CINXE.COM

<!doctype html> <html> <head> <title>Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method , American Journal of Energy Engineering, Science Publishing Group</title> <meta name="description" content="Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2</sub>/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. "> <meta name="Keywords" content="<i>Bauhinia variegata</i>, Bioenergy, Oils, <i>Pachira glabra</i>, Seed Cake"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/js/bootstrap/css/bootstrap.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <meta name="dc.title" content="Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.</i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method "> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe"><meta name="dc.creator" content="Julius Kewir Tangka"><meta name="dc.creator" content="Brice Martial Kamdem"><meta name="dc.creator" content="Kunmi Joshua Abioye"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Research Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="American Journal of Energy Engineering 2024, Volume 12, Page 53"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-09-20"> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Science Publishing Group"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="service@sciencepublishinggroup.com"> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/pdf"> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"> <meta name="dc.description" content="Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2</sub>/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. "> <meta name="dc.subject" content="<i>Bauhinia variegata</i>"><meta name="dc.subject" content="Bioenergy"><meta name="dc.subject" content="Oils"><meta name="dc.subject" content="<i>Pachira glabra</i>"><meta name="dc.subject" content="Seed Cake"> <meta name="prism.issn" content="2329-163X"> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="American Journal of Energy Engineering"> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-09-20"> <meta name="prism.volume" content="12"> <meta name="prism.number" content="3"> <meta name="prism.section" content="Research Article"> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="53"> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="61"> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="service@sciencepublishinggroup.com"> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://www.sciencepg.com/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2329-163X"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="American Journal of Energy Engineering"> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Am. J. Energy Eng."> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Science Publishing Group"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.</i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method "> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/09"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/09/20"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="12"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="3"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="53"> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="61"> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research Article"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""> <meta name="citation_language" content="En"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Julius Kewir Tangka"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Brice Martial Kamdem"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure, Université du Québec, Montréal, Canada"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Kunmi Joshua Abioye"> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="doi:10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta name="citation_id" content="1681166"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="http://article.sciencepg.com/pdf/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Su, C.-H., Nguyen, H. C., Pham, U. K., Nguyen, M. L., and Juan, H. Y., 2018. Biodiesel Production from a Novel Nonedible Feedstock, Soursop (Annona muricata L.) Seed Oil. Energies, vol. 11, 2562, https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Lin, J. J., Chen, Y. W., 2017. Production of biodiesel by transesterification of Jatropha oil with microwave heating. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 75, 43–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034"><meta name="citation_reference" content="GVC, (Global Village Cameroon), 2011. Etude environnementale Stratégique des Impacts de la Production et de la Commercialisation des Biocarburants au Cameroun. Rapport final. Organisation Non Gouvernementale Pour la Protection de L’environnement et le Développement durable Agrément N° 000158/A//MINATD /DAP/SDP/ONG, B. P. 3158 Yaoundé, 74."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Govindhan, P., Tamilarasan, R., Kumar, M. D., 2017. Extraction of bio-oil from nonedible urban waste source using Bauhinia variegata seeds, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 39: 1 8, 1906-1912, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Sarkar, N., Chakraborty, D., Dutta, R., Agrahari, P., Bharathi, S. D., Singh, A. A., Jacob, S., 2021. A comprehensive review on oilseed cakes and their potential as a feedstock for integrated biorefinery. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics, 4(3): 376-387, https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Mateos-Aparicio, I., Matias, A., 2019. Food industry processing by-products in foods. In The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness, 1st ed.; Galanakis, C., Ed.; Elsevier Inc.: London, UK, 239–281, https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Ebeneezar, S., Linga, P. D., Tejpal, C. S., Jeena, N. S., Summaya, R., Chandrasekar, S., Sayooj, P., Vijayagopal, P., 2021. Nutritional evaluation, bioconversion performance and phylogenetic assessment of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, Linn. 1758) larvae valorized from food waste. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 23, 101783, 12p, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Ferronato, N., Torretta, V., 2019. Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16(6), 1060. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Kumar, S., Kushwaha, R., Verma, M. L., 2020. Recovery and utilization of bioactives from food processing waste. In Biotechnological Production of Bioactive Compounds, 1st ed.; Verma, M. L., Chandel, A. K., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 37–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Goga, G., Chauhan, B. S., Mahla, S. K., Cho, H. M., Dhir, A., Lim, H. C., 2018. Properties and characteristics of various materials used as biofuels: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings 5, 28438–28445, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Singh, K. L., Singh, D. K., Singh, V. K., 2016. Multidimensional Uses of Medicinal Plant Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.). American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics, (4)(02), 058-072, ISSN 2321–2748."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Nariyal, V., Sharma, P., 2017. Kanchnar (Bauhinia Variegata) As A Medicinal Herb: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Advanced. Research (IJAR), 5(9), 587-591, https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Khare, P., Kishore, K., Sharma, D. K., 2018. Historical aspects, Medicinal uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological review of Bauhinia variegata. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology; 4(5) : 546–562, https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Pinto, L. S., Neto, M. A., Bacarin, M. A., Castellón, R. R., Gadelha, T. S., Gadelha, C. A., Cavada, B. S., 2005. Caracterização química e bioquímica de sementes de Bauhinia variegata L. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, v. 9, n. 3, 385-390."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Nde, D. B., Foncha, A. C., 2020. Optimization Methods for the Extraction of Vegetable Oils: A Review. Processes, 8, 209, 21, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Suganya, T., Renganathan, S., 2012. ‘Optimization and kinetic studies on algal oil extraction from marine macroalgae Ulva lactuca. Bioresource Technology, vol. 107, 319–326, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Khan, A. A., Zaidi, S., Qureshi, F., Yusuf, M., Al-Kahtani, A. A., Kamyab, H., Gupta, M., Pandit, B., Gill, H. S., Ibrahim, H., 2023. Response surface optimization and support vector regression modeling of microwave-assisted essential oil extraction from cumin seeds. Industrial Crops and Products, 208, 117895, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014"><meta name="citation_reference" content="AOAC, 2012. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Official Method of Analysis: Washington, DC. USA, 2012."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Thangiah, A S., Anthoney, A T., Laolee, W., 2022. Spectrophotometric determination of iron content in six indigenous green leafy vegetables consumed in muak lek, Thailand. Rasayan Journal Chemistry, 15(1), 197-203, http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Nielsen, S S., 2009. Complexometric determination of Calcium. Food Science Tests Series, 61-67, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Alikord, M., Pirhadi, M., Sadighara, P., 2021. Determination of Iron, Zinc, Manganese and Copper trace elements in traditional and commercial black table olives. Novel techniques in nutrition and food science, 6(1), 4, http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Codex Alimentarius, 2015. Standard for named vegetable oils. CODEX STAN 210-1999. International Food standards, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, 13."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Siraj, S. R., Gitte, B. M., Joshi, S. D., Dharmadhikari, H. M., 2013. Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), ISSN : 2278-0181, Vol. 2 Issue 10, 6."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Makinde, F. M., Adetutu, A. O., Olorunyomi, G. O., 2016. Influence of roasting techniques on chemical composition and physio-chemical properties of Sesame (Sesamum indicum) seed flour and oil. Appl. Trop. Agric., 21, 25−31."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Hoekman, S. K., Broch, A., Robbins, C., Ceniceros, E., Natarajan, M., 2012. Review of biodiesel composition, properties, and specifications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 143–169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Omowaye-Taiwo, O. A., Fagbemi, T. N., Ogunbusola, E. M., Badejo, A. A., 2015. Effect of germination and fermentation on the proximate composition and functional properties of full-fat and defatted Cucumeropsis mannii seed flours. J. Food Sci. Technol., 52, 5257−5263, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Persico, R. S., Nalin, T., Refosco, L. F., Pinto, F., de Souza, C. F. M., dos Santos, B. B., Schwartz, I. V. D., 2019. Bone mineral density assessment in patients with phenylketonuria and its correlation with nutritional parameters. Clinical & Biomedical Research, 39(1): 24-31, https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Gupta, A., Sharma, R., Sharma, S., Singh, B., 2018. Oilseed as potential functional food Ingredient. In Trends & Prospects in Food Technology, Processing and Preservation, 1st ed.; Prodyut Kumar, P., Mahawar, M. K., Abobatta, W., Panja, P., Eds.; Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers: New Delhi, India; 25–58."><meta name="citation_reference" content="Surendra, K. C., Tomberlin, J. K., van Huis, A., Cammack, J. A., Heckmann, L. L., Khanal, K S., 2020. "Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: Evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSF)," Waste Management (Elsevier), vol., no. 117, 58–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Purkayastha, D., Sarkar, S., 2021. Sustainable waste management using black soldier fly larval: a review," International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Wong, C. Y., Aris, M. N. M., Daud, H., Lam, M. K., Yong, C. S., Hasan, H. A., Chong, S., Show, P. L., Hajoeningtijas, O. D., Ho, Y. C., Goh, P. S., Kausarian, H., Pan, G-T., Lim, J. W., 2020. In-Situ Yeast Fermentation to Enhance Bioconversion of Coconut Endosperm Waste into Larval Biomass of Hermetia illucens: Statistical Augmentation of Larval Lipid Content. Sustainability, 12, 1558; 10, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558"><meta name="citation_reference" content="He, S., Lian, W., Liu, X., Xu, W., Wang, W., 2022. Transesterification synthesis of high yield biodiesel from black soldier fly larvae by using the combination of lipase Eversa transform 2.0 and lipase SMG1. Food Science and Technology, Campinas, vol 42, e103221, 9, https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Leonel, N. W. B., Kewir, T. J., Kanouo, B. M. D., Bertholt, S. S. H., Jospin, T. G., 2023. Productivity, Bioconversion Capacity, Protein and Fat Contents of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) Fed with Jatropha Curcas Pressed Cake. American Journal of Energy Engineering, vol. 11, No. 1, 21-28. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Hallare, A. V., Ruiz, P. L., Carino, J. C., 2014. Assessment of Jatropha curcas L. biodiesel seed cake toxicity using the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity (ZFET) test. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int.; 6044-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Raheman, H., Padhee, D., 2016. Bio-electricity Generation using Jatropha Oil Seed Cake. Recent Pat Biotechnol.; 10(1): 79-85. https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Chandra, R., Vijay, V. K., Subbarao, P. M. V., Khura, T. K., 2012. Production of methane from anaerobic digestion of Jatropha and Pongamia oil cakes, Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 93: 148-159, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Primandari, S. R. P., Islam, A. K. M. A., Yaakob, Z., Chakrabarty, S., 2018. Jatropha Curcas L. biomass waste and its utilization. Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy, Intech. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Yu, M., Saga, K., Imou, K., Hasegawa, F., Kaizu, Y., Toza, K., Kato, S., 2016. Solid fuel production from Jatropha oil cake by heat treatment. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food, 9, 15-20, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001"><meta name="citation_reference" content="Figueiredo, M. K-K., Romeiro, G. A., Silva, R. V. S., Pinto, P. A., Damasceno, R. N., Avila, L. A., Franco., A. P., 2011. Pyrolysis Oil from the Fruit and Cake of Jatropha curcas Produced Using a Low Temperature Conversion (LTC) Process: Analysis of a Pyrolysis Oil-Diesel Blend. Energy and Power Engineering, 3(3): 332-338, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="http://article.sciencepg.com/pdf/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Science Publishing Group"> <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.sciencepg.com/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11"> <meta property="og:title" content="Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.</i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method "> <meta property="og:description" content="Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2</sub>/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. "> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/font.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/common.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/selectJournalForm.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/css/all.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/css/problem_feedback.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <script src="/js/jquery-1.11.3.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/clipboard/clipboard.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/common.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/jquery.sticky-sidebar.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/customsize-validate.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/ajax/libs/layer/layer.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/ajax/libs/layer/lang/en.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/journal/css/journal_common.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <script src="/js/layout/decorator_single_journal.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> </head> <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/countUp.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/bootstrap/js/bootstrap.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/mt-tabpage.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/slider.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/jquery.cycle.all.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/journal/js/journal.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/journal/js/article_detail.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/journal/js/journal_article.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <script src="/js/clipboard/clipboard.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/journal/css/journal_article_new.css?v=20241017114704"> <script src="/js/mathjax/mmlConfig.js"></script> <script src="https://polyfill.io/v3/polyfill.min.js?features=es6"></script> <script id="MathJax-script" async src="/js/mathjax/mml-chtml.js"></script>  <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/journal/css/downloadValidation.min.css?v=20241017114704"> <script type="text/javascript" src="/journal/js/downloadValidation.min.js?v=20241017114704"></script> </head> <body> <div class="article_detail_header"> <div class="article_menu"> <div class="content clearfix"> <div class="logo left"> <a href="/" target="_blank"><img src="/img/logo.png"></a> </div> <div class="browse_item left"> <div class="browse_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" class="browse"> Browse<i class="fas fa-bars"></i> </a> </div> <div class="browse_menu"> <div class="content clearfix"> <div class="borwse_left browse_block left"> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/journals/browse-by-subject" target="_blank">Journals By Subject</a></p> <div class="col-sm"> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/11" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-dna"></i> Life Sciences, Agriculture & Food </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/70" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-flask"></i> Chemistry </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/15" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-capsules"></i> Medicine & Health </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/51" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-gem"></i> Materials Science </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/12" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-atom"></i> Mathematics & Physics </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/23" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-desktop-alt"></i> Electrical & Computer Science </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/16" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-globe-americas"></i> Earth, Energy & Environment </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/60" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-digging"></i> Architecture & Civil Engineering </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/19" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-graduation-cap"></i> Education </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/17" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-coins"></i> Economics & Management </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/20" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-male"></i> Humanities & Social Sciences </a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject/18" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-pencil-ruler"></i> Multidisciplinary </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="borwse_middle browse_block left"> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/books" target="_blank">Books</a></p> <div class="col-sm"> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/publish-conference-abstract-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book"></i>Publish Conference Abstract Books</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/upcoming-conference-abstract-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book"></i>Upcoming Conference Abstract Books</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/published-conference-abstract-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book"></i>Published Conference Abstract Books</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/publish-your-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book-open"></i>Publish Your Books</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/upcoming-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book-open"></i>Upcoming Books</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/books/published-books" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-book-open"></i>Published Books</a> </div> </div> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/proceedings" target="_blank">Proceedings</a></p> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/events" target="_blank">Events</a></p> <div class="col-sm"> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/events" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-users"></i>Events</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/events/five-types-of-conference-publications" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-file-edit"></i>Five Types of Conference Publications</a> </div> </div> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/join-the-editorial-board" target="_blank">Join</a></p> <div class="col-sm"> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/join-the-editorial-board" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-friends"></i>Join the Editorial Board</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/become-a-reviewer" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-tie"></i>Become a Reviewer</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="borwse_right browse_block left"> <p class="menu_title"><a href="/information/for-authors" target="_blank">Information</a></p> <div class="col-sm"> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/for-authors" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-edit"></i>For Authors</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/for-reviewers" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-tie"></i>For Reviewers</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/for-editors" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-friends"></i>For Editors</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/for-conference-organizers" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-user-friends"></i>For Conference Organizers</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/for-librarians" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-building"></i>For Librarians</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject" style="margin-top: 20px;"> <a href="/information/article-processing-charges" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-coins"></i>Article Processing Charges</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/special-issues/guidelines" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-compass"></i>Special Issue Guidelines</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/editorial-process" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-file-alt"></i>Editorial Process</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/manuscript-transfers" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-random"></i>Manuscript Transfers</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/peer-review-at-sciencepg" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-file-edit"></i>Peer Review at SciencePG</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/open-access" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-unlock"></i>Open Access</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/copyright-and-license" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-copyright"></i>Copyright and License</a> </div> <div class="menu_subject"> <a href="/information/ethical-guidelines" target="_blank"><i class="fas fa-pen-square"></i>Ethical Guidelines</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="submit_item right"> <a href="/submit-an-article" class="submit" target="_blank">Submit an Article</a> </div> <div class="login_item right"> <div class="login_register"> <a href="https://sso.sciencepg.com/login" class="platform_login" target="_blank"> <i class="fas fa-user-circle"></i>Log in </a> <a href="https://sso.sciencepg.com/register" target="_blank"> Register </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="page_nav_track" id="Back_to_top"> <div class="content"> <nav> <ul> <li> <a href="/" class="tohead">Home</a> </li> <li> <span><i class="fas fa-chevron-right"></i></span> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject" class="tohead">Journals</a> </li> <li> <span><i class="fas fa-chevron-right"></i></span> <a href="/journal/168/home" class="tohead">American Journal of Energy Engineering</a> </li> <li> <span><i class="fas fa-chevron-right"></i></span> <a href="/journal/168/archive" class="tohead">Archive</a> </li> <li> <span><i class="fas fa-chevron-right"></i></span> <a href="/journal/168/archive/1681203" class="tohead">Volume 12, Issue 3</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="content clearfix"> <div class="article_content_left left"> <input type="hidden" id="articleUniqueID" value="j.ajee.20241203.11"> <div class="article_header"> <div class="article_header_top"> Research Article <span>|</span> <a href="/journal/168/open-access" target="_blank"><img src="/img/oa.png" class="oa"></a> <span>|</span> <a href="/journal/168/peer-review-at-sciencepg" style="color: #00599c; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">Peer-Reviewed</a> </div> <h3 class="ArticleTitle">Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.