Flying Corps">Royal Flying Corps</a> and over 100 volunteering for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. It is likely that around 50% of <a href="/wiki/White_South_Africans" title="White South Africans">white men</a> of military age served during the war, more than 146,000 whites. 83,000 Black men and 2,500 Coloured and Asian men also served in either <a href="/wiki/German_South_West_Africa" title="German South West Africa">German South-West Africa</a>, East Africa, the Middle East, or on the Western Front in Europe. Over 7,000 South Africans were killed, and nearly 12,000 were wounded during the course of the war.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Eight South Africans won the Victoria Cross for gallantry, the Empire's highest and most prestigious military medal. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delville_Wood" title="Battle of Delville Wood">Battle of Delville Wood</a> and the sinking of the <a href="/wiki/SS_Mendi" title="SS Mendi">SS Mendi</a> being the greatest single incidents of loss of life. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms,_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms%2C_1917.jpg/220px-Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms%2C_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms%2C_1917.jpg/330px-Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms%2C_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Botha_and_Smuts_in_uniforms%2C_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Generals Smuts (right) and Botha were members of the British <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Cabinet" title="Imperial War Cabinet">Imperial War Cabinet</a> during World War I.</figcaption></figure>25,000 <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu peoples in South Africa">Black South Africans</a> were recruited at the request of the British War Cabinet to serve as non-combatant labourers in the South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 of these people were deployed to France as stevedores at French ports, where they were housed in segregated compounds. A total of 616 men from the Fifth Battalion of the SANLC drowned on 21 February 1917 when the troopship <a href="/wiki/SS_Mendi" title="SS Mendi">SS Mendi</a>, on which they were being transported to France, collided with another vessel near the Isle of Wight.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SS_Mendi" title="SS Mendi">Mendi disaster</a> was one of South Africa's worst tragedies of the Great War, second perhaps only to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delville_Wood" title="Battle of Delville Wood">Battle of Delville Wood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The South African government issued no war service medal to the black servicemen and the special medal issued by King George V to "native troops" that served the Empire, the British War Medal in bronze, was disallowed and not issued to the SANLC.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Black and <a href="/wiki/Mixed-race_South_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-race South Africans">mixed-race South Africans</a> who had supported the war were embittered when post-war South Africa saw no easing of white domination and racial segregation.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> The assistance that South Africa gave the British Empire was significant. Two German African colonies were occupied, either by South Africa alone or with significant South African assistance. Manpower, from all races, helped Allied operations not just on the Western Front and Africa, but also in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle East</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. South Africa's ports and harbours on the Home Front were a crucial strategic asset when conducting a war on a global scale. Providing important rest and refuelling stations, the Royal Navy could ensure vital sea lane connections to the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, and the Far East stayed open. Economically, South Africa supplied two-thirds of <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold production</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, with most of the remainder coming from Australia. At the start of the war, <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> officials in London worked with South Africa to block gold shipments to <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, and force mine owners to sell only to the <a href="/wiki/HM_Treasury" title="HM Treasury">British Treasury</a>, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">United States</a> and neutral countries.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Second World War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">Military history of South Africa during World War II</a></div> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, South Africa's ports and harbours, such as at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, <a href="/wiki/Durban" title="Durban">Durban</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Simon%27s_Town" title="Simon's Town">Simon's Town</a>, were important strategic assets to the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. South Africa's top-secret Special Signals Service played a significant role in the early development and deployment of <a href="/wiki/Radio_detection_and_ranging" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio detection and ranging">radio detection and ranging</a> (radar) technology used in protecting the vital coastal shipping route around southern Africa.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> By August 1945, South African Air Force aircraft in conjunction with British and Dutch aircraft stationed in South Africa had intercepted 17 enemy ships, assisted in the rescue of 437 survivors of sunken ships, attacked 26 of the 36 enemy submarines operating the vicinity of the South African coast, and flown 15,000 coastal patrol sorties.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-John_Keene_1995-143">[143]</a><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simonstown_Harbour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Simonstown_Harbour.jpg/300px-Simonstown_Harbour.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Simonstown_Harbour.jpg/450px-Simonstown_Harbour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Simonstown_Harbour.jpg/600px-Simonstown_Harbour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1848" /></a><figcaption>Simon's Town harbour and naval base in South Africa were used by the Allies during World War II.</figcaption></figure> About 334,000 South Africans volunteered for full-time military service in support of the Allies abroad. Nearly 9,000 were killed in action.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> On 21 June 1942 nearly 10,000 South African soldiers, representing one-third of the entire South African force in the field, were taken prisoner by German Field Marshal <a href="/wiki/Rommel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rommel">Rommel</a>'s forces in the fall of <a href="/wiki/Tobruk" title="Tobruk">Tobruk</a>, Libya.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> A number of South African fighter pilots served with distinction in the Royal Air Force during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a>, including Group Captain Adolph "Sailor" Malan who led 74 Squadron and established a record of personally destroying 27 enemy aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> General Jan Smuts was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain's war-time Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Smuts was invited to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_War_Cabinet" title="Imperial War Cabinet">Imperial War Cabinet</a> in 1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. On 28 May 1941, Smuts was appointed a Field Marshal of the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>, becoming the first South African to hold that rank. When the war ended, Smuts represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a> in May 1945. Just as he had done in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, the UN would have teeth. Smuts also signed the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Treaty">Paris Peace Treaty</a>, resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatory of both the treaty ending the First World War, and that which ended the Second.<a href="#cite_note-John_Keene_1995-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pro-German_and_pro-Nazi_attitudes">Pro-German and pro-Nazi attitudes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Pro-German and pro-Nazi attitudes">edit</a>]</div> After the suppression of the abortive, pro-German <a href="/wiki/Maritz_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritz Rebellion">Maritz Rebellion</a> during the South African World War I campaign against German <a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa" title="South West Africa">South West Africa</a> in 1914, the South African rebel General <a href="/wiki/Manie_Maritz" title="Manie Maritz">Manie Maritz</a> escaped to Spain.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> He returned in 1923, and continued working in the Union of South Africa as a German Spy for the Third Reich. In 1896, the German Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Kaiser Wilhelm</a> had enraged Britain by sending congratulations to Boer republican leader <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kruger" title="Paul Kruger">Paul Kruger</a> after Kruger's commandos captured a column of British South Africa Company soldiers engaged in an armed incursion and abortive insurrection, known historically as the <a href="/wiki/Jameson_Raid" title="Jameson Raid">Jameson Raid</a>, into Boer territory. Germany was the primary supplier of weapons to the Boers during the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Anglo–Boer war</a>. Kaiser Wilhelm's government arranged for the two <a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a> to purchase modern <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading weapon">breech-loading</a> <a href="/wiki/Mauser_rifles" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauser rifles">Mauser rifles</a> and millions of smokeless gunpowder cartridges. Germany's Ludwig Loewe company, later known as Deutsche Waffen-und Munitionfabriken, delivered 55,000 of these rifles to the Boers in 1896.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The early-1940s saw the pro-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewa Brandwag</a> (OB) movement become half-a-million strong, including future prime minister <a href="/wiki/B._J._Vorster" class="mw-redirect" title="B. J. Vorster">John Vorster</a> and Hendrik van den Bergh, the future head of police intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The anti-semitic Boerenasie (Boer Nation) and other similar groups soon joined them.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> When the war ended, the OB was one of the anti-parliamentary groups absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The South African <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging</a> or AWB (meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a militant neo-Nazi, mainly Afrikaner white supremacist movement that arose in the 1970s, and was active until the mid-1990s, openly used a flag that closely resembled the swastika.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In the early to mid-1990s, the AWB attempted unsuccessfully through various acts of public violence and intimidation to derail the country's transition to democracy. After the country's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994, a number of terrorist bomb blasts were linked to the AWB.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> On 11 March 1994, several hundred AWB members formed part of an armed right-wing force that invaded the nominally independent "homeland" territory of <a href="/wiki/Bophuthatswana" title="Bophuthatswana">Bophuthatswana</a>, in a failed attempt to prop up its unpopular, conservative leader Chief Lucas Mangope.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The AWB leader <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Terre%27Blanche" title="Eugène Terre'Blanche">Eugène Terre'Blanche</a> was murdered by farm workers on 3 April 2010. A majority of politically moderate Afrikaners were pragmatic and did not support the AWB's extremism.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm/220px--The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="986" data-mwtitle="The_Union_of_South_Africa,_Its_Land_and_Its_People_(1956),_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films,_Inc..webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:The_Union_of_South_Africa,_Its_Land_and_Its_People_(1956),_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films,_Inc..webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm/The_Union_of_South_Africa%2C_Its_Land_and_Its_People_%281956%29%2C_Encyclopedia_Britannica_Films%2C_Inc..webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption>Encyclopedia Britannica documentary about South Africa from 1956</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apartheid_era_(1948–1994)">Apartheid era (1948–1994)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Apartheid era (1948–1994)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apartheid_legislation">Apartheid legislation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Apartheid legislation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/220px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/330px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/440px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>"For use by white persons" – sign from the apartheid era</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregationist</a> policies of apartheid stemmed from colonial legislation introduced during the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">period of Dutch rule</a> in the 17th century, which was continued and expanded upon during the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">British colonial era</a>, and reached its apogee during the Boer-dominated <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> From 1948, successive <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> administrations formalised and extended the existing system of racial discrimination and denial of human rights into the legal system of apartheid,<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> which lasted until 1991. A key act of legislation during this time was the Homeland Citizens Act of 1970. This act augmented the Native Land Act of 1913 through the establishment of so-called "homelands" or "reserves". It authorised the forced evictions of thousands of African people from urban centres in South Africa and South West Africa (now <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>) to what became described colloquially as "<a href="/wiki/Bantustans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantustans">Bantustans</a>" or the "original homes", as they were officially referred to, of the black ethnic groups of South Africa. The same legislation applied also to <a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa" title="South West Africa">South West Africa</a> over which South Africa had continued after World War I to exercise a disputed League of Nations mandate. Pro-apartheid South Africans attempted to justify the Bantustan policy by citing the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a>'s 1947 <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a>, which they claimed was a similar situation that did not arouse international condemnation.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg/300px-Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg/450px-Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg/600px-Bantustans_in_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="807" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>Map of the black homelands in South Africa at the end of apartheid in 1994</figcaption></figure> Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central pivot around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved, including violent conflict and the militarisation of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditure amounted to about 28% of the national budget.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> In the aftermath of the 1976 <a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto uprising</a> and the security clampdown that accompanied it, Joint Management Centres (JMCs) operating in at least 34 State-designated "high-risk" areas became the key element in a National Security Management System. The police and military who controlled the JMCs by the mid-1980s were endowed with influence in decision-making at every level, from the Cabinet down to local government.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UN_embargo">UN embargo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: UN embargo">edit</a>]</div> On 16 December 1966, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> Resolution 2202 A (XXI) identified apartheid as a "crime against humanity". The Apartheid Convention, as it came to be known, was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973 with 91 member states voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984 the UN Security Council endorsed this formal determination. The convention declared that apartheid was both unlawful and criminal because it violated the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter of the United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The General Assembly had already suspended South Africa from the UN organisation on 12 November 1974. On 4 November 1977, the Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo in terms of Resolution 181 calling upon all States to cease the sale and shipment of arms, ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa. The country would only be readmitted to the UN in 1994 following its transition to democracy.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Apartheid South Africa reacted to the UN arms embargo by strengthening its military ties with Israel, and establishing its own arms manufacturing industry with the help of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Four hundred M-113A1 armoured personnel carriers, and 106mm recoilless rifles manufactured in the United States were delivered to South Africa via Israel.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extra-judicial_killings">Extra-judicial killings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Extra-judicial killings">edit</a>]</div> In the mid-1980s, police and army death squads conducted state-sponsored assassinations of dissidents and activists.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> By mid-1987 the Human Rights Commission knew of at least 140 political assassinations in the country, while about 200 people died at the hands of South African agents in neighbouring states. The exact numbers of all the victims may never be known.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Strict censorship disallowed journalists from reporting, filming or photographing such incidents, while the government ran its own covert disinformation programme that provided distorted accounts of the extrajudicial killings.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> At the same time, State-sponsored vigilante groups carried out violent attacks on communities and community leaders associated with resistance to apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The attacks were then falsely attributed by the government to "black-on-black" or factional violence within the communities.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(South_Africa)" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a> (TRC) would later establish that a covert, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, frequently acting in conjunction with extreme right-wing elements, was involved in actions that could be construed as fomenting violence and which resulted in gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Between 1960–1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the <a href="/wiki/Inkatha_Freedom_Party" title="Inkatha Freedom Party">Inkatha Freedom Party</a> was responsible for 4,500 deaths, <a href="/wiki/South_African_Police" title="South African Police">South African Police</a> 2,700, and the ANC about 1,300.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> In early 2002, a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Boeremag" title="Boeremag">Boeremag</a> (Boer Force) was foiled by the South African police.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Two dozen conspirators including senior South African Army officers were arrested on charges of treason and murder, after a bomb explosion in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in foiling the planned coup strengthened public perceptions that the post-1994 democratic order was irreversible.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The TRC, at the conclusion of its mandate in 2004, handed over a list of 300 names of alleged perpetrators to the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for investigation and prosecution by the NPA's Priority Crimes Litigation Unit. Less than a handful of prosecutions were ever pursued.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_operations_in_frontline_states">Military operations in frontline states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Military operations in frontline states">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></div> South African security forces during the latter part of the apartheid era had a policy of destabilising neighbouring states, supporting opposition movements, conducting sabotage operations and attacking ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those states.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> These states, forming a regional alliance of southern African states, were named collectively as the Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SADF-Operations_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/SADF-Operations_4.jpg/250px-SADF-Operations_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/SADF-Operations_4.jpg/375px-SADF-Operations_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/SADF-Operations_4.jpg/500px-SADF-Operations_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>Members of <a href="/wiki/44_Parachute_Brigade_(South_Africa)" title="44 Parachute Brigade (South Africa)">44 Parachute Brigade</a> on patrol during the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a>.</figcaption></figure> In early-November 1975, immediately after Portugal granted independence to its former African colony of Angola, <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">civil war</a> broke out between the rival <a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">UNITA</a> and <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a> movements. In order to prevent UNITA's collapse and cement the rule of a friendly government, South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola in order to fight the MPLA.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large-scale military intervention nicknamed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Carlota" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Carlota">Operation Carlota</a> in support of the MPLA. Cuba had initially provided the MPLA with 230 military advisers prior to the South African intervention.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The Cuban intervention was decisive in helping reverse SADF and UNITA advances and cement MPLA rule in Angola. More than a decade later 36,000 Cuban troops were deployed throughout the country helping providing support for MPLA's fight with UNITA.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The civil war in Angola resulted in 550,000–1,250,000 deaths in total mostly from famine. Most of the deaths occurred between 1992 and 1993, after South African and Cuban involvement had ended.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Between 1975 and 1988, the SADF continued to stage massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_of_Namibia" title="People's Liberation Army of Namibia">PLAN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">forward operating bases</a> across the border from <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> as well as provide support for UNITA.<a href="#cite_note-Frontiersmen-187">[187]</a> A controversial bombing and airborne assault conducted by 200 South African paratroopers on 4 May 1978 at Cassinga in southern Angola, resulted in around 700 South West Africans being killed, including PLAN militants and a large number of women and children. Colonel Jan Breytenbach, the South African parachute battalion commander, claimed it was "recognised in Western military circles as the most successful airborne assault since World War II."<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The Angolan government described the target of the attack as a refugee camp. The United Nations Security Council on 6 May 1978 condemned South Africa for the attack.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> On 23 August 1981 South African troops again <a href="/wiki/Operation_Protea" title="Operation Protea">launched an incursion into Angola</a> with collaboration and encouragement provided by the American <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA).<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The Angolan army, in resisting what it perceived as a South African invasion, was supported by a combination of Cuban forces and PLAN and ANC guerrillas, all armed with weapons supplied by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. The apartheid-era South African military and political intelligence services, for their part, worked closely with American, British and West German secret services throughout the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Both South Africa and Cuba claimed victory at the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cuito_Cuanavale" title="Battle of Cuito Cuanavale">battle of Cuito Cuanavale</a>, which have been described as "the fiercest in Africa since World War II".<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> However, the South African military had lost air superiority and its technological advantage, largely due to an international arms embargo against the country.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> South African involvement in Angola ended formally after the signing of a United Nations-brokered agreement known as the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Accords">New York Accords</a> between the governments of Angola, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and South Africa, resulting in the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Angola and also South Africa's withdrawal from South West Africa (now Namibia), which the UN regarded as illegally occupied since 1966.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> South Africa in the 1980s also provided logistical and other covert support to Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (<a href="/wiki/RENAMO" title="RENAMO">RENAMO</a>) rebels, in neighbouring Mozambique fighting the <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a>-run government during the <a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozambique Civil War">Mozambique Civil War</a>, and it launched cross-border raids into <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance_to_apartheid">Resistance to apartheid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Resistance to apartheid">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/220px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/330px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/440px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2018" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Painting of the Sharpeville massacre of March 1960</figcaption></figure>From the 1940s to the 1960s, anti-apartheid resistance within the country took the form mainly of passive resistance, influenced in part by the pacifist ideology of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>. After the March 1960 massacre of 69 peaceful demonstrators at <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville" title="Sharpeville">Sharpeville</a>, and the subsequent declaration of a state of emergency, and the banning of anti-apartheid parties including the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC), the <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanist_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-Africanist Congress">Pan-Africanist Congress</a> (PAC), and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of South Africa">Communist Party of South Africa</a>, the focus of national resistance turned to <a href="/wiki/Armed_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed struggle">armed struggle</a> and underground activity.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> The armed wing of the ANC, <a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_weSizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto weSizwe">Umkhonto weSizwe</a> (abbreviation MK, meaning Spear of the Nation) claimed moral <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimacy</a> for the resort to violence on the grounds of necessary defence and <a href="/wiki/Just_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Just war">just war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> From the 1960s onwards until 1989, MK carried out numerous acts of sabotage and attacks on military and police personnel.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> The Truth and Reconciliation Commission noted in 2003 that, despite the ANC's stated policy of attacking only military and police targets, "the majority of casualties of MK operations were civilians."<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Organised resistance to Afrikaner nationalism was not confined exclusively to Black and Coloured activists. A movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a> was formed in the 1950s, led by white war veterans who had fought the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a> in Europe and North Africa during World War II. With 250,000 paid-up members at the height of its existence, it was the largest white protest movement in the country's history. By 1952, the brief flame of mass-based white radicalism was extinguished, when the Torch Commando disbanded due to government legislation under the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_Communism_Act,_1950" title="Suppression of Communism Act, 1950">Suppression of Communism Act, 1950</a>. Some members of the Torch Commando subsequently became leading figures in the armed wing of the banned African National Congress.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> The national liberation movement was divided in the early 1960s when an "Africanist" faction within the ANC objected to an alliance between the ANC and the Communist Party of South Africa. Leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa were mostly white.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> The Africanists broke away from the ANC to form the Pan-Africanist Congress and its military wing named <a href="/wiki/Poqo" class="mw-redirect" title="Poqo">Poqo</a>, which became active mainly in the Cape provinces. During the early-1990s, Poqo was renamed <a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">Azanian People's Liberation Army</a> (APLA). Its underground cells conducted armed robberies to raise funds and obtain weapons and vehicles. Civilians were killed or injured in many of these robberies. In 1993, attacks on white civilian targets in public places increased. APLA denied the attacks were racist in character, claiming that the attacks were directed against the apartheid government as all whites, according to the PAC, were complicit in the policy of apartheid. An attack on a Christian church in Cape Town in 1993, left eleven people dead and 58 injured.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Hundreds of students and others who fled to neighbouring countries, especially Botswana, to avoid arrest after the Soweto uprising of 16 June 1976, provided a fertile recruiting ground for the military wings of both the ANC and PAC.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> The uprising had been precipitated by Government legislation forcing African students to accept Afrikaans as the official medium for tuition,<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> with support from the wider <a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a>. The uprising spread throughout the country. By the time it was finally quelled, hundreds of protesters had been shot dead with many more wounded or arrested by police.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> A non-racial <a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">United Democratic Front</a> (UDF) coalition of about 400 civic, church, student, trade union and other organisations emerged in 1983. At its peak in 1987, the UDF had some 700 affiliates and about 3,000,000 members.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> A strong relationship existed between the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) and the UDF, based on the shared mission statement of the Freedom Charter.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Following restrictions placed on its activities, the UDF was replaced in 1988 by the Mass Democratic Movement, a loose and amorphous alliance of anti-apartheid groups that had no permanent structure, making it difficult for the government to place a ban on its activities.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> A total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of Pretoria Central Prison between 1960 and 1990. The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan Africanist Congress and United Democratic Front.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Democratic_period_(1994–present)">Democratic period (1994–present)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Democratic period (1994–present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">History of South Africa (1994–present)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg/250px-Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg/375px-Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg/500px-Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederik_W._de_Klerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederik W. de Klerk">Frederik W. de Klerk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>, two of the driving forces in ending apartheid</figcaption></figure> The dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late-1980s meant the African National Congress (ANC) in alliance with the South African Communist Party, could no longer depend on the Soviet Union for weaponry and political support. It also meant the apartheid government could no longer link apartheid and its purported legitimacy to the protection of Christian values and civilisation in the face of the rooi gevaar, meaning "red danger" or the threat of communism.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Both sides were forced to the negotiating table, with the result that in June 1991, all apartheid laws were finally rescinded- opening the way for the country's first multiracial democratic elections three years later.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> As the culmination of mounting local and international opposition to apartheid in the 1980s, including the <a href="/wiki/Armed_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed struggle">armed struggle</a>, widespread civil unrest, economic and cultural sanctions by the <a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">international community</a>, and pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Apartheid_Movement" title="Anti-Apartheid Movement">anti-apartheid movement</a> around the world, <a href="/wiki/State_President_of_South_Africa" title="State President of South Africa">State President</a> <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> announced the lifting of the ban on the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Africanist Congress">Pan Africanist Congress</a> and the South African Communist Party, as well as the release of political prisoner <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> on 2 February 1990, after twenty-seven years in prison. In a <a href="/wiki/South_African_referendum,_1992" class="mw-redirect" title="South African referendum, 1992">referendum</a> held on 17 March 1992, the white electorate voted 68% in favour of democracy.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_a_Democratic_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention for a Democratic South Africa">Convention for a Democratic South Africa</a> (CODESA), a draft constitution was published on 26 July 1993, containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting-rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature. From 26–29 April 1994, the South African population voted in the first <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> <a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">general elections</a>. The African National Congress won, well ahead of the governing <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inkatha_Freedom_Party" title="Inkatha Freedom Party">Inkatha Freedom Party</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa)">Democratic Party</a> and Pan Africanist Congress, among others, formed a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition" title="Parliamentary opposition">parliamentary opposition</a> in the country's first non-racial <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_South_Africa" title="Parliament of South Africa">parliament</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> was elected as President on 9 May 1994 and formed a <a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of National Unity">Government of National Unity</a>, consisting of the ANC, the National Party and Inkatha. On 10 May 1994 Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa's new President in Pretoria with <a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a> and F. W. De Klerk as his vice-presidents. The Government of National Unity lapsed at the end of the first parliament sitting in 1999, with the ANC becoming the sole party in power while maintaining a strategic alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Congress of South African Trade Unions">Congress of South African Trade Unions</a> (COSATU) and the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a>. After considerable debate, and following submissions from <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">advocacy groups</a>, individuals and ordinary citizens, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_South_Africa" title="Parliament of South Africa">Parliament</a> enacted a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">Constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Rights of South Africa">Bill of Rights</a> in 1996. The death penalty was abolished, land reform and redistribution policies were introduced, and equitable labour laws legislated. The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people".<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> ANC icon <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable."<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Following the ANC's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC-led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Wealth_tax" title="Wealth tax">wealth tax</a> on the super-rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to <a href="/wiki/Sampie_Terreblanche" title="Sampie Terreblanche">Solomon Johannes Terreblanche</a>, a South African academic economist, the government's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that [will] haunt South Africa for generations to come".<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2024_South_African_general_election" title="2024 South African general election">2024 national election</a> the African National Congress (ANC) failed to secure more than 50% of the vote for the first time in the democratic era.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emigration">Emigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Emigration">edit</a>]</div> The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid <a href="/wiki/Crime_in_South_Africa" title="Crime in South Africa">crime related safety</a> concerns. The <a href="/wiki/South_African_Institute_of_Race_Relations" title="South African Institute of Race Relations">South African Institute of Race Relations</a> estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English- and Afrikaans-speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the UK, to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> As of 2021, tens of thousands of white South Africans continue to emigrate each year.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> By 2019 the number of skilled black South Africans emigrating out of the country had surpassed the number of white emigres.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_burdens">Financial burdens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Financial burdens">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_national_debt" title="South Africa national debt">South Africa national debt</a></div> The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_national_debt" title="South Africa national debt">debt repayments</a> in the mid-1980s, when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the new democratic government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to <a href="/wiki/South_African_rand" title="South African rand">R</a>86.7B (US$14B at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash-strapped post-apartheid government was obliged to repay this debt or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> The debt was finally settled in September 2001.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide <a href="/wiki/Antiretroviral" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiretroviral">antiretroviral</a> (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV/AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV-related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS-related deaths in 2011 than in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_relations">Labour relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Labour relations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG/220px-Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG/330px-Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG/440px-Church_on_Green_Market_Square_Marikana.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Church on <a href="/wiki/Greenmarket_Square" title="Greenmarket Square">Greenmarket Square</a> in Cape Town, South Africa with a banner memorialising the Marikana massacre</figcaption></figure> Migrant labour remained a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million mostly black miners. Labour unrest in the industry resulted in a massacre in mid-August 2012, when anti-riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many more in what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Marikana_massacre" title="Marikana massacre">Marikana massacre</a>. The incident was widely criticised by the public, civil society organisations and religious leaders.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> The migrant labour system was identified as a primary cause of the unrest. Multi-national mining corporations including <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American Corporation">Anglo-American Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lonmin" title="Lonmin">Lonmin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglo_Platinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo Platinum">Anglo Platinum</a>, were accused of failing to address the enduring legacies of apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poverty">Poverty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Poverty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in South Africa">Poverty in South Africa</a></div> In 2014, around 47% of (mostly black) South Africans lived in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio-economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014, when almost 80% of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Alliance" title="Tripartite Alliance">tripartite alliance</a> between the ANC, the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corruption">Corruption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Corruption">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Africa" title="Corruption in South Africa">Corruption in South Africa</a></div> During the administration of President <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Jacob Zuma</a> corruption in South Africa had also become a growing problem.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Notable corruption related scandals during this period included incidents of widespread <a href="/wiki/State_capture" title="State capture">state capture</a><a href="#cite_note-Gevisser-238">[238]</a> often involving allegations against the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_family" title="Gupta family">Gupta family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbcGupta-239">[239]</a> These also involved corruption related financial difficulties at some state owned enterprises such as <a href="/wiki/Eskom" title="Eskom">Eskom</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_African_Airways" title="South African Airways">South African Airways</a> that had a notable negative economic impact on the country's finances.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Other corruption related scandals to emerge during this period included the collapse of <a href="/wiki/VBS_Mutual_Bank" title="VBS Mutual Bank">VBS Mutual Bank</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bosasa" title="Bosasa">Bosasa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gevisser-238">[238]</a> The <a href="/wiki/The_Judicial_Commission_of_Inquiry_into_Allegations_of_State_Capture" class="mw-redirect" title="The Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations of State Capture">Zondo Commission of Inquiry</a> was appointed during the Presidency of <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Cyril Ramaphosa</a> to investigate allegations of state capture related corruption. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_crisis">Energy crisis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Energy crisis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_African_energy_crisis" title="South African energy crisis">South African energy crisis</a></div> Since 2007 South Africa has experienced an ongoing energy crisis that has negatively impacted the country's economy,<a href="#cite_note-:3-242">[242]</a> its ability to create jobs,<a href="#cite_note-:3-242">[242]</a> and reduce poverty.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> A lack of investment in new power generating capacity and an aging fleet of existing power plants was the initial cause of the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> The government owned power utility <a href="/wiki/Eskom" title="Eskom">Eskom</a> has been plagued with corruption and mismanagement, most notability during the presidency of Jacob Zuma, which has limited its ability to resolve the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Xenophobia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_South_Africa" title="Xenophobia in South Africa">Xenophobia in South Africa</a></div> The post-apartheid period has been marked by numerous outbreaks of xenophobic attacks against foreign migrants and asylum seekers from various conflict zones in Africa. An academic study conducted in 2006, found that South Africans showed levels of xenophobia greater than anywhere else in the world.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) found that competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing gave rise to tension among refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and host communities, identified as a main cause of the xenophobic violence.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> South Africa received more than 207,000 individual asylum applications in 2008 and a further 222,300 in 2009, representing nearly a four-fold rise in both years over the levels seen in 2007. These refugees and asylum seekers originated mainly from <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2021_civil_unrest">2021 civil unrest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: 2021 civil unrest">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2021_South_African_unrest" title="2021 South African unrest">2021 South African unrest</a></div> <a href="/wiki/2021_South_African_unrest" title="2021 South African unrest">Civil unrest</a> occurred in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal" title="KwaZulu-Natal">KwaZulu-Natal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gauteng" title="Gauteng">Gauteng</a> provinces in July 2021, sparked by the imprisonment of former President <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Jacob Zuma</a> for <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a>, after he declined to testify at the <a href="/wiki/Zondo_Commission" title="Zondo Commission">Zondo Commission</a>, an inquiry into allegations of corruption during his term as president from 2009 to 2018.<a href="#cite_note-aj20210712-250">[250]</a> Protests against the incarceration triggered wider rioting and looting, further exacerbated by <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">job layoffs</a> and economic woes worsened by the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa" title="COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cnbc20210713-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-aj20210714-252">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> called it the worst violence that South Africa had experienced since the end of Apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-economist20210714-253">[253]</a> Police and military authorities were mobilised to quell the unrest.<a href="#cite_note-wapo20210712-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> By mid-July, the South African National Defense Forces had deployed approximately 25,000 military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-SANDF_DeploymentIncrease-256">[256]</a> As of 18 July, over 3,400 people had been arrested, while as of 22 July, 337 people had died in connection with the unrest.<a href="#cite_note-July22-257">[257]</a> The July 2021 unrest coincided with the <a href="/wiki/2021_Cape_Town_taxi_conflict" title="2021 Cape Town taxi conflict">Cape Town taxi conflict</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transnet_ransomware_attack" title="Transnet ransomware attack">Transnet ransomware attack</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> leading to unproven speculation that they might have been connected. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-apartheid_heads_of_state">Post-apartheid heads of state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Post-apartheid heads of state">edit</a>]</div> Under the post-apartheid <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">Constitution</a> the president is head of both state and government. The president is elected by the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_South_Africa" title="National Assembly of South Africa">National Assembly</a> and serves a term that expires at the next general election. A president may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the <a href="/wiki/Deputy_President_of_South_Africa" title="Deputy President of South Africa">Deputy President</a> serves as Acting President. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">President </th> <th colspan="3">Term of office </th> <th rowspan="2">Political party </th></tr> <tr> <th># </th> <th>Portrait </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Took office </th> <th>Left office </th> <th>Duration </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#006600; color:white;">1 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Nelson_Mandela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Nelson_Mandela.jpg/60px-Nelson_Mandela.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Nelson_Mandela.jpg/90px-Nelson_Mandela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Nelson_Mandela.jpg/120px-Nelson_Mandela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="349" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> (1918–2013) </td> <td>10 May 1994 </td> <td>16 June 1999 </td> <td>5 years, 37 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#006600; color:white;">2 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg/60px-SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg/90px-SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg/120px-SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="1062" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a> (1942–) </td> <td>16 June 1999 </td> <td>24 September 2008 (resigned) </td> <td>9 years, 100 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#006600; color:white;">3 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg/60px-GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg/90px-GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg/120px-GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="137" data-file-height="175" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kgalema_Motlanthe" title="Kgalema Motlanthe">Kgalema Motlanthe</a> (1949–) </td> <td>25 September 2008 </td> <td>9 May 2009 </td> <td>226 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#006600; color:white;">4 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg/60px-Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg/90px-Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg/120px-Jacob_G._Zuma_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1920" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Jacob Zuma</a> (1942–) </td> <td>9 May 2009 </td> <td>14 February 2018 (resigned) </td> <td>8 years, 264 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#006600; color:white;">5 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg/60px-Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg/90px-Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg/120px-Cyril_Ramaphosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="326" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Cyril Ramaphosa</a> (1952–) </td> <td>15 February 2018 </td> <td>Present </td> <td>6 years, 284 days </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Day_(South_Africa)" title="Freedom Day (South Africa)">Freedom Day (South Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Cape Colony">History of Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johannesburg" title="History of Johannesburg">History of Johannesburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Cape" title="History of the Northern Cape">History of the Northern Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_African_wine" title="History of South African wine">History of South African wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_South_Africa" title="President of South Africa">List of presidents of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of prime ministers of South Africa">List of prime ministers of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_South_Africa" title="List of heads of state of South Africa">List of heads of state of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_Africa-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of South Africa-related topics">List of South Africa-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa" title="Military history of South Africa">Military history of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_South_Africa" title="Politics of South Africa">Politics of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_South_Africa" title="Timeline of South Africa">Timeline of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_liberal_parties_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of liberal parties in South Africa">Timeline of liberal parties in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Years in South Africa">Years in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">Rinderpest</a></li> <li>History of cities in South Africa: <ul><li>Cape Town <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Town" title="History of Cape Town">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cape_Town" title="Timeline of Cape Town">timeline</a></li> <li>Durban <a href="/wiki/Durban#History" title="Durban">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Durban" title="Timeline of Durban">timeline</a></li> <li>Johannesburg <a href="/wiki/History_of_Johannesburg" title="History of Johannesburg">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Johannesburg" title="Timeline of Johannesburg">timeline</a></li> <li>Pietermaritzburg <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pietermaritzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Pietermaritzburg">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Pietermaritzburg" title="Timeline of Pietermaritzburg">timeline</a></li> <li>Port Elizabeth <a href="/wiki/History_of_Port_Elizabeth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Port Elizabeth">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Port_Elizabeth" title="Timeline of Port Elizabeth">timeline</a></li> <li>Pretoria <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pretoria" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Pretoria">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Pretoria" title="Timeline of Pretoria">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329230842/https://www.gov.za/about-sa/history">"History | South African Government"</a>. 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Culture Trip.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Culture+Trip&rft.atitle=The+Untold+Stories+of+Slavery+at+Cape+Town%27s+Iziko+Slave+Lodge&rft.date=2017-02-09&rft.aulast=Collinson&rft.aufirst=Lee-Shay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheculturetrip.com%2Fafrica%2Fsouth-africa%2Farticles%2Fthe-untold-stories-of-slavery-at-cape-towns-iziko-slave-lodge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Hans F Heese, Cape Melting Pot: The Role and Status of the Mixed Population at the Cape, 1652–1795, Cape Town: D A Robertson, 2011 (translation by Delia A Robertson from Professor Heese's original 1985 Afrikaans study Groep Sonder Grense, Die Rol en Status van die Gemengde Bevolking aan die Kaap, 1652–1795), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/062034153X" title="Special:BookSources/062034153X">062034153X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> F Wallis, Nuusdagboek: Feite en Fratse oor 1000 Jaar Cape Town: Human &Rousseau 2000 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/British-occupation-of-the-Cape">"South Africa - British occupation of the Cape | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 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Great Britain: Osprey. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasen02knig/page/n4">4</a>–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/085045901X" title="Special:BookSources/085045901X"><bdi>085045901X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queen+Victoria%27s+Enemies+1%3A+Southern+Africa&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pages=4-6&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=085045901X&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fqueenvictoriasen02knig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Noel Mostert, Frontiers: The Epic of South Africa's Creation, London: Pimlico 1993, pp.496–7 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-5584-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7126-5584-0">0-7126-5584-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Julian Cobbing, "The Mfecane as Alibi", Journal of African History, 29 March 1988, p.487. </li> <li id="cite_note-Etherington2004-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Etherington2004_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtherington2004" class="citation journal cs1">Etherington, Norman (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/a-tempest-in-a-teapot--nineteenthcentury-contests-for-land-in-south-africas-caledon-valley-and-the-invention-of-the-mfecane(1ec5b37a-fd2e-4935-a8d7-3b13b0f9b8a5).html">"A Tempest In A Teapot? 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New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=313&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.au=Hanson%2C+Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> SA History.org <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/slavery-south-africa">Slavery in South Africa</a> Accessed 23 April 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-krugerp-54"><a href="#cite_ref-krugerp_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruger1902" class="citation book cs1">Kruger, Paul (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memoirsofpaulkru00kruguoft">Memoirs of Paul Kruger</a>. 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BMJ. 2 (2859): 589. 1915. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.2.2859.589-b">10.1136/bmj.2.2859.589-b</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-8138">0959-8138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2303193">2303193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Surgeon-General+SIR+CHARLES+MacDONAGH+CUFFE%2C+K.C.B.%2C+LL.D&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2859&rft.pages=589&rft.date=1915&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2303193%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0959-8138&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.2.2859.589-b&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2303193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/eastern-cape-wars-dispossession-1779-1878">"Eastern Cape Wars of Dispossession 1779-1878 | South African History Online"</a>. www.sahistory.org.za. 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New York: Praeger, 1970. pp.40–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Donald R Morris, The Washing of the Spears, London: Cardinal, 1973, p.148-50 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B351%2B17400%2B1" title="Special:BookSources/0+351+17400+1">0 351 17400 1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Dacob Dlamini, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rdm.co.za/politics/2015/07/27/jacob-zuma-a-spawn-of-collaborators-trying-to-right-old-wrongs">"Jacob Zuma a spawn of collaborators trying to right old wrongs"</a>, Rand Daily Mail, 30 July 2015. 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Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut 1996, p.118 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-27917-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-27917-9">0-313-27917-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> A history of the Voortrekkers Great Trek 1835 – 1845, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/mzilikazi_great_trek.php#.VVXcZ46qqko">Mzilikazi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622070736/http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/mzilikazi_great_trek.php#.VVXcZ46qqko">Archived</a> 22 June 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Accessed 24 May 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Stacey Greer,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21">South African Diamond Mines 1970s</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154746/http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21">Archived</a> 24 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of California, Davis. Accessed 24 May 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> P Holz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all">The Greatest Discovery of them all</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205302/http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all">Archived</a> 27 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (originally published in Guide Book, Geological Society of South Africa). Accessed 27 May 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Extract from New History of South Africa, by Hermann Giliomee and Bernard Mbenga (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/">Chapter 8, "The story of gold"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101083245/http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/">Archived</a> 1 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Thompson, A history of South Africa (Yale University Press, 2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-Natives'_Land_Act-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Natives'_Land_Act_129-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm">19 June 1913 Native Land Act</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101014095049/http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm">Archived</a> 14 October 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", This day in history, publish date unknown (accessed 20 December 2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Thompson, A history of South Africa (2001). </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Denys Reitz, Adrift on the Open Veld: The Anglo–Boer War and its Aftermath, Cape Town: Stormberg 1999, pp.215–228, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-620-24380-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-620-24380-5">0-620-24380-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCherryl_Walker1991" class="citation book cs1">Cherryl Walker (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xX-vhZQ1QpIC&pg=PA62">Women and Resistance in South Africa</a>. New Africa Books. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780864861702" title="Special:BookSources/9780864861702"><bdi>9780864861702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Resistance+in+South+Africa&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=New+Africa+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780864861702&rft.au=Cherryl+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxX-vhZQ1QpIC%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-coetzee-133"><a href="#cite_ref-coetzee_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbnl.org/arch/coet003stan01_01/pag/coet003stan01_01.pdf">Standaard Afrikaans</a> (PDF). Afrikaner Pers. 1948. Retrieved 17 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standaard+Afrikaans&rft.pub=Afrikaner+Pers&rft.date=1948&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbnl.org%2Farch%2Fcoet003stan01_01%2Fpag%2Fcoet003stan01_01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-google2012-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google2012_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google2012_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBill_Nasson2012" class="citation book cs1">Bill Nasson (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w0kv8HfrLUoC">Springboks On The Somme – South Africa in the Great War 1914 – 1918</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143027164" title="Special:BookSources/9780143027164"><bdi>9780143027164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Springboks+On+The+Somme+%E2%80%93+South+Africa+in+the+Great+War+1914+%E2%80%93+1918&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780143027164&rft.au=Bill+Nasson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw0kv8HfrLUoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreat_Britain._War_Office1922" class="citation book cs1">Great Britain. War Office (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea">Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914-1920</a>. Robarts - University of Toronto. London H.M. Stationery Off.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statistics+of+the+military+effort+of+the+British+Empire+during+the+Great+War%2C+1914-1920&rft.pub=London+H.M.+Stationery+Off&rft.date=1922&rft.au=Great+Britain.+War+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatisticsofmili00grea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> BP Willan, "The South African Native Labour Contingent, 1916–1918". 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Accessed 30 July 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Andre Wessels, South African Military History Journal, Vol. 11 No. 5, June 2000, South African Military History Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Keene_1995-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Keene_1995_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Keene_1995_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Keene1995" class="citation book cs1">John Keene (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_iN6AAAAIAAJ">South Africa in World War II</a>. 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Oxford: Osprey Publishing 1997, p. 65. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-635-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-635-4">978-1-85532-635-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Denys Reitz, Adrift on the Open Veld: The Anglo–Boer War and its Aftermath, Cape Town: Stormberg 1999, p.227, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-620-24380-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-620-24380-5">0-620-24380-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Paul Scarlata, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shootingtimes.com/long-guns/longgun_reviews_st_boermodel_201007/">The 1893/95 "Boer Model" Mauser</a>. 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Accessed 14 May 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Nelson Mandela Foundation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/cis/omalley/OMalleyWeb/03lv02424/04lv03275/05lv03279/06lv03282.htm">Mandela: 'A lesson they will never forget' </a>. Accessed 29 May 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf">Wessel Visser, Coming to terms with the past and the present: Afrikaner experience and reaction to the "new" South Africa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191439/http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (Seminar lecture presented at the Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, 30 September 2004), p.2. 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This entailed, among other actions, the unlawful killing, within and beyond South Africa, of people whom they perceived as posing a significant challenge to the state's authority." </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Patrick Laurence, Death Squads: Apartheid's secret weapon, London: Penguin 1990, p.30 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Richard Leonard, South Africa at War, Chapter six: "The propaganda war", Johannesburg: Donker, 1983, pp.161–197 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86852-093-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-86852-093-4">0-86852-093-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1998), Findings on the role of allies of the state, pages 227–238 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Peter Harris, "The role of rightwing vigilantes in South Africa", in States of Terror, Catholic Institute of International Relations, London: 1989, pp. 2–3 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85287-019-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-85287-019-2">1-85287-019-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Vol. 6, Section 4 Appendix: The "Third Force", 2003, p.584 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170119114845/http://www.justice.gov.za/trc/report/finalreport/Volume5.pdf">"Volume Five – Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report"</a> (PDF). 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Accessed 11 April 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Scott Thomas, The Diplomacy of Liberation: Foreign relations of the ANC since 1960, London: I B Taurus 1996, p.18 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1850439931" title="Special:BookSources/1850439931">1850439931</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> W. Martin James III (2011). A Political History of the Civil War in Angola 1974–1990. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Meredith, Martin (2005). The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair, a History of Fifty Years of Independence, p. 316. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Bourne, Peter G. (1986), Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro, New York City: Dodd, Mead & Company, pp. 281, 284–287. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Wilson Center Digital Archives, International History Declassified, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/search-results/1/%7B%22search-in%22%3A%22all%22%2C%22term%22%3A%22Cuban+Armed+Forces%22%7D?recordType=Record">Archive of the Cuban Armed Forces</a>. 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Accessed 18 October 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Sunday Times (Johannesburg), Insight section. 1 November 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf">Resistance to Apartheid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172619/http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf">Archived</a> 23 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 26 April 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> South African Broadcasting Corporation and South African History Archive,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sabctrc.saha.org.za/glossary/apla_attacks.htm">Truth Commission Special Report: APLA attacks.</a> Accessed 26 April 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Gregory Houston and Bernard Magubane, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sadet.co.za/docs/rtd/vol2/volume%202%20-%20chapter%208.pdf">"ANC Political Underground in the 1970s"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227110146/http://www.sadet.co.za/docs/RTD/vol2/Volume%202%20-%20chapter%208.pdf">Archived</a> 27 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in The Road to Democracy, Pretoria: South African Democracy Education Trust, Vol 2, p.381, Accessed 4 May 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiliomee2003" class="citation cs2">Giliomee, Hermann (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906111057/http://www.praesa.org.za/files/2012/07/Paper14.pdf">The Rise and Possible Demise of Afrikaans as a Public Language</a> (PDF), Cape Town: PRAESA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.praesa.org.za/files/2012/07/Paper14.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 September 2015, retrieved 1 May 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Possible+Demise+of+Afrikaans+as+a+Public+Language&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pub=PRAESA&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Giliomee&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.praesa.org.za%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F07%2FPaper14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> SA History.org <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/june-16-soweto-youth-uprising-casualties">Soweto uprising casualties</a> Accessed 1 May 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraft1991" class="citation web cs1">Kraft, Scott (5 March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-05-mn-227-story.html">"Anti-Apartheid Group Disbanding in August : South Africa: The UDF alliance, which united some 700 organizations, says its goals have been met. Many key figures have become ANC leaders"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Anti-Apartheid+Group+Disbanding+in+August+%3A+South+Africa%3A+The+UDF+alliance%2C+which+united+some+700+organizations%2C+says+its+goals+have+been+met.+Many+key+figures+have+become+ANC+leaders.&rft.date=1991-03-05&rft.aulast=Kraft&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1991-03-05-mn-227-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Daily Dispatch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dispatch.co.za/2000/01/07/features/UDF.HTM">"UDF unites Apartheid divides"</a>, 7 January 2000. Accessed 28 March 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Padraig O'malley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv03445/04lv03446/05lv03480.htm">"Mass Democratic Movement"</a> Nelson Mandela Foundation. Accessed 29 March 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> News24.com <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323">Remains of hanged prisoners to be exhumed.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160323061434/http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323">Archived</a> 23 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 25 March 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Vladimir Shubin, The Hot "Cold War": The USSR in Southern Africa, London: Pluto Press 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0745324722" title="Special:BookSources/978+0745324722">978 0745324722</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> United Nations Yearbook 1992 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BTdmYFgvyi0C&dq=apartheid+laws+rescinded&pg=PA108">Apartheid laws rescinded</a> UN Dept of Public Information, Accessed 3 May 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://africanelections.tripod.com/za.html#1992_Referendum">African Elections Database</a>. 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Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210714012249/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/12/south-africa-zuma-protests/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2021. 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Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iol&rft.atitle=Mapisa-Nqakula%3A+We+have+deployed+25+000+soldiers&rft.aulast=Mkhwanazi&rft.aufirst=Siyabonga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iol.co.za%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Fmapisa-nqakula-we-have-deployed-25-000-soldiers-06107ed0-0db0-4ad5-bba6-80abed44f655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-July22-257"><a href="#cite_ref-July22_257-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/unrest-death-toll-rises-337">"Unrest death toll rises to 337"</a>. SAnews. 22 July 2021. 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Retrieved 30 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TimesLIVE&rft.atitle=Flare-up+in+taxi+war+sparks+looting+alarm+in+Cape+Town+city+centre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeslive.co.za%2Fnews%2Fsouth-africa%2F2021-07-14-flare-up-in-taxi-war-sparks-looting-alarm-in-cape-town-city-centre%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-259"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_259-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/cyber-attacks-expose-the-vulnerability-of-south-africas-ports">"Cyber attacks expose the vulnerability of South Africa's ports"</a>. ISS Africa. 