</i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method </h3> <div class="article_author"> <span class="author"> <a href="javascript:;" data-target="#author0" class="AuthorName" >Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe</a><sup>*</sup><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0004-2013-0096" target="_blank"><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"></a>,  <div class="author_item person-info" id="author0" style="display: none;"> <p class="author_name">Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe</p> <p class="Affiliation">Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon</p> <p class="roles">Contributor Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721831"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> <p><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0004-2013-0096" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://orcid.org/0009-0004-2013-0096<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a> </p> </div> </div> </span><span class="author"> <a href="javascript:;" data-target="#author1" class="AuthorName" >Julius Kewir Tangka</a>,  <div class="author_item person-info" id="author1" style="display: none;"> <p class="author_name">Julius Kewir Tangka</p> <p class="Affiliation">Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon</p> <p class="roles">Contributor Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721832"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> </div> </div> </span><span class="author"> <a href="javascript:;" data-target="#author2" class="AuthorName" >Brice Martial Kamdem</a><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4271-513X" target="_blank"><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"></a>,  <div class="author_item person-info" id="author2" style="display: none;"> <p class="author_name">Brice Martial Kamdem</p> <p class="Affiliation">Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure, Université du Québec, Montréal, Canada</p> <p class="roles">Contributor Roles: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721833"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> <p><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4271-513X" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4271-513X<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a> </p> </div> </div> </span><span class="author"> <a href="javascript:;" data-target="#author3" class="AuthorName" >Kunmi Joshua Abioye</a> <div class="author_item person-info" id="author3" style="display: none;"> <p class="author_name">Kunmi Joshua Abioye</p> <p class="Affiliation">Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia</p> <p class="roles">Contributor Roles: Formal Analysis, Validation, Writing – review & editing</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721834"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> </div> </div> </span> </div> <div class="published"> <span>Published in </span> <a href="/journal/168/home" target="_blank"><i>American Journal of Energy Engineering</i></a> (<a href="/journal/168/archive/1681203" target="_blank">Volume 12, Issue 3</a>) </div> <div class="article_time"> <span>Received: </span>7 August 2024     <span>Accepted: </span>2 September 2024     <span>Published: </span>20 September 2024 </div> <div class="vd"> <input type="hidden" id="downloadTotalizationUrl" value="https://w.sciencepublishinggroup.com/"> <span>Views:</span> <span class="spanViews"></span>      <span>Downloads:</span> <span class="spanDownloads"></span> </div> <div class="operation clearfix"> <div class="view_more left"> <a href="javascript:;" onclick="downLoadArticle(10091539, "https:\/\/w.sciencepublishinggroup.com\/", '.spanDownloads', "https:\/\/article.sciencepg.com\/", "pdf\/j.ajee.20241203.11", true)" > <i class="fas fa-file-pdf"></i>Download PDF </a> </div>  <div class="add_ope share_btn left"> <a href="javascript:;" id="toggleButton"> <img src="/img/share_icon.png">Share This Article </a> <div class="share_item toggle-div" id="myDiv"> <div class="s-popup__arrow"></div> <div class="share_list"> <ul> <li> <a id="twitterUrl" target="_blank"><img src="/img/twitter_icon.png">Twitter</a> </li> <li> <a id="linkedInUrl" target="_blank"><img src="/img/LinkedIn_icon.png">Linked In</a> </li> <li> <a id="facebookUrl" target="_blank"><img src="/img/facebook_icon.png">Facebook</a> </li> </ul> <script type="text/javascript"> var twitterUrl = "https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=" + twitterUrlEncode("Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.<\/i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.<\/i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method\r\n"); twitterUrl += "&hashtags=" + twitterUrlEncode("Science Publishing Group"); twitterUrl += "&url=" + twitterUrlEncode(location.origin + "/" + "article\/10.11648\/j.ajee.20241203.11"); var linkedInUrl = "http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&title=" + encodeURIComponent("Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.<\/i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.<\/i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method\r\n"); linkedInUrl += encodeURIComponent("&source=" + location.origin + "&summary=" + getMoreContentShow("Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata<\/i> and <i>Pachira glabra<\/i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm\u00B2\/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2<\/sub>\/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH\/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2<\/sub>\/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ\/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata<\/i> and <i>Pachira glabra<\/i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others.\r\n", 200)) linkedInUrl += "&url=" + encodeURIComponent(location.origin + "/" + "article\/10.11648\/j.ajee.20241203.11"); var facebookUrl = "https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=" + location.origin + "/" + "article\/10.11648\/j.ajee.20241203.11"; </script> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article_body"> <div class="section" id="abstract"> <div class="Abatract">Abstract</div> <p class="AbatractContent">Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2</sub>/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. </p> </div> <div class="article_basic_info"> <table> <tr> <td> <span>Published in</span> </td> <td> <a href="/journal/168/home" target="_blank"><i>American Journal of Energy Engineering</i></a> (<a href="/journal/168/archive/1681203" target="_blank">Volume 12, Issue 3</a>) </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <span>DOI</span> </td> <td> <a href="https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11" target="_blank">10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <span>Page(s)</span> </td> <td>53-61</td> </tr> <tr> <td> <span>Creative Commons</span> </td> <td> <p class="basic_copyright"><img src="/img/copyright_icon2.png"></p> <p>This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (<a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <span>Copyright</span> </td> <td> <p>Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Science Publishing Group</p> </td> </tr> </table> </div> <div class="pre_next_article clearfix"> <div class="pre"> <a href="/article/10.11648/j.ajee.s.2015030401.16"><i class="fas fa-chevron-circle-left"></i><span>Previous article</span></a> </div> <div class="next"> <a href="/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.12"><span>Next article</span><i class="fas fa-chevron-circle-right"></i></a> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="keywords"> <div class="Keywords">Keywords</div> <p class="KeywordsContent"><i>Bauhinia variegata</i>, Bioenergy, Oils, <i>Pachira glabra</i>, Seed Cake</p> </div> <div class="section" id="section1"><div class="Heading1">1. Introduction</div><div class="Text">The depletion of fossil fuel and growing environmental concerns have stimulated the search for alternative fuels that can be derived from renewable sources <div class="references_link" data-target="#references1"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references1"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[1]</td><td>Su, C.-H., Nguyen, H. C., Pham, U. K., Nguyen, M. L., and Juan, H. Y., 2018. Biodiesel Production from a Novel Nonedible Feedstock, Soursop (Annona muricata L.) Seed Oil. Energies, vol. 11, 2562, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[1]</div>. To address this challenge, researchers have focused their efforts on production of biodiesel by using biomass, specifically non-edible seeds <div class="references_link" data-target="#references2"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references2"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[2]</td><td>Lin, J. J., Chen, Y. W., 2017. Production of biodiesel by transesterification of Jatropha oil with microwave heating. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 75, 43–50, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[2]</div>. In this context, thanks to her equator-tropical climate, Cameroon, also known as Africa in miniature, has a diverse variety of oilseeds <div class="references_link" data-target="#references3"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references3"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[3]</td><td>GVC, (Global Village Cameroon), 2011. Etude environnementale Stratégique des Impacts de la Production et de la Commercialisation des Biocarburants au Cameroun. Rapport final. Organisation Non Gouvernementale Pour la Protection de L’environnement et le Développement durable Agrément N° 000158/A//MINATD /DAP/SDP/ONG, B. P. 3158 Yaoundé, 74.</td></tr><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[3, 4]</div>. This oilseed potential can not only create of large-scale oil processing industries but also provide employment opportunities to rural areas and diversify incomes for marginalized groups <div class="references_link" data-target="#references4"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references4"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[6]</td><td>Govindhan, P., Tamilarasan, R., Kumar, M. D., 2017. Extraction of bio-oil from nonedible urban waste source using Bauhinia variegata seeds, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 39: 1 8, 1906-1912, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5, 6]</div>. The extraction of oil from these seeds results into two products: an oily part known as vegetable oil and a solid part called solid residue or cake <div class="references_link" data-target="#references5"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references5"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[7]</td><td>Sarkar, N., Chakraborty, D., Dutta, R., Agrahari, P., Bharathi, S. D., Singh, A. A., Jacob, S., 2021. A comprehensive review on oilseed cakes and their potential as a feedstock for integrated biorefinery. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics, 4(3): 376-387, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[7]</div>. The vegetable oils can be used to produce biodiesel, which can substitute conventional fuels and thus contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases <div class="references_link" data-target="#references6"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references6"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[1]</td><td>Su, C.-H., Nguyen, H. C., Pham, U. K., Nguyen, M. L., and Juan, H. Y., 2018. Biodiesel Production from a Novel Nonedible Feedstock, Soursop (Annona muricata L.) Seed Oil. Energies, vol. 11, 2562, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[1, 5]</div>. On the other hand, oilcake is a solid material generated during the extraction of oil from seeds. It is considered as waste or by-product of little value <div class="references_link" data-target="#references7"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references7"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[7]</td><td>Sarkar, N., Chakraborty, D., Dutta, R., Agrahari, P., Bharathi, S. D., Singh, A. A., Jacob, S., 2021. A comprehensive review on oilseed cakes and their potential as a feedstock for integrated biorefinery. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics, 4(3): 376-387, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[7]</div>. Furthermore, the extraction of oil from oilseeds generates huge amounts of residues in the form of oilcake <div class="references_link" data-target="#references8"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references8"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[7]</td><td>Sarkar, N., Chakraborty, D., Dutta, R., Agrahari, P., Bharathi, S. D., Singh, A. A., Jacob, S., 2021. A comprehensive review on oilseed cakes and their potential as a feedstock for integrated biorefinery. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics, 4(3): 376-387, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[8]</td><td>Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5, 7-8]</div>. For instance, out of 100 wt% of seeds used as biodiesel resources, only 35 wt% are converted into vegetable oil, while the remaining 65 wt% is oilcake, therefore, mismanagement of this waste could result in serious environmental issues in long term <div class="references_link" data-target="#references9"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references9"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[9]</td><td>Mateos-Aparicio, I., Matias, A., 2019. Food industry processing by-products in foods. In The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness, 1st ed.; Galanakis, C., Ed.; Elsevier Inc.: London, UK, 239–281, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5, 9]</div>. It could contribute to greenhouse gas emissions <div class="references_link" data-target="#references10"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references10"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[10]</td><td>Ebeneezar, S., Linga, P. D., Tejpal, C. S., Jeena, N. S., Summaya, R., Chandrasekar, S., Sayooj, P., Vijayagopal, P., 2021. Nutritional evaluation, bioconversion performance and phylogenetic assessment of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, Linn. 1758) larvae valorized from food waste. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 23, 101783, 12p, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[10]</div> and cause unsanitary landfill conditions with several adverse consequences <div class="references_link" data-target="#references11"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references11"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[11]</td><td>Ferronato, N., Torretta, V., 2019. Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16(6), 1060. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[11]</div>. However, these residues contain bioactive compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, organic acids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants among others) that can be utilized in the agri-food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, textile, and energy sectors <div class="references_link" data-target="#references12"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references12"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[8]</td><td>Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[8]</div>. By doing so, one adds more value to these solid residues while reducing the costs and risks associated with their disposal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references13"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references13"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[12]</td><td>Kumar, S., Kushwaha, R., Verma, M. L., 2020. Recovery and utilization of bioactives from food processing waste. In Biotechnological Production of Bioactive Compounds, 1st ed.; Verma, M. L., Chandel, A. K., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 37–68, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[12]</div>.</div><div class="Text">In literatures, many non-edible seeds, such as Neem, Jatropha, Karanja, Palm, and Castor <div class="references_link" data-target="#references14"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references14"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[13]</td><td>Goga, G., Chauhan, B. S., Mahla, S. K., Cho, H. M., Dhir, A., Lim, H. C., 2018. Properties and characteristics of various materials used as biofuels: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings 5, 28438–28445, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[13]</div> have been studied and found to be excellent choices for biodiesel production for engine applications. However, little is known about the seeds of <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq</i>, which are rarely or have not really been studied in Cameroon. These seeds are the raw materials used in this study.</div><div class="Text"><i>Bauhinia variegata</i> (BV) is an evergreen species of Leguminosae (Caesalpinioideae). It is commonly known in English as Orchid Tree, and Kachnar in Hindi <div class="references_link" data-target="#references15"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references15"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[14]</td><td>Singh, K. L., Singh, D. K., Singh, V. K., 2016. Multidimensional Uses of Medicinal Plant Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.). American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics, (4)(02), 058-072, ISSN 2321–2748.</td></tr><tr><td>[15]</td><td>Nariyal, V., Sharma, P., 2017. Kanchnar (Bauhinia Variegata) As A Medicinal Herb: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Advanced. Research (IJAR), 5(9), 587-591, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[14, 15]</div>. This tree has been identified in the western, southwestern, and northwestern regions of Cameroon, and has the potential to adapt to other parts of the country due to its ability to grow on all types of soil with low water requirement <div class="references_link" data-target="#references16"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references16"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div>. Also, BV is highly valued for ornamental purposes because of its beauty <div class="references_link" data-target="#references17"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references17"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> and all parts of the plant are used for medicinal purpose <div class="references_link" data-target="#references18"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references18"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[14]</td><td>Singh, K. L., Singh, D. K., Singh, V. K., 2016. Multidimensional Uses of Medicinal Plant Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.). American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics, (4)(02), 058-072, ISSN 2321–2748.</td></tr><tr><td>[15]</td><td>Nariyal, V., Sharma, P., 2017. Kanchnar (Bauhinia Variegata) As A Medicinal Herb: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Advanced. Research (IJAR), 5(9), 587-591, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[17]</td><td>Khare, P., Kishore, K., Sharma, D. K., 2018. Historical aspects, Medicinal uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological review of Bauhinia variegata. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology; 4(5) : 546–562, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[18]</td><td>Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[14, 15, 17, 18]</div>. In addition, the seeds are good sources of protein, fat <div class="references_link" data-target="#references19"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references19"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[17]</td><td>Khare, P., Kishore, K., Sharma, D. K., 2018. Historical aspects, Medicinal uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological review of Bauhinia variegata. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology; 4(5) : 546–562, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[17]</div>, vitamin A, and minerals <div class="references_link" data-target="#references20"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references20"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[19]</td><td>Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[19]</div>, with a calorific value ranging from 20 - 21 MJ/kg <div class="references_link" data-target="#references21"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references21"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[18]</td><td>Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[19]</td><td>Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21.</td></tr><tr><td>[20]</td><td>Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[18-20]</div>. However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors makes them harmful for animals and humans <div class="references_link" data-target="#references22"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references22"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[21]</td><td>Pinto, L. S., Neto, M. A., Bacarin, M. A., Castellón, R. R., Gadelha, T. S., Gadelha, C. A., Cavada, B. S., 2005. Caracterização química e bioquímica de sementes de Bauhinia variegata L. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, v. 9, n. 3, 385-390.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[21]</div>. On the other hand, <i>Pachira glabra</i> (PG), also known as <i>Bombacopsis glabra</i>, is a tree that belongs to the Malvaceae family, and the Bombacaceae subfamily. This plant adapts well to various soil types and climates and is resistant to both drought and flooding <div class="references_link" data-target="#references23"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references23"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[22]</td><td>Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[22]</div>. In French-speaking countries, it is known as French peanut. In English-speaking countries, it goes by the name Malabar chestnut <div class="references_link" data-target="#references24"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references24"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[22]</td><td>Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706.</td></tr><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[22, 23]</div>. PG is often cultivated in the recovery of degraded areas and as an ornamental plant in gardens and house yards because of its attractive flowers and its seeds <div class="references_link" data-target="#references25"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references25"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[24]</td><td>Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[4, 24].</div> Moreover, their seeds contain 16-22 wt% protein, 40-50 wt% oil, fiber, minerals, vitamins, <div class="references_link" data-target="#references26"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references26"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[22]</td><td>Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706.</td></tr><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[22, 23]</div>, and have a calorific value of 22.57 MJ/kg <div class="references_link" data-target="#references27"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references27"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[4]</div>. However, the presence of anti-nutritional factors makes it difficult to optimally utilize these nutrients in humans <div class="references_link" data-target="#references28"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references28"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div>.</div><div class="Text">Considering the potential of BV and PG seeds, this study aims to contribute to the development of current alternative energy resources that can replace conventional fuels and proposes ways to manage the waste products from extraction cakes. To this end, the oils from different seeds were produced via the Soxhlet extraction process with 99% pure n-hexane as solvent as described in section 2. The oils physicochemical properties were then analyzed according to the standard ISO (International Standard Organization). The cakes generated during the extraction process were analyzed for their proximate and mineral composition using AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) methods, as detailed in section 2. The results of these analyses and the potential of use the obtained products in industrial applications are presented in section 3.</div></div><div class="section" id="section2"><div class="Heading1">2. Materials & Methods</div><div class="Text" id="section2_1"><span class='Heading2'>2.1. Raw Materials and Sample Preparation</span></div><div class="Text">Approximately 1 kg of PG seeds were collected from the town of Djemgheu, while BV seeds (~ 1 kg) were obtained from the campus of the University of Buéa in Cameroon (<a class='a_link' href='javascript:;' data='figure_1'>Figure 1</a>). To remove excess moisture from the seeds, they were dried at 105 °C for 12 hours until they reached a constant weight <div class="references_link" data-target="#references29"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references29"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[25]</td><td>Nde, D. B., Foncha, A. C., 2020. Optimization Methods for the Extraction of Vegetable Oils: A Review. Processes, 8, 209, 21, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[25]</div>. After drying, the seeds were finely ground using a SILVER CREST electric grinder (Model SC-1589). The resulting flour was then stored in dry paper bags to prevent any moisture absorption.</div><div class="Text"> <div class="Figure" id="figure_1"><img src="https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/figure/1681166/1681166_Figure_1.png"><p class="article_figures_download"><a href="https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/figure/1681166/1681166_Figure_1.png"><i class="fas fa-arrow-alt-circle-down"></i>Download: Download full-size image</a></p></div><div class="FigureCaption_SingleLine" id='figure_'1>Figure 1. <i>BV seeds (A) and PG seeds (B).</i></div> </div><div class="Text" id="section2_2"><span class='Heading2'>2.2. Oil Extraction from Seeds</span></div><div class="Text">For the extraction tests, 35 g of sample was used to extract oil using the n-hexane Soxhlet method. The method followed was described by ISO 659 standard method and reproduced by Suganya and Renganathan, <div class="references_link" data-target="#references30"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references30"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[26]</td><td>Suganya, T., Renganathan, S., 2012. ‘Optimization and kinetic studies on algal oil extraction from marine macroalgae Ulva lactuca. Bioresource Technology, vol. 107, 319–326, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[26]</div> and Khan <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references31"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references31"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[27]</td><td>Khan, A. A., Zaidi, S., Qureshi, F., Yusuf, M., Al-Kahtani, A. A., Kamyab, H., Gupta, M., Pandit, B., Gill, H. S., Ibrahim, H., 2023. Response surface optimization and support vector regression modeling of microwave-assisted essential oil extraction from cumin seeds. Industrial Crops and Products, 208, 117895, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[27]</div>. The extraction was carried out at 60 °C for 6.5 and 10 hours for BV and PG respectively. The solvent volume in the flask was set at 200 ml. After the extraction time, the Whatman paper used to pack the sample was removed. To ensure complete distillation of the oil-solvent mixture, a final extraction cycle was performed to bring up the solvent still mixed with the oil in the extraction chamber. Finally, the flask containing the oil was placed in an oven at 100 °C for 12 hours to eliminate any residual solvent. The solid residues, along with the extracted oils, were packaged and stored for later analysis.</div><div class="Text" id="section2_3"><span class='Heading2'>2.3. Chemical Composition of Oils</span></div><div class="Text">The oils obtained from BV and PG were analyzed using international standards ISO to determine their acid value and free fatty acid (FFA) content (ISO 660), iodine value (ISO, 3961), saponification value (ISO 3657), peroxide value (ISO 3960), kinematic viscosity at 40°C (ISO 3104), and higher calorific value (ISO 1716).</div><div class="Text" id="section2_4"><span class='Heading2'>2.4. Characterization of Solid Residues</span></div><div class="Text"><span class='Heading3'>2.4.1. Proximate Analysis of Solid Residues</span></div><div class="Text">The AOAC method was used to determine the proximate composition of oilcake. Moisture content was obtained using method no. 930.15. The Kjeldahl method was employed to determine the crude protein content by multiplying the total nitrogen content by the nitrogen factor 6.25 (method no. 988.05). Crude fiber was analyzed by acid digestion (method no. 958.06). To determine the ash content, the sample was heated at 500 °C for 8 hours as described in method no. 942.05. Lipids were extracted with n-hexane in a Soxhlet extractor. The carbohydrate content was calculated by difference according to Eq. 1, and the total energy value was estimated considering conversion factors of 4 kcal/g for proteins and carbohydrates, and 9 kcal/g for lipids <div class="references_link" data-target="#references32"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references32"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[19]</td><td>Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21.</td></tr><tr><td>[28]</td><td>Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[19, 28]</div>.</div><div class="Text"><div style="text-align: center;"><span content-type="math"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi mathvariant="italic">Carbohydrates</mi><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mfenced separators="|"><mrow><mo>%</mo></mrow></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mn>100</mn><mo>-</mo><mfenced separators="|"><mrow><mi mathvariant="italic">Humidity</mi><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mo>+</mo><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mi mathvariant="italic">Ashes</mi><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mo>+</mo><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mi mathvariant="italic">Lipids</mi><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mo>+</mo><mi mathvariant="normal"> </mi><mi mathvariant="italic">Proteins</mi></mrow></mfenced></math></span><span style="float: right">(1)</span></div></div><div class="Text"><span class='Heading3'>2.4.2. Mineral Analysis of Solid Residues</span></div><div class="Text">Flame spectrophotometry was used to analyze sodium and potassium content, while the photometric method was used to determine phosphorus concentration by AOAC <div class="references_link" data-target="#references33"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references33"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[29]</td><td>AOAC, 2012. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Official Method of Analysis: Washington, DC. USA, 2012.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[29]</div>. Iron and zinc content were determined using UV-visible spectrophotometry following the method outlined by Thangiah <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references34"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references34"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[30]</td><td>Thangiah, A S., Anthoney, A T., Laolee, W., 2022. Spectrophotometric determination of iron content in six indigenous green leafy vegetables consumed in muak lek, Thailand. Rasayan Journal Chemistry, 15(1), 197-203, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[30]</div>. Calcium and magnesium contents were determined through EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetate) complexometry, according the method described by Nielsen <div class="references_link" data-target="#references35"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references35"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[31]</td><td>Nielsen, S S., 2009. Complexometric determination of Calcium. Food Science Tests Series, 61-67, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[31]</div>. Finally, copper content was determined using the method described by Alikord <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references36"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references36"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[32]</td><td>Alikord, M., Pirhadi, M., Sadighara, P., 2021. Determination of Iron, Zinc, Manganese and Copper trace elements in traditional and commercial black table olives. Novel techniques in nutrition and food science, 6(1), 4, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[32]</div>. Mineral content was expressed in mg/100 g dry weight of oilcake.</div><div class="Text" id="section2_5"><span class='Heading2'>2.5. Data Analysis</span></div><div class="Text">Each analysis was performed in three replicates (n = 3) and data were presented as mean values ± standard deviation.</div></div><div class="section" id="section3"><div class="Heading1">3. Results & Discussion</div><div class="Text" id="section3_1"><span class='Heading2'>3.1. Chemical Analysis of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> Seed Oils</span></div><div class="Text">For BV and PG seeds, approximately 23.01 wt% and 47.08 wt% oil by mass were obtained, and the difference at 100% constituting the cake yield respectively. <a class='a_link' href='javascript:;' data='table_1'>Table 1</a> presents the chemical properties of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> seed oil (BVSO) and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seed oil (PGSO) extracted. The free fatty acid contents of BVSO and PGSO in this study are 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt% respectively. For BVSO, this value is lower than what has been reported by Govindhan <div class="references_link" data-target="#references37"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references37"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[20]</td><td>Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[20]</div> (4.75 wt%) and Goga <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references38"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references38"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[13]</td><td>Goga, G., Chauhan, B. S., Mahla, S. K., Cho, H. M., Dhir, A., Lim, H. C., 2018. Properties and characteristics of various materials used as biofuels: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings 5, 28438–28445, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[13]</div> for Jatropha oil (2.7 wt%). On the other hand, these values are closed to that recommended by the Food Codex for cold-pressed virgin oils (2 wt%) <div class="references_link" data-target="#references39"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references39"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[33]</td><td>Codex Alimentarius, 2015. Standard for named vegetable oils. CODEX STAN 210-1999. International Food standards, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, 13.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[33]</div>. However, it remains higher than those observed by Yatish <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references40"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references40"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[18]</td><td>Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[18]</div> (0.7 wt%) and Arain <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references41"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references41"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[19]</td><td>Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[19]</div> (0.6 wt%). For PGSO, it exceeds those reported by Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references42"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references42"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> (2.84 - 5.21 wt%) and Araújo <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references43"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references43"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[24]</td><td>Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[24]</div> (0.25 wt%). The FFA values obtained in this study may be due to seed storage conditions and time.</div><div class="TableCaption_SingleLine" id="table_1">Table 1. <i>Physicochemical properties of BVSO and PGSO.