29 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ISS+Africa&rft.atitle=Cyber+attacks+expose+the+vulnerability+of+South+Africa%27s+ports&rft.date=2021-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissafrica.org%2Fiss-today%2Fcyber-attacks-expose-the-vulnerability-of-south-africas-ports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/call-to-connect-dots-between-insurrection-modus-operandi-and-crippling-transnet-cyber-attack-8d48c4e9-a3a7-4140-81de-5597a20a430b">"Call to 'connect dots between insurrection modus operandi and crippling Transnet cyber attack'"</a>. www.iol.co.za. 28 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iol.co.za&rft.atitle=Call+to+%27connect+dots+between+insurrection+modus+operandi+and+crippling+Transnet+cyber+attack%27&rft.date=2021-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iol.co.za%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Fcall-to-connect-dots-between-insurrection-modus-operandi-and-crippling-transnet-cyber-attack-8d48c4e9-a3a7-4140-81de-5597a20a430b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Beinart" title="William Beinart">Beinart, William</a>. Twentieth-Century South Africa. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2001.</li> <li>Beck, Roger S. History of South Africa, Greenwood Press, Westport CT: 2000</li> <li>Blignaut, Charl. "Untold History with a Historiography: A Review of Scholarship on Afrikaner Women in South African History." South African Historical Journal 65.4 (2013): 596–617.</li> <li>Bunting, Brian. Rise of the South African Reich First published by Penguin Africa Library 1964, revised 1969.</li> <li>Christopher, A. J. The Atlas of Changing South Africa. 2000. 216 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21178-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21178-6">0-415-21178-6</a>.</li> <li>Deegan, Heather. The Politics of the New South Africa. 2000. 256 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-38227-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-38227-0">0-582-38227-0</a>.</li> <li>Elbourne, Elizabeth. Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions, and the Contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799–1853. McGill-Queen's University Press. December 2002. 560 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-2229-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-2229-8">0-7735-2229-8</a>.</li> <li>Hamilton, Carolyn and Bernard K. Mbenga, eds. The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 1: From Early Times to 1885 (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150709095458/http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521517942_frontmatter.pdf">excerpt</a></li> <li>Hetherington, Penelope. "Women in South Africa: the historiography in English." The International Journal of African Historical Studies 26#2 (1993): 241–269.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHrbek,_Ivan1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Hrbek" class="extiw" title="cs:Ivan Hrbek">Hrbek, Ivan</a> [in Czech] (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/index.php?id=50851">"Written sources from the fifteenth century onwards"</a>. In J. Ki-Zerbo (ed.). Methodology and African Prehistory. <a href="/wiki/General_History_of_Africa" title="General History of Africa">General History of Africa</a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. pp. 121–124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0435948075" title="Special:BookSources/0435948075"><bdi>0435948075</bdi></a>. <q>Republic of South Africa</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Written+sources+from+the+fifteenth+century+onwards&rft.btitle=Methodology+and+African+Prehistory&rft.series=General+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=121-124&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0435948075&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fnew%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D50851&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Johnson, R.W. South Africa's Brave New World: The Beloved Country Since the End of Apartheid (Overlook Press; 2011) 702 pages; a history since 1994</li> <li>Joyce, Peter. The Making of a Nation South Africa's Road to Freedom, Zebra Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77007-312-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77007-312-8">978-1-77007-312-8</a></li> <li>Le Cordeur, Basil Alexander. The War of the Axe, 1847: Correspondence between the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Henry Pottinger, and the commander of the British forces at the Cape, Sir George Berkeley, and others. Brenthurst Press. 1981. 287 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-909079-14-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-909079-14-5">0-909079-14-5</a>.</li> <li>Mabin, Alan. Recession and its aftermath: The Cape Colony in the eighteen eighties. University of the Witwatersrand, African Studies Institute. 1983. 27 pages.</li> <li>Meiring, Hannes. Early Johannesburg, Its Buildings and People, Human & Rousseau, 1986, 143 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7981-1456-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7981-1456-8">0-7981-1456-8</a></li> <li>Mitchell, Laura. Belongings: Property, Family, and Identity in Colonial South Africa: An Exploration of Frontiers, 1725-c. 1830. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg-e.org/mitchell/">Gutenberg-e.org</a></li> <li>Pakenham, Thomas. The Boer War, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780349104669" title="Special:BookSources/9780349104669">9780349104669</a></li> <li>Rosenthal, Eric. Gold! Gold! Gold! The Johannesburg Gold Rush, AD. Donker, 1970, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-949937-64-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-949937-64-9">0-949937-64-9</a></li> <li>Ross, Robert, and David Anderson. Status and Respectability in the Cape Colony, 1750–1870 : A Tragedy of Manners. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 1999. 220 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-62122-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-62122-4">0-521-62122-4</a>.</li> <li>Ross, Robert, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson, eds. The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 2 since 1885 (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-South-Africa/dp/0521869838/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Thompson, Leonard. A History of South Africa, Third Edition. Yale University Press. 2001. 384 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08776-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08776-4">0-300-08776-4</a>.</li> <li>Tomlinson, Richard, et al. Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City. 2003. 336 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-93559-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-93559-8">0-415-93559-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Welsh_(writer)" title="Frank Welsh (writer)">Welsh, Frank</a>. South Africa: A Narrative History. Kodansha America. 1 February 1999. 606 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56836-258-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56836-258-7">1-56836-258-7</a>.</li> <li>Worden, Nigel. Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid. 2000. 194 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21661-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21661-8">0-631-21661-8</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VOC_period">VOC period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: VOC period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Barend-van Haeften, Marijke; Paasman, Bert: De Kaap: Goede Hoop halverwege Indië. Bloemlezing van Kaapteksten uit de Compagnietijd. (Hilversum: Verloren, 2003)</li> <li>Biewenga, A.: De Kaap de Goede Hoop: Een Nederlandse Vestigingskolonie, 1680–1730. (Amsterdam: Promotheus and Bert Bakker, 1999)</li> <li>Botha, Colin Graham: The <a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">French Refugees at the Cape</a>. (1919; reprint, Cape Town: C. Struik, 1970)</li> <li>Bryer, Lynne; Theron, Francois: The Huguenot Heritage: The Story of the <a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">Huguenots at the Cape</a>. (Diep River, Chameleon Press, 1987)</li> <li>Coertzen, Pieter: Die Hugenote van Suid Afrika, 1688–1988. (Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1988)</li> <li>Delmas, Adrien, 'The Role of Writing in the First Steps of the Colony: A Short Enquiry in the Journal of Jan van Riebeeck, 1652–1662', in Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World, ed. <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Nigel Worden</a> (Cape Town: Royal Netherlands Embassy, 2007)</li> <li>Elphick, Richard; Giliomee, Hermann (eds.): The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. (Wesleyan University Press, 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0819562111" title="Special:BookSources/978-0819562111">978-0819562111</a>)</li> <li>Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2008). 'Explaining the Ship Traffic Fluctuations in the Early Cape Settlement: 1652–1793', South African Journal of Economic History, 23 (2008), pp. 1–27.</li> <li>Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2010). 'The significance of the Cape trade route to economic activity in the Cape Colony: a medium-term business cycle analysis', European Review of Economic History, 14 (2010), pp. 469–503.</li> <li>Fourie, J. (2014). 'The quantitative Cape: A review of the new historiography of the Dutch Cape Colony', South African Historical Journal 66.1, 2014, pp. 142–168.</li> <li>Franken, J. L. N.: Die Hugenote aan die Kaap. (Pretoria: Die Staatsdrukker, 1978)</li> <li>Gerstner, Jonathan Neil: The Thousand Generation Covenant: Dutch Reformed Covenant Theology and Group Identity in Colonial South Africa, 1652–1814. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991)</li> <li>Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: eerste deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1652–1686. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976)</li> <li>Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: tweede deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1686–1806. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976)</li> <li>Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: Jan van Riebeeck en zijn tijd. Een stuk zeventiende-eeuws Oost-Indië [Jan van Riebeeck and his times: A piece of seventeenth-century East Indies]. (Amsterdam: P. N. Van Kampen en Zoon, 1937)</li> <li>Groenewald, Gerald: Een Dienstig Inwoonder: Entrepreneurs, Social Capital and Identity in Cape Town, c. 1720–1750. South African Historical Journal, 59, 1(2007), pp. 126–152</li> <li>Guelke, Leonard (1976). "Frontier Settlement in Early Dutch South Africa,". (Annals of the Association of American Geographers 66, no. 1 (March 1976): 25–42)</li> <li>Huigen, Siegfried: Knowledge and Colonialism: Eighteenth-Century Travellers in South Africa. (Leiden: Brill, 2009, pp. xii + 273 pp)</li> <li>Hunt, John: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch South Africa</a>: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708. (Leicester, UK: Matador, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1904744955" title="Special:BookSources/978-1904744955">978-1904744955</a>)</li> <li>Johnson, David: Imagining the Cape Colony: History, Literature and the South African Nation. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012)</li> <li>Lucas, Gavin: An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley, South Africa. (New York: Springer, 2006)</li> <li>Marais, J.S.: The Cape Coloured People, 1652–1937. (1939; reprint, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1968)</li> <li>Mitchell, L.J.: Belongings: Property and Identity in Colonial South Africa, an Exploration of Frontiers, 1725–c. 1830. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, pp. xv + 232)</li> <li>Newton-King, Susan: Masters and Servants on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760–1803. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)</li> <li>Raven-Hart, Rowland (ed.): Cape Good Hope, 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as Seen by Callers [2 vols]. (Cape Town: A.A.Balkema, 1971)</li> <li>Schoeman, Karel: Early Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1717. (Pretoria: Protea Book House, 2007)</li> <li>Schoeman, Karel: Portrait of a Slave Society: The Cape of Good Hope, 1717–1795. (Pretoria: Protea Boekhuis, 2012)</li> <li>Shell, Robert: Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838. (Hanover, Conn.; Wesleya University Press, 1994)</li> <li>Singh, Daleep: From Dutch South Africa to Republic of South Africa, 1652–1994. The Story of Three and a Half Centuries of Imperialism. (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Sleigh" title="Dan Sleigh">Sleigh, Dan</a>: Die Buiteposte: VOC-buiteposte onder Kaapse Bestuur, 1652–1795. (Pretoria: HAUM, 1993)</li> <li>Stapleton, Timothy J.: A Military History of South Africa: From the <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi%E2%80%93Dutch_Wars" title="Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars">Dutch-Khoi Wars</a> to the End of Apartheid. (Santa Barbara, CA.: Praeger, 2010)</li> <li>Terreblanche, Sampie: A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652–2002. (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2002)</li> <li>Theal, George McCall: History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company, 1652 to 1795. Nabu Press, 2010, 474pp</li> <li>Theal, George McCall: History of the Boers in South Africa; Or, the Wanderings and Wars of the Emigrant Farmers from Their Leaving the Cape Colony to the Acknowledgment of Their Independence by Great Britain. (Greenwood Press, 1970, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-1661-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-1661-9">0-8371-1661-9</a>)</li> <li>Twidle, Hedley (2013). Writing the Company: From VOC Daghregister to Sleigh's Eilande, South African Historical Journal 65(1) (2013): 125–52.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francois_Valentijn" class="mw-redirect" title="Francois Valentijn">Valentijn, Francois</a>: Description of the Cape of Good Hope with Matters Concerning It. (Amsterdam, 1726). [Edited and annotated by Prof. P. Serton, Maj. B. Raven-Hart, Dr. W. J. de Kock.]</li> <li>Van der Merwe, P. J. : The Migrant Farmer in the History of the Cape Colony, 1657–1842. Translated from the Dutch by Roger B. Beck. (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1995)</li> <li>Van Duin, Pieter; Ross, Robert: The Economy of the Cape Colony in the Eighteenth Century. (Leiden: Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1987, pp. viii + 166)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Riebeeck" title="Jan van Riebeeck">Van Riebeeck, Jan</a>: 1652–1662, Daghregister gehouden by den oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck. In Bosman, D.B. & B. Thorn (eds). Daghregister Gehouden by den Oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck, 3 vols. [Treated as a sequence of eleven manuscripts]. (Cape Town: Balkema, 1952–1957)</li> <li>Verstegen, M.: De Indische Zeeherberg, De stichting van Zuid-Afrika door de VOC. (Zaltbommel, 2001)</li> <li>Viljoen, Russel: Jan Paerl: A Khoikhoi in Cape Colonial Society, 1761–1851. (Boston, MA: Brill, 2006, pp. xviii + 213)</li> <li>Viljoen, Russel S. (1995). "Disease and Society: VOC Cape Town, Its People, and the Smallpox Epidemics of 1713, 1755, and 1767," Kleio 27</li> <li>Welch, Sidney: Portuguese and Dutch in South Africa, 1641–1806. (Cape Town: Juta Press, 1951)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (1985). Slavery in Dutch South Africa. Cambridge University Press. pp. xiii, 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521258753" title="Special:BookSources/9780521258753"><bdi>9780521258753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Dutch+South+Africa&rft.pages=xiii%2C+207&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780521258753&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWordenvan_HeyningenBickford-Smith1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a>; van Heyningen, Elizabeth; Bickford-Smith, Vivian (1998). Cape Town: The Making of a City. New Africa Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780864866561" title="Special:BookSources/9780864866561"><bdi>9780864866561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cape+Town%3A+The+Making+of+a+City&rft.pub=New+Africa+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780864866561&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft.au=van+Heyningen%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Bickford-Smith%2C+Vivian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWordenGroenewald2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a>; Groenewald, G., eds. (2005). Trials of Slavery: Selected Documents Concerning Slaves from the Criminal Records of the Council of Justice at the Cape of Good Hope, 1705–1794. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society for the Publication of South African Historical Documents.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trials+of+Slavery%3A+Selected+Documents+Concerning+Slaves+from+the+Criminal+Records+of+the+Council+of+Justice+at+the+Cape+of+Good+Hope%2C+1705%E2%80%931794&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pub=Van+Riebeeck+Society+for+the+Publication+of+South+African+Historical+Documents&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2007). Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World. University of Cape Town. p. vi, 612. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780620385091" title="Special:BookSources/9780620385091"><bdi>9780620385091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contingent+Lives%3A+Social+Identity+and+Material+Culture+in+the+VOC+World&rft.pages=vi%2C+612&rft.pub=University+of+Cape+Town&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780620385091&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2007). Ray, Himanshu Prabha; Alpers, Edward A. (eds.). VOC Cape Town as an Indian Ocean Port. Oxford University Press. pp. 142–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195677058" title="Special:BookSources/9780195677058"><bdi>9780195677058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=VOC+Cape+Town+as+an+Indian+Ocean+Port&rft.pages=142-162&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780195677058&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2007). "New Approaches to VOC History in South Africa". <a href="/wiki/South_African_Historical_Journal" title="South African Historical Journal">South African Historical Journal</a>. 59 (1): 3–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02582470709464770">10.1080/02582470709464770</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145747452">145747452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=New+Approaches+to+VOC+History+in+South+Africa&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-18&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02582470709464770&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145747452%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2010). "After Race and Class: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Early Colonial Cape Society". <a href="/wiki/South_African_Historical_Journal" title="South African Historical Journal">South African Historical Journal</a>. 62 (3): 589–602. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02582473.2010.519904">10.1080/02582473.2010.519904</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11427%2F28195">11427/28195</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161070564">161070564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=After+Race+and+Class%3A+Recent+Trends+in+the+Historiography+of+Early+Colonial+Cape+Society&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=589-602&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11427%2F28195&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161070564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02582473.2010.519904&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a>, ed. (2012). Cape Town between East and West: Social Identities in a Dutch Colonial Town. Jacana Media. p. xxii, 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781431402922" title="Special:BookSources/9781431402922"><bdi>9781431402922</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cape+Town+between+East+and+West%3A+Social+Identities+in+a+Dutch+Colonial+Town&rft.pages=xxii%2C+264&rft.pub=Jacana+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781431402922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2014). "Cape Slaves in the Paper Empire of the VOC". Kronos. 40 (1): 23–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kronos&rft.atitle=Cape+Slaves+in+the+Paper+Empire+of+the+VOC&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-44&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorden2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Worden" title="Nigel Worden">Worden, Nigel</a> (2016). "Indian Ocean Slaves in Cape Town, 1695–1807". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_African_Studies" title="Journal of Southern African Studies">Journal of Southern African Studies</a>. 42 (3): 389–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03057070.2016.1171554">10.1080/03057070.2016.1171554</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147980814">147980814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Indian+Ocean+Slaves+in+Cape+Town%2C+1695%E2%80%931807&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=389-408&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03057070.2016.1171554&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147980814%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Worden&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saha.org.za/collections.htm">South African History Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/p164001coll21&CISOPTR=224&CISOBOX=1&REC=3">Democratic Development in South Africa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200534/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=%2Fp164001coll21&CISOPTR=224&CISOBOX=1&REC=3">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112062354/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/">Archived</a> 12 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za">South African History Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407183735/http://mediaclub.co.za/culture/35-culture/culture-bg/104-history">The History of South Africa</a> Brand South Africa. Accessed 24 November 2017.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.za">South Africa Government Online</a>. Accessed 20 February 2005.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070621043856/http://www.villagelife.co.za/NewFiles/15_hromnik.pdf">Dr Cyril Hromník on research into ancient history of Africa</a> – an article written by Maré Mouton.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050414045450/http://www.afrikanerbond.org.za/Dokideal.pdf">Bearer of an Ideal</a> – a public-release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly Afrikaner Broederbond): think-tank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm">Full text of the UN convention</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/">South Africa, 10 years later</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181130112958/https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/">Archived</a> 30 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from US <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libguides.ukzn.ac.za/content.php?pid=470272&sid=3850521">"History: Useful links"</a>. LibGuides. <a href="/wiki/University_of_KwaZulu-Natal" title="University of KwaZulu-Natal">University of KwaZulu-Natal</a> Libraries.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibGuides&rft.atitle=History%3A+Useful+links&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibguides.ukzn.ac.za%2Fcontent.php%3Fpid%3D470272%26sid%3D3850521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151526/http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/">"Registry"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Archivalplatform.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Archivalplatform.org">Archivalplatform.org</a>. Rondebosch. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/">the original</a> on 5 October 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archivalplatform.org&rft.atitle=Registry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archivalplatform.org%2Fregistry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+South+Africa" class="Z3988"> (Directory of South African archival and memory institutions and organisations)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_South_Africa" title="Timeline of South Africa">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_South_Africa" title="List of years in South Africa">Years</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mutapa" title="Kingdom of Mutapa">Kingdom of Mutapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaditshwene" title="Kaditshwene">Kaditshwene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mthethwa_Paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mthethwa Paramountcy">Mthethwa Paramountcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndwandwe" title="Ndwandwe">Ndwandwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvaal Republic">Transvaal Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">Democratic South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_South_Africa" title="Economic history of South Africa">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa" title="Military history of South Africa">Military</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_South_Africa" title="Geography of South Africa">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_South_Africa" title="Biodiversity of South Africa">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_South_Africa" title="Climate of South Africa">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Africa" title="Climate change in South Africa">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_South_Africa" title="Districts of South Africa">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_South_Africa" title="List of earthquakes in South Africa">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_estuaries_of_South_Africa" title="List of estuaries of South Africa">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_of_South_Africa" title="List of forests of South Africa">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_South_Africa" title="List of islands of South Africa">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_South_Africa" title="List of lakes of South Africa">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges_of_South_Africa" title="List of mountain ranges of South Africa">Mountain ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_municipalities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of South African municipalities">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected areas of South Africa">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_South_Africa" title="List of populated places in South Africa">Populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_South_Africa" title="Provinces of South Africa">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa" title="List of rivers of South Africa">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_South_Africa" title="Wildlife of South Africa">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_South_Africa" title="Politics of South Africa">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_South_Africa" title="Courts of South Africa">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Africa" title="Corruption in South Africa">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_South_Africa" title="Elections in South Africa">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_South_Africa" title="Foreign relations of South Africa">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_South_Africa" title="Government of South Africa">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_South_Africa" title="Human rights in South Africa">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa" title="Law of South Africa">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_South_Africa" title="Law enforcement in South Africa">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Defence_Force" title="South African National Defence Force">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_South_Africa" title="Parliament of South Africa">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_South_Africa" title="List of political parties in South Africa">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_South_Africa" title="President of South Africa">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lifespan_timeline_of_presidents_of_South_Africa" title="Lifespan timeline of presidents of South Africa">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Security_Agency_(South_Africa)" title="State Security Agency (South Africa)">State security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_South_Africa" title="Economy of South Africa">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_South_Africa" title="Agriculture in South Africa">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_South_Africa" title="Banking in South Africa">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_South_Africa" title="List of companies of South Africa">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_South_Africa" title="Economic history of South Africa">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_South_Africa" title="Energy in South Africa">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_South_Africa" title="Foreign trade of South Africa">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality in South Africa">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_South_Africa" title="Mining industry of South Africa">Mining industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_rand" title="South African rand">Rand (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_South_Africa" title="State-owned enterprises of South Africa">State-owned enterprises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JSE_Limited" title="JSE Limited">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_South_Africa" title="Taxation in South Africa">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_South_Africa" title="Tourism in South Africa">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_South_Africa" title="Trade unions in South Africa">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_South_Africa" title="Transport in South Africa">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Africa" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Africa">Water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_inequality_in_South_Africa" title="Wealth inequality in South Africa">Wealth inequality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_South_Africa" title="Category:Society of South Africa">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_South_Africa" title="Cannabis in South Africa">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_South_Africa" title="Crime in South Africa">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_South_Africa" title="Disability in South Africa">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_South_Africa" title="Health in South Africa">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_South_Africa" title="Healthcare in South Africa">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_South_Africa" title="Immigration to South Africa">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_South_Africa" title="Intersex rights in South Africa">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_invasion_in_South_Africa" title="Land invasion in South Africa">Land invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Languages of South Africa">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_South_Africa" title="LGBT rights in South Africa">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of South African provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in South Africa">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence_in_South_Africa" title="Sexual violence in South Africa">Sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_South_Africa" title="Slum clearance in South Africa">Slum clearance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_South_Africa" title="Smoking in South Africa">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues in South Africa">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_movements_in_South_Africa" title="List of social movements in South Africa">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Africa" title="Women in South Africa">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_South_Africa" title="Xenophobia in South Africa">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_South_Africa" title="Culture of South Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of South Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_art" title="South African art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_South_Africa" title="Cinema of South Africa">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_cuisine" title="South African cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_African_wine" title="South African wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in South Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_South_Africa" title="Homelessness in South Africa">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in South Africa">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_South_Africa" title="Music of South Africa">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_South_Africa" title="National symbols of South Africa">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_South_Africa" title="Public holidays in South Africa">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_South_Africa" title="Sport in South Africa">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_South_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in South Africa">World Heritage Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_sites_in_South_Africa" title="List of heritage sites in South Africa">heritage sites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_South_Africa" title="Demographics of South Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu peoples in South Africa">South African Bantu-speaking peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Ndebele_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Ndebele people">Ndebele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedi_people" title="Pedi people">Pedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_people" title="Sotho people">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Swazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsonga_people" title="Tsonga people">Tsonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Tswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venda_people" title="Venda people">Venda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe" title="Khoekhoe">Khoekhoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African" class="mw-redirect" title="White South African">Whites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaners" title="Afrikaners">Afrikaners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_diaspora_in_Africa" title="British diaspora in Africa">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloureds" title="Coloureds">Coloureds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Coloureds" title="Cape Coloureds">Cape Coloureds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Malays" title="Cape Malays">Cape Malays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griquas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_South_Africans" title="Indian South Africans">Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_South_African" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese South African">Chinese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Africa" title="Outline of South Africa">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Africa" title="Outline of South Africa">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Africa" title="Category:South Africa">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:South_Africa" title="Portal:South Africa">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_history_of_South_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_history_of_South_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Political history of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1075–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1220)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a> (1652–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mthethwa_Paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mthethwa Paramountcy">Mthethwa Paramountcy</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780–1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndwandwe" title="Ndwandwe">Ndwandwe Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780–1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1795–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a> (1816–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Republic" title="Natalia Republic">Natalia Republic</a> (1839–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal Colony</a> (1843–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> (1854–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a> (1856–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_East" title="Griqualand East">Griqualand East</a> (1861–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_West" title="Griqualand West">Griqualand West</a> (1870–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Goshen" title="State of Goshen">Goshen</a> (1882–1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellaland" title="Stellaland">Stellaland</a> (1882–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Republiek" title="Nieuwe Republiek">Nieuwe Republiek</a> (1884–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upingtonia" title="Upingtonia">Upingtonia</a> (1885–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klein_Vrystaat" title="Klein Vrystaat">Klein Vrystaat</a> (1886–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a> (1902–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal Colony</a> (1902–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> (1910–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transkei" title="Transkei">Transkei</a> (1976–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bophuthatswana" title="Bophuthatswana">Bophuthatswana</a> (1977–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venda" title="Venda">Venda</a> (1979–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciskei" title="Ciskei">Ciskei</a> (1981–1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Pre-colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salt_River" title="Battle of Salt River">Battle of Salt River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">1652–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cape_Colony_before_1806#First_settlement" title="History of the Cape Colony before 1806">Dutch settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">French Huguenot settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi%E2%80%93Dutch_Wars" title="Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars">Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muizenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Muizenberg">Battle of Muizenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">Battle of Blaauwberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">1815–1910</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane">Mfecane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1820_Settlers" title="1820 Settlers">1820 Settlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Civil_War" title="Transvaal Civil War">Transvaal Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Revolution" title="Mineral Revolution">Mineral Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Wars_(1879%E2%80%931915)" title="South African Wars (1879–1915)">South African Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_Act_1909" title="South Africa Act 1909">South Africa Act 1909</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Convention_(South_Africa)" title="National Convention (South Africa)">National Convention</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1910%E2%80%9348)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Africa (1910–48)">1910–1948</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West Africa campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Rebellion" title="Rand Rebellion">Rand Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_African_Mine_Workers%27_Union_strike" title="1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike">1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_South_African_general_election" title="1948 South African general election">1948 general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">Apartheid legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">Pass laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Internal resistance to apartheid">Internal resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloured-vote_constitutional_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coloured-vote constitutional crisis">Coloured-vote constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_People_(1955)" title="Congress of the People (1955)">Congress of the People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Charter" title="Freedom Charter">Freedom Charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_(South_Africa)" title="Women's March (South Africa)">Women's March 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_Alexandra_bus_boycott" title="1957 Alexandra bus boycott">1957 Alexandra bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_South_African_republic_referendum" title="1960 South African republic referendum">1960 republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_South_Africa_during_apartheid" title="Foreign relations of South Africa during apartheid">International isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_1761" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761">UN Resolution 1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_591" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 591">UNSC Resolution 591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_South_Africa" title="Academic boycott of South Africa">Academic boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment_from_South_Africa" title="Disinvestment from South Africa">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_engagement" title="Constructive engagement">Constructive engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar_Baby_Option" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar Baby Option">Tar Baby Option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporting_boycott_of_South_Africa_during_the_apartheid_era" title="Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era">Sporting boycott</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid-era_South_Africa_and_the_Olympics" title="Apartheid-era South Africa and the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_and_apartheid" title="Rugby union and apartheid">Rugby union</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durban_Moment" title="Durban Moment">Durban Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations#Strategic_relations" title="Israel–South Africa relations">Israeli alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_Agreement" title="Israel–South Africa Agreement">Israel–South Africa Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mafeje_affair" title="Mafeje affair">Mafeje affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Coast" title="Project Coast">Project Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Street_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Street bombing">Church Street bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_South_African_constitutional_referendum" title="1983 South African constitutional referendum">1983 constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langa_massacre" title="Langa massacre">Langa massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_speech" title="Rubicon speech">Rubicon speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vula" title="Operation Vula">Operation Vula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakar_Conference" title="Dakar Conference">Dakar Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Transkei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Transkei coup d'état">Transkei coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Ciskei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Ciskei coup d'état">Ciskei coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Venda_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Venda coup d'état">Venda coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Force_(South_Africa)" title="Third Force (South Africa)">Third Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">CODESA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Kempton_Park_World_Trade_Centre" title="Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre">Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisho_massacre" title="Bisho massacre">Bisho massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_South_African_apartheid_referendum" title="1992 South African apartheid referendum">1992 apartheid referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_James_Church_massacre" title="Saint James Church massacre">Saint James Church massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Bophuthatswana_crisis" title="1994 Bophuthatswana crisis">Bophuthatswana crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_House_massacre" title="Shell House massacre">Shell House massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">Post- apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">1994 general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Nelson_Mandela" title="Cabinet of Nelson Mandela">Government of National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_and_Development_Programme" title="Reconstruction and Development Programme">Reconstruction and Development Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(South_Africa)" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Arms_Deal" title="South African Arms Deal">Arms Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floor_crossing_(South_Africa)" title="Floor crossing (South Africa)">Floor crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Soweto_bombings" title="2002 Soweto bombings">Soweto bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Renaissance" title="African Renaissance">African Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travelgate_(South_Africa)" title="Travelgate (South Africa)">Travelgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_South_Africa" title="Xenophobia in South Africa">Xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Kennedy_Road" title="Attack on Kennedy Road">Attack on Kennedy Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blikkiesdorp" title="Blikkiesdorp">Blikkiesdorp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marikana_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Marikana killings">Marikana massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Cape_2012_Farm_Workers%27_strike" title="Western Cape 2012 Farm Workers' strike">2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkandla_(homestead)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkandla (homestead)">Nkandlagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_South_African_platinum_strike" title="2014 South African platinum strike">2014 platinum strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Must_Fall" title="Rhodes Must Fall">#RhodesMustFall protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FeesMustFall" title="FeesMustFall">#FeesMustFall student protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshwane_riots,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Tshwane riots, 2016">Tshwane riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_service_delivery_protests" title="2019 service delivery protests">2019 service delivery protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Johannesburg_riots" title="2019 Johannesburg riots">2019 Johannesburg riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa" title="COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Phala_Phala_Robbery" title="2020 Phala Phala Robbery">2020 Phala Phala Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_South_African_unrest" title="2021 South African unrest">2021 unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_R_incident" title="Lady R incident">Lady R incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaner Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baasskap" title="Baasskap">Baasskap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boerehaat" title="Boerehaat">Boerehaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Independence">Cape Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Vow" title="Day of the Vow">Day of the Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_South_Africa" title="Greater South Africa">Greater South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_whites" title="Honorary whites">Honorary whites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rooi_gevaar" title="Rooi gevaar">Rooi gevaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swart_gevaar" title="Swart gevaar">Swart gevaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uitlander" title="Uitlander">Uitlander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkstaat" title="Volkstaat">Volkstaat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civic and political organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Bond" title="Afrikaner Bond">Afrikaner Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Broederbond" title="Afrikaner Broederbond">Afrikaner Broederbond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Party" title="Afrikaner Party">Afrikaner Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Income_Tax_and_Usury_Party" title="Abolition of Income Tax and Usury Party">AITUP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="African Political Organization">APO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Volksfront" title="Afrikaner Volksfront">AVF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_People%27s_Convention" title="Black People's Convention">BPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boerestaat_Party" title="Boerestaat Party">Boerestaat Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Christian Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">CDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciskei_National_Independence_Party" title="Ciskei National Independence Party">CNIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Ecology_Group" title="Cape Town Ecology Group">CTEG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Democrats" title="South African Congress of Democrats">COD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Alliance" title="Congress Alliance">Congress Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_Objector_Support_Group" title="Conscientious Objector Support Group">COSG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Party of South Africa">CP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Left_Front" title="Democratic Left Front">DLF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Dominion Party (South Africa)">Dominion Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa,_1973)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa, 1973)">DP (1973–1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa)">DP (1989–2000)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party_(Transkei)" title="Democratic Progressive Party (Transkei)">DPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Movement_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Socialist Movement (South Africa)">DSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">ECC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Federal Alliance (South Africa)">FA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Democrats_(South_Africa)" title="Federation of Democrats (South Africa)">FD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genootskap_van_Regte_Afrikaners" title="Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners">Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purified_National_Party" title="Purified National Party">GNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Het_Volk_(political_party)" title="Het Volk (political party)">Het Volk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herenigde_Nasionale_Party" title="Herenigde Nasionale Party">HNP (Herenigde)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herstigte_Nasionale_Party" title="Herstigte Nasionale Party">HNP (Herstigte)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Democratic_Alternatives_in_South_Africa" title="Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa">IDASA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Democrats" title="Independent Democrats">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Independent Party (South Africa)">IP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_League_(South_Africa)" title="International Socialist League (South Africa)">ISL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeugkrag" title="Jeugkrag">Jeugkrag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannesburg_Reform_Committee" title="Johannesburg Reform Committee">Johannesburg Reform Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Labour Party (South Africa)">Labour Party (1910–1958)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa,_1969)" title="Labour Party (South Africa, 1969)">Labour Party (1969–1994)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Liberal Party of South Africa">Liberal Party (1953–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Action_(South_Africa)" title="National Action (South Africa)">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Conservative Party (South Africa)">NCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Labour Party (South Africa)">NLP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New National Party (South Africa)">NNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">NP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Party_(South_Africa,_1981)" title="National People's Party (South Africa, 1981)">NPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Republic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Republic Party (South Africa)">NRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_South_African_Students" title="National Union of South African Students">NUSAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_South_Africa" title="Occupy South Africa">Occupy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangia_Unie" title="Orangia Unie">Orangia Unie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vereniging_van_Oranjewerkers" title="Vereniging van Oranjewerkers">Oranjewerkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orde_Boerevolk" title="Orde Boerevolk">Orde Boerevolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_ANC_Voters_Network" title="Progressive ANC Voters Network">PAVN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Federal_Party" title="Progressive Federal Party">PFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="Progressive Party (Cape Colony)">Progressive Party (Cape Colony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Party (South Africa)">Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Reform Party (South Africa)">PRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Freedom" title="Radio Freedom">Radio Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Reform Party (South Africa)">Reform Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Business_Party" title="South African Business Party">SABP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Democratic_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Democratic Convention">SADECO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Indian_Congress" title="South African Indian Congress">SAIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Organisation" title="South African Students' Organisation">SASO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Congress" title="South African Youth Congress">SAYCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Revolutionary_Council" title="South African Youth Revolutionary Council">SAYRCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="South African Party (Cape Colony)">South African Party (Cape Colony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party" title="South African Party">South African Party (1911–1934)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Republic_of_South_Africa)" title="South African Party (Republic of South Africa)">South African Party (1977–1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transkei_National_Independence_Party" title="Transkei National Independence Party">TNIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Federal_Party" title="Union Federal Party">UFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Party_(South_Africa)" title="United Party (South Africa)">United Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionist_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Unionist Party (South Africa)">Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_of_Venda" title="National Party of Venda">National Party of Venda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksparty" title="Volksparty">Volksparty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Workers Party of South Africa">Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Organisation_for_Socialist_Action" title="Workers Organisation for Socialist Action">WOSA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade unions and social movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Privatisation_Forum" title="Anti-Privatisation Forum">APF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">BCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Trade_Union_of_Transnet_Workers" title="Black Trade Union of Transnet Workers">BLATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Council of Non-European Trade Unions">CNETU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Stevedoring_Workers_Union" title="Cape Town Stevedoring Workers Union">CTSWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Canning_Workers%27_Union" title="Food and Canning Workers' Union">FCWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of Non-European Trade Unions">FNETU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of South African Trade Unions">FOSATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Workers%27_Union" title="Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union">ICU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_(South_Africa)" title="Industrial Workers of the World (South Africa)">IWW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicians_Union_of_South_Africa" title="Musicians Union of South Africa">MUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-European_Unity_Movement" title="Non-European Unity Movement">NEUM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Railway_and_Harbour_Servants" title="National Union of Railway and Harbour