</i></div><div class="article_table"><table frame="hsides" rules="all" cellpadding="0.0" style="width: 100%;"> <tbody> <tr> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>No</p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Properties</p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>B. variegata</i></p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>P. glabra</i></p></th> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>1</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Free Fatty Acid (wt%)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>2.31±0.30</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>13.60±0.20</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>2</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C (mm<sup>2</sup>/s)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>3.24±0.25</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>12.45±0.98</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>3</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Iodine value (g of iodine /100 g)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>17.26±0.18</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>12.37±0.27</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>4</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Saponification value (mg KOH/g)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>207.57±1.98</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>183.03±2.98</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>5</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Peroxide value (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>10</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>8.06±2.02</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>6</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Higher Heating value (MJ/kg)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>40.66±0.06</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>65.08±0.13</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>7</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Impurity content (%)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>2.23±0.22</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>14.87±0.02</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 7.784196612160971%; vertical-align: top"><p>8</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 52.031724272985414%; vertical-align: top"><p>Oleic acid (%)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>9.32±1.20</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 20.09203955742681%; vertical-align: top"><p>54.80±0.80</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div><div class="Text">The respective kinematic viscosities of PGSO and BVSO are 12.45 and 3.24 mm<sup>2</sup>/s. These values are significantly lower than those reported by Govindhan <div class="references_link" data-target="#references44"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references44"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[20]</td><td>Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[20]</div> and Yatish <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references45"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references45"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[18]</td><td>Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[18]</div> for BVSO (26.58 - 32.4 mm<sup>2</sup>/s), by Yasin <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references46"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references46"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[34]</td><td>Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[34]</div> for <i>Anacardium occidentale</i> (13.78 mm<sup>2</sup>/s) and coconut (27.64 mm<sup>2</sup>/s) and by Araújo <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references47"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references47"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[24]</td><td>Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[24]</div> for PGSO (48.63 mm<sup>2</sup>/s), rapeseed (37.0 mm<sup>2</sup>/s) and soybean (32.6 mm<sup>2</sup>/s). Furthermore, the kinematic viscosity of BVSO meets the requirements for the use of oil as biofuel according to ASTM D445 and EN ISO 3104, while PGSO does not <div class="references_link" data-target="#references48"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references48"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[35]</td><td>Siraj, S. R., Gitte, B. M., Joshi, S. D., Dharmadhikari, H. M., 2013. Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), ISSN : 2278-0181, Vol. 2 Issue 10, 6.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[35]</div>. However, both PGSO and BVSO cannot be used directly as biodiesel according to ASTM D 664 (acid value). Consequently, these oils must undergo post-treatment to improve their quality <div class="references_link" data-target="#references49"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references49"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[34]</td><td>Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[34]</div>.</div><div class="Text">The iodine values for BVSO and PGSO are 17.26 and 12.37 g iodine/100 g, respectively. Sharma <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references50"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references50"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> (84.5 g iodine/100 g), Govindhan <div class="references_link" data-target="#references51"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references51"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[20]</td><td>Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[20]</div> (83.7 g iodine/100 g), and Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references52"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references52"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> (8.28 g iodine/100 g) have reported iodine values that is higher than BVSO and slightly lower than PGSO. The values obtained in this study are lower than the values reported by Makinde <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references53"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references53"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[36]</td><td>Makinde, F. M., Adetutu, A. O., Olorunyomi, G. O., 2016. Influence of roasting techniques on chemical composition and physio-chemical properties of Sesame (Sesamum indicum) seed flour and oil. Appl. Trop. Agric., 21, 25−31.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[36]</div> for sesame (106 - 118 g/100 g) and Hoekman <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references54"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references54"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[37]</td><td>Hoekman, S. K., Broch, A., Robbins, C., Ceniceros, E., Natarajan, M., 2012. Review of biodiesel composition, properties, and specifications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 143–169. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[37]</div> for rapeseed (116.1 g/100 g). According to the European Standard <div class="references_link" data-target="#references55"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references55"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[35]</td><td>Siraj, S. R., Gitte, B. M., Joshi, S. D., Dharmadhikari, H. M., 2013. Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), ISSN : 2278-0181, Vol. 2 Issue 10, 6.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[35]</div>, the maximum iodine value of biodiesel should be 120 g I<sub>2</sub>/100 g oil. The values obtained in this work indicate that both oils are excellent fuels for biodiesel production.</div><div class="Text">The saponification values of BVSO and PGSO are 207.57 and 183.03 mg KOH/g oil, respectively. These values are higher than those reported by Sharma <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references56"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references56"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> (191.3 mg KOH/g oil) for BVSO and Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references57"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references57"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> (89.66 mg KOH/g oil) for PGSO, but close to those previously reported by Araújo <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references58"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references58"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[24]</td><td>Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[24]</div> (184.21 mg KOH/g oil) for PGSO and lower than the 248 - 265 mg KOH/g and 230 - 254 mg KOH/g reported for coconut and palm kernel oils <div class="references_link" data-target="#references59"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references59"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[33]</td><td>Codex Alimentarius, 2015. Standard for named vegetable oils. CODEX STAN 210-1999. International Food standards, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, 13.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[33]</div>. In addition, the values obtained indicate the presence of a high proportion of low-molecular-weight triacylglycerols in BVSO and PGSO <div class="references_link" data-target="#references60"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references60"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[19]</td><td>Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[19]</div>. These values obtained comply with the quality requirements of the American standard for a use as biodiesel (ASTM D5558-95).</div><div class="Text">The peroxide values for BVSO and PGSO are 10 and 8.06 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg oil, respectively. These values are higher than 1.9 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg oil reported by Sharma <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references61"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references61"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> for BVSO and lower than 28.56 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg oil reported by Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references62"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references62"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> for PGSO. The values obtained are also lower than 11.21 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg oil reported by Makinde <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references63"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references63"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[36]</td><td>Makinde, F. M., Adetutu, A. O., Olorunyomi, G. O., 2016. Influence of roasting techniques on chemical composition and physio-chemical properties of Sesame (Sesamum indicum) seed flour and oil. Appl. Trop. Agric., 21, 25−31.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[36]</div> for sesame seed oil. The peroxide values obtained comply with Codex Alimentarius <div class="references_link" data-target="#references64"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references64"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[33]</td><td>Codex Alimentarius, 2015. Standard for named vegetable oils. CODEX STAN 210-1999. International Food standards, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, 13.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[33]</div>, which sets a maximum value of 10 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg for refined oils and 15 meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg for crude oils.</div><div class="Text">Finally, the higher heating values (HHV) for BVSO and PGSO were determined to be 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. These values are higher than the values reported by Govindhan <div class="references_link" data-target="#references65"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references65"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[20]</td><td>Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[20]</div> and Yatish <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references66"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references66"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[18]</td><td>Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[18]</div> for BVSO, which ranged from 20.56 to 38.46 MJ/kg. They are also higher than the values reported for crude soybean and Jatropha oils, which were 39.6 MJ/kg and 40 MJ/kg, respectively <div class="references_link" data-target="#references67"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references67"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[34]</td><td>Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[34]</div>. Furthermore, the HHV values obtained in this study are comparatively high than other biofuels <div class="references_link" data-target="#references68"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references68"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[34]</td><td>Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[34]</div>.</div><div class="Text" id="section3_2"><span class='Heading2'>3.2. Proximate Analysis of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> Oilcakes</span></div><div class="Text">Oil extraction from BV and PG non-edible seeds resulted approximately 76.99 wt% and 52.92 wt% oilcake, respectively. The proximate analysis of BV and PG seed cakes is shown in <a class='a_link' href='javascript:;' data='table_2'>Table 2</a>. The solid residues of BV and PG have low moisture content of 9.58 wt% and 8.98 wt%, respectively, which ensures longer storage stability without the need additional drying operations. The values are higher than the 6.7 wt% reported by Sharma <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references69"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references69"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> for the BV sample and the 7.21 wt% reported by Yoca <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references70"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references70"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[4]</div> for the PG sample. The fat content of BV and PG oilcake are 2.89 wt% and 1.50 wt%, respectively. These values are close to those reported by Omowaye-Taiwo <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references71"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references71"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[38]</td><td>Omowaye-Taiwo, O. A., Fagbemi, T. N., Ogunbusola, E. M., Badejo, A. A., 2015. Effect of germination and fermentation on the proximate composition and functional properties of full-fat and defatted Cucumeropsis mannii seed flours. J. Food Sci. Technol., 52, 5257−5263, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[38]</div> (1.56 - 2.57 wt%) for <i>Cucumeropsis mannii</i> seed meal. The protein contents of BV and PG solid residues are 34.79 wt% and 30.41 wt%, respectively. These values are lower than the 41.9 wt% reported for BV seed meal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references72"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references72"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> but higher than the 24.23 wt% and 12.06 wt% reported for PG defatted seed meal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references73"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references73"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> and <i>Pachira aquatica</i> seed <div class="references_link" data-target="#references74"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references74"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[28]</td><td>Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[28]</div>, respectively. Thus, the solid residues of BV and PG can serve as an alternative protein source. BV and PG oilcake have total fiber contents of 10.44 wt% and 15.16 wt%, respectively, which are higher than the 6.9 wt% reported by Sharma <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references75"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references75"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> for BV seed meal and the 9.20 to 10 wt% reported by Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references76"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references76"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> and Yoca <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references77"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references77"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[4]</div> for PG seeds. Therefore, BV and PG seeds are a rich source of total fiber. The carbohydrate contents of BV and PG seed cake are 47.50 wt% and 52.92 wt%, respectively. These values are higher than the 28.4 wt% reported for BV seed meal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references78"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references78"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> and the 21.59 to 40.70 wt% reported by Yoca <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references79"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references79"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[4]</td><td>Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[4]</div> and Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references80"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references80"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> for PG seed meal. The solid residues of BV and PG can therefore be used as good sources of carbohydrates for human and animal nutrition.</div><div class="Text">BV and PG seed cakes have high ash contents of 5.25 wt% and 6.20 wt%. These values are higher than the 4.8 wt% reported for BV seed meal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references81"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references81"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[16]</td><td>Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[16]</div> and the 4.16 wt% reported by Rodrigues <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references82"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references82"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[28]</td><td>Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[28]</div> for <i>Pachira aquatica</i> seed meals.</div><div class="TableCaption_SingleLine" id="table_2">Table 2. <i>Proximate composition of BV and PG seed cakes.</i></div><div class="article_table"><table frame="hsides" rules="all" cellpadding="0.0" style="width: 100%;"> <tbody> <tr> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Parameters</p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p><i>B. variegata</i></p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p><i>P. glabra</i></p></th> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Dry matter (DM) (%)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>90.43±0.12</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>91.02±0.13</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Organic matter (%)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>94.47±0.02</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>92.82±0.02</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Moisture (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>9.58±0.12</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>8.98±0.13</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Ash (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>5.25±0.35</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>6.20±0.28</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Protein (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>34.79±0.32</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>30.41±0.31</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Fat (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>2.89±0.01</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>1.50±0.06</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Total fiber (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>10.44±0.00</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>15.16±0.00</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Total carbohydrates (% DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>47.50±0.08</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>52.92±0.16</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 50.54595989676394%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Total energy value (MJ/kg DM)</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 26.00754417311892%; vertical-align: middle"><p>14.92±0.04</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 23.44649593011713%; vertical-align: middle"><p>14.56±0.06</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div><div class="Text" id="section3_3"><span class='Heading2'>3.3. Mineral Analysis of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> Oilcakes</span></div><div class="Text">This study reveals that BV and PG oilcakes contain a variety of nutritional essential minerals. For the solid residues BV, the most predominant is potassium (6288.85 mg/100 g dry weight (DW)), followed by sodium, calcium, and phosphorus (464.88, 368.50, and 314.80 mg/100 g DW, respectively) (<a class='a_link' href='javascript:;' data='table_3'>Table 3</a>). On the other hand, PG oilcake contains potassium (7925.13 mg/100 g DW) as the main mineral, followed by sodium, copper, and calcium (620.97, 456.45, and 417.50 mg/100 g DW, respectively) (<a class='a_link' href='javascript:;' data='table_3'>Table 3</a>). Interestingly, BV and PG oilcakes provide a better source of potassium than bananas, which are known to be a good source of this mineral. The oilcakes obtained in this study can help to meet the 31% of the Dietary Reference Intake for adult men and women, which is 4,700 mg/day <div class="references_link" data-target="#references83"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references83"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[39]</td><td>Persico, R. S., Nalin, T., Refosco, L. F., Pinto, F., de Souza, C. F. M., dos Santos, B. B., Schwartz, I. V. D., 2019. Bone mineral density assessment in patients with phenylketonuria and its correlation with nutritional parameters. Clinical & Biomedical Research, 39(1): 24-31, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[39]</div>. It is worth noting that Ayodele & Badejo <div class="references_link" data-target="#references84"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references84"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div> found a lower mineral composition in PG seed meals with 20.35 - 32.6 mg/100 g DW potassium, 8.67 - 16.83 mg/100 g DW sodium, 17.21 - 23.84 mg/100 g DW phosphorus, 0.18 - 0.24 mg/100 g DW copper and 17.59 - 23.54 mg/100 g DW calcium compared to this study.</div><div class="Text">The concentration of copper in BV and PG seed cakes (110.85 and 456.45 mg/100 g DW) is higher than the recommended dietary allowance, which is between 0.9 and 2.0 mg/day. High levels of Ca, P, K, and Mg can also reduce blood pressure <div class="references_link" data-target="#references85"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references85"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div>. Furthermore, BV and PG oilcakes contain Zinc concentrations that exceed the recommended dietary intake of 15 mg, making them a good source of this essential trace element <div class="references_link" data-target="#references86"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references86"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[28]</td><td>Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[28]</div>. The Na/K ratio of solid residues is below 1.00, which is beneficial for diets aimed at regulating blood pressure. Additionally, the Ca/P ratio is higher than 1.00, indicating that oilcake could be used to prevent the reduction of bone mineral density in humans <div class="references_link" data-target="#references87"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references87"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[23]</div>. Therefore, BV and PG oilcakes are considered to be a good source of essential mineral elements.</div><div class="TableCaption_SingleLine" id="table_3">Table 3. <i>Macro- and micro-mineral content of BV and PG seeds.</i></div><div class="article_table"><table frame="hsides" rules="all" cellpadding="0.0" style="width: 100%;"> <tbody> <tr> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Parameters</p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p><i>B. variegata</i></p></th> <th class="TableHead" rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: #DAEEF3; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p><i>P. glabra</i></p></th> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 100.0%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Micro-minerals (mg/100g)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Fe</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>3.52±0.05</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>2.66±0.12</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Zn</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>26.07±0.31</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>21.86±0.00</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Cu</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>110.85±0.56</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>456.45±1.42</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 100.0%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Macro-minerals (mg/100g)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>P</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>314.80±0.82</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>314.19±0.48</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Ca</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>368.50±0.71</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>417.50±2.12</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Mg</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>24.20±0.14</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>17.13±0.17</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>K</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>6288.85±1.62</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>7925.13±2.97</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Na</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>464.88±0.02</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>620.97±0.37</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Na/K</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>0.07</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>0.08</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 38.57454834226722%; vertical-align: middle"><p>Ca/P</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.7921381774866%; vertical-align: middle"><p>1.17</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="middle" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 1.