Servants">NURHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_Arts_Workers%27_Equity" title="Performing Arts Workers' Equity">PAWE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Agricultural_Plantation_and_Allied_Workers_Union" title="South African Agricultural Plantation and Allied Workers Union">SAAPAWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Trade_Unions" title="South African Congress of Trade Unions">SACTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Industrial_Federation" title="South African Industrial Federation">SAIF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Railways_and_Harbours_Union" title="South African Railways and Harbours Union">SARHU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Trades_Union_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Trades Union Council">SATUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Spoorbund" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Spoorbund">Die Spoorbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">UDF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umkosi_Wezintaba" title="Umkosi Wezintaba">Umkosi Wezintaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paramilitary and terrorist organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">APLA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Resistance_Movement" title="African Resistance Movement">ARM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">AWB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanke_Bevrydingsbeweging" title="Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging">BBB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeremag" title="Boeremag">Boeremag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Gentile_National_Socialist_Movement" title="South African Gentile National Socialist Movement">Greyshirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">MK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewabrandwag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orde_van_die_Dood" title="Orde van die Dood">Orde van die Dood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Against_Gangsterism_and_Drugs" title="People Against Gangsterism and Drugs">PAGAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Front" title="South African National Front">SANF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories of political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress" title="History of the African National Congress">African National Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="History of the Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="History of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Category:Political history of South Africa">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_South_Africa_(1901–present)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Years_in_South_Africa" title="Template:Years in South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Years_in_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Years in South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Years_in_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Years in South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Years_in_South_Africa_(1901–present)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_South_Africa" title="List of years in South Africa">Years</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">1901</a>–present)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1901_in_South_Africa" title="1901 in South Africa">1901</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1902_in_South_Africa" title="1902 in South Africa">1902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1903_in_South_Africa" title="1903 in South Africa">1903</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_in_South_Africa" title="1904 in South Africa">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1905_in_South_Africa" title="1905 in South Africa">1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_in_South_Africa" title="1906 in South Africa">1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_in_South_Africa" title="1907 in South Africa">1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_in_South_Africa" title="1908 in South Africa">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_in_South_Africa" title="1909 in South Africa">1909</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1910_in_South_Africa" title="1910 in South Africa">1910</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_in_South_Africa" title="1911 in South Africa">1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_in_South_Africa" title="1912 in South Africa">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_in_South_Africa" title="1913 in South Africa">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_in_South_Africa" title="1914 in South Africa">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_in_South_Africa" title="1915 in South Africa">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_in_South_Africa" title="1916 in South Africa">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_in_South_Africa" title="1917 in South Africa">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_in_South_Africa" title="1918 in South Africa">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_in_South_Africa" title="1919 in South Africa">1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_in_South_Africa" title="1920 in South Africa">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_in_South_Africa" title="1921 in South Africa">1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1922_in_South_Africa" title="1922 in South Africa">1922</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1923_in_South_Africa" title="1923 in South Africa">1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_in_South_Africa" title="1924 in South Africa">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1925_in_South_Africa" title="1925 in South Africa">1925</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_in_South_Africa" title="1926 in South Africa">1926</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1927_in_South_Africa" title="1927 in South Africa">1927</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_in_South_Africa" title="1928 in South Africa">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1929_in_South_Africa" title="1929 in South Africa">1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1930_in_South_Africa" title="1930 in South Africa">1930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_in_South_Africa" title="1931 in South Africa">1931</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_in_South_Africa" title="1932 in South Africa">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1933_in_South_Africa" title="1933 in South Africa">1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1934_in_South_Africa" title="1934 in South Africa">1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_in_South_Africa" title="1935 in South Africa">1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_in_South_Africa" title="1936 in South Africa">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1937_in_South_Africa" title="1937 in South Africa">1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_in_South_Africa" title="1938 in South Africa">1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_in_South_Africa" title="1939 in South Africa">1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_in_South_Africa" title="1940 in South Africa">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_in_South_Africa" title="1941 in South Africa">1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1942_in_South_Africa" title="1942 in South Africa">1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1943_in_South_Africa" title="1943 in South Africa">1943</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_in_South_Africa" title="1944 in South Africa">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1945_in_South_Africa" title="1945 in South Africa">1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_in_South_Africa" title="1946 in South Africa">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_in_South_Africa" title="1947 in South Africa">1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_in_South_Africa" title="1948 in South Africa">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_in_South_Africa" title="1949 in South Africa">1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950_in_South_Africa" title="1950 in South Africa">1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1951_in_South_Africa" title="1951 in South Africa">1951</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_in_South_Africa" title="1952 in South Africa">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_in_South_Africa" title="1953 in South Africa">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_in_South_Africa" title="1954 in South Africa">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1955_in_South_Africa" title="1955 in South Africa">1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_in_South_Africa" title="1956 in South Africa">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_in_South_Africa" title="1957 in South Africa">1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_in_South_Africa" title="1958 in South Africa">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_in_South_Africa" title="1959 in South Africa">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_in_South_Africa" title="1960 in South Africa">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_in_South_Africa" title="1961 in South Africa">1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1962_in_South_Africa" title="1962 in South Africa">1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_in_South_Africa" title="1963 in South Africa">1963</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_in_South_Africa" title="1964 in South Africa">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_in_South_Africa" title="1965 in South Africa">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_in_South_Africa" title="1966 in South Africa">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_in_South_Africa" title="1967 in South Africa">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_in_South_Africa" title="1968 in South Africa">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_in_South_Africa" title="1969 in South Africa">1969</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_in_South_Africa" title="1970 in South Africa">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_in_South_Africa" title="1971 in South Africa">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_in_South_Africa" title="1972 in South Africa">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_in_South_Africa" title="1973 in South Africa">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_in_South_Africa" title="1974 in South Africa">1974</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_in_South_Africa" title="1975 in South Africa">1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_in_South_Africa" title="1976 in South Africa">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_in_South_Africa" title="1977 in South Africa">1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_in_South_Africa" title="1978 in South Africa">1978</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_South_Africa" title="1979 in South Africa">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_South_Africa" title="1980 in South Africa">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_South_Africa" title="1981 in South Africa">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_South_Africa" title="1982 in South Africa">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_in_South_Africa" title="1983 in South Africa">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_South_Africa" title="1984 in South Africa">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_South_Africa" title="1985 in South Africa">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_South_Africa" title="1986 in South Africa">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_South_Africa" title="1987 in South Africa">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_South_Africa" title="1988 in South Africa">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_South_Africa" title="1989 in South Africa">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_in_South_Africa" title="1990 in South Africa">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_in_South_Africa" title="1991 in South Africa">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_in_South_Africa" title="1992 in South Africa">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_in_South_Africa" title="1993 in South Africa">1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_in_South_Africa" title="1994 in South Africa">1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_in_South_Africa" title="1995 in South Africa">1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_in_South_Africa" title="1996 in South Africa">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_in_South_Africa" title="1997 in South Africa">1997</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_in_South_Africa" title="1998 in South Africa">1998</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_in_South_Africa" title="1999 in South Africa">1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_in_South_Africa" title="2000 in South Africa">2000</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2001_in_South_Africa" title="2001 in South Africa">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_in_South_Africa" title="2002 in South Africa">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_in_South_Africa" title="2003 in South Africa">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_in_South_Africa" title="2004 in South Africa">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_South_Africa" title="2005 in South Africa">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_South_Africa" title="2006 in South Africa">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_South_Africa" title="2007 in South Africa">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_in_South_Africa" title="2008 in South Africa">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_in_South_Africa" title="2009 in South Africa">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_in_South_Africa" title="2010 in South Africa">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_in_South_Africa" title="2011 in South Africa">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_in_South_Africa" title="2012 in South Africa">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_in_South_Africa" title="2013 in South Africa">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_in_South_Africa" title="2014 in South Africa">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_in_South_Africa" title="2015 in South Africa">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_South_Africa" title="2016 in South Africa">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_in_South_Africa" title="2017 in South Africa">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_in_South_Africa" title="2018 in South Africa">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_South_Africa" title="2019 in South Africa">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_South_Africa" title="2020 in South Africa">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_South_Africa" title="2021 in South Africa">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_South_Africa" title="2022 in South Africa">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_South_Africa" title="2023 in South Africa">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_South_Africa" title="2024 in South Africa">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_in_South_Africa" title="2025 in South Africa">2025</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Africa" title="Template:History of Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Africa" title="Template talk:History of Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Benin" title="History of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Botswana" title="History of Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Burkina_Faso" title="History of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Burundi" title="History of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cameroon" title="History of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cape_Verde" title="History of Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_African_Republic" title="History of the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chad" title="History of Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Comoros" title="History of the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Djibouti" title="History of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Equatorial_Guinea" title="History of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eritrea" title="History of Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eswatini" title="History of Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ethiopia" title="History of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gabon" title="History of Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ghana" title="History of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea" title="History of Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ivory_Coast" title="History of Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya" title="History of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lesotho" title="History of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya" title="History of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madagascar" title="History of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malawi" title="History of Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mali" title="History of Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mauritania" title="History of Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mauritius" title="History of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mozambique" title="History of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Namibia" title="History of Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Niger" title="History of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sierra_Leone" title="History of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Sudan" title="History of South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sudan" title="History of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tanzania" title="History of Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Togo" title="History of Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tunisia" title="History of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uganda" title="History of Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zambia" title="History of Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zimbabwe" title="History of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somaliland" title="History of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Canary_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ceuta">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Melilla" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Melilla">Melilla</a>  (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeira</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mayotte" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_R%C3%A9union" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Réunion">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Helena" title="History of Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ascension_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="History of Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Sahara" title="History of Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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