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 30.633313480246184%; vertical-align: middle"><p>1.33</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div><div class="Text">However, BV and PG oilcakes show high levels of Zn, which can lead to respiratory system damage, cause stress, and hinder normal growth and maturation <div class="references_link" data-target="#references88"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references88"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[22]</td><td>Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[22]</div>. Moreover, these seeds exhibit anti-nutritional factors that can negatively affect protein digestion (trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors), mineral absorption (lectins, phytates, and oxalates), starch digestion (amylase inhibitors and saponins), as well as the bioavailability of essential minerals<div class="references_link" data-target="#references89"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references89"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[14]</td><td>Singh, K. L., Singh, D. K., Singh, V. K., 2016. Multidimensional Uses of Medicinal Plant Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.). American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics, (4)(02), 058-072, ISSN 2321–2748.</td></tr><tr><td>[21]</td><td>Pinto, L. S., Neto, M. A., Bacarin, M. A., Castellón, R. R., Gadelha, T. S., Gadelha, C. A., Cavada, B. S., 2005. Caracterização química e bioquímica de sementes de Bauhinia variegata L. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, v. 9, n. 3, 385-390.</td></tr><tr><td>[23]</td><td>Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[28]</td><td>Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> [14, 21, 23, 28]</div>. Therefore, the consumption of large quantities of these anti-nutrient-rich meals is toxic for both animals and humans. As a result, it is recommended to use the generated cakes for other purposes, as explained in section 3.4.</div><div class="Text" id="section3_4"><span class='Heading2'>3.4. Energy Applications of Products</span></div><div class="Text"><span class='Heading3'>3.4.1. Energy Applications of the Oils Obtained</span></div><div class="Text">Non-edible oils are most commonly used in industry as a feedstock for biofuel production. BVSO and PGSO have physicochemical properties (iodine value, saponification value and peroxide value) that make them excellent fuels for direct use in engine applications, meeting ASTM D445 and EN ISO 3104 standards (see in section 3.1). However, even if the free fatty acid content and kinematic viscosity do not meet the requirements suggested for biodiesel feedstocks <div class="references_link" data-target="#references90"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references90"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[34]</td><td>Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[34]</div>, their quality can be improved through post-treatment.</div><div class="Text"><span class='Heading3'>3.4.2. Energy Applications of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> Oilcake</span></div><div class="Text">The most conventional practices of using oilcakes are animal or human feed and dumping in landfills <div class="references_link" data-target="#references91"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references91"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[9]</td><td>Mateos-Aparicio, I., Matias, A., 2019. Food industry processing by-products in foods. In The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness, 1st ed.; Galanakis, C., Ed.; Elsevier Inc.: London, UK, 239–281, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[9]</div>. However, using BV and PG seedcake directly as food or feed is not practical due to the presence of anti-nutrient factors, which affect the taste, protein digestibility, and absorption of essential nutrients <div class="references_link" data-target="#references92"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references92"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[8]</td><td>Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[40]</td><td>Gupta, A., Sharma, R., Sharma, S., Singh, B., 2018. Oilseed as potential functional food Ingredient. In Trends & Prospects in Food Technology, Processing and Preservation, 1st ed.; Prodyut Kumar, P., Mahawar, M. K., Abobatta, W., Panja, P., Eds.; Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers: New Delhi, India; 25–58.</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[8, 40]</div>. To use BV and PG oilcake as food, it needs to go through a combination of heat treatment and solvent extraction processes to remove the harmful compounds, which is economically feasible for commercial use <div class="references_link" data-target="#references93"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references93"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>. On the other hand, oilcakes contain organic compounds that can be converted to generate energy for various applications, such as bioconversion into black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), bioelectricity, biogas, and biofuels.</div><div class="Text"><i>Bioconversion into BSFL</i></div><div class="Text">Bioconversion using BSFL is an effective and promising alternative for valorizing BV and PG oilcake, due to its triple application. This bioconversion can produce protein-rich larval biomass at a lower cost, which can replace fish and soybean meal <div class="references_link" data-target="#references94"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references94"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[41]</td><td>Surendra, K. C., Tomberlin, J. K., van Huis, A., Cammack, J. A., Heckmann, L. L., Khanal, K S., 2020. "Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: Evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSF)," Waste Management (Elsevier), vol., no. 117, 58–80, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[41]</div>, but it also provides better compost that is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which is highly beneficial for organic farming <div class="references_link" data-target="#references95"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references95"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[42]</td><td>Purkayastha, D., Sarkar, S., 2021. Sustainable waste management using black soldier fly larval: a review," International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 1–26, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[42]</div>. It can be used to synthesize biodiesel <div class="references_link" data-target="#references96"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references96"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[43]</td><td>Wong, C. Y., Aris, M. N. M., Daud, H., Lam, M. K., Yong, C. S., Hasan, H. A., Chong, S., Show, P. L., Hajoeningtijas, O. D., Ho, Y. C., Goh, P. S., Kausarian, H., Pan, G-T., Lim, J. W., 2020. In-Situ Yeast Fermentation to Enhance Bioconversion of Coconut Endosperm Waste into Larval Biomass of Hermetia illucens: Statistical Augmentation of Larval Lipid Content. Sustainability, 12, 1558; 10, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr><tr><td>[44]</td><td>He, S., Lian, W., Liu, X., Xu, W., Wang, W., 2022. Transesterification synthesis of high yield biodiesel from black soldier fly larvae by using the combination of lipase Eversa transform 2.0 and lipase SMG1. Food Science and Technology, Campinas, vol 42, e103221, 9, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[43, 44]</div>. The study conducted by Leonel <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references97"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references97"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[45]</td><td>Leonel, N. W. B., Kewir, T. J., Kanouo, B. M. D., Bertholt, S. S. H., Jospin, T. G., 2023. Productivity, Bioconversion Capacity, Protein and Fat Contents of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) Fed with Jatropha Curcas Pressed Cake. American Journal of Energy Engineering, vol. 11, No. 1, 21-28. <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[45]</div> used <i>Jatropha curcas</i> oilcake which is typically not used in animal feed due to its toxicity <div class="references_link" data-target="#references98"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references98"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[46]</td><td>Hallare, A. V., Ruiz, P. L., Carino, J. C., 2014. Assessment of Jatropha curcas L. biodiesel seed cake toxicity using the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity (ZFET) test. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int.; 6044-56. <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[46]</div>. However, they fed it to black soldier fly larvae and achieved a high larval survival rate of 92.12% and bioconversion rate of 37.1%. The Jatropha oilcake used in their study had a lower organic matter content (92.86%) compared to BV (94.47%) and similar to PV (92.82%). It also had a crude protein content (22.29%) that was lower than BV (34.79%) and PG (30.41%), and an ash content (7.14%) that was not far from that of BV (5.25%) and PG (6.20%). BV and PG oilcake, although toxic to monogastric animals, can be a suitable feed for bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, which could then be pressed to obtain larval oil for biodiesel production.</div><div class="Text"><i>Bioelectricity</i></div><div class="Text">The valorization of BV and PG oilcake to generate bioelectricity could be a valuable option in rural areas that lack access to electrical infrastructure. Both BV and PG oilcake have a gross calorific value of 14.92 and 14.56 MJ/kg, respectively. A study by Raheman & Padhee <div class="references_link" data-target="#references99"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references99"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[47]</td><td>Raheman, H., Padhee, D., 2016. Bio-electricity Generation using Jatropha Oil Seed Cake. Recent Pat Biotechnol.; 10(1): 79-85. <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[47]</div> used Jatropha oilcake, which has a calorific value of around 18.2 MJ/kg <div class="references_link" data-target="#references100"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references100"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>, to produce briquettes for bioelectricity. This study showed an electricity output of 4.5 kW with consumption ranging from 4-5 kg/hour of Jatropha oilcake briquettes. Given that the calorific value of BV and PG oilcake is similar to that of Jatropha, it could be a viable alternative raw material to produce bioelectricity briquettes.</div><div class="Text"><i>Biogas production</i></div><div class="Text">Another way to add value to BV and PG oilcake is by using them as a substrate for biogas production. The self-decomposition of oilcake in the open air, generates mainly methane, other gases of low proportions, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through the action of various micro-organisms <div class="references_link" data-target="#references101"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references101"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[47]</td><td>Raheman, H., Padhee, D., 2016. Bio-electricity Generation using Jatropha Oil Seed Cake. Recent Pat Biotechnol.; 10(1): 79-85. <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[47]</div>. The proportions of carbohydrates and proteins present in BV and PG oilcakes indicate that they can support anaerobic digestion, resulting a high calorific value in biogas, and a reduction in gaseous emissions like CH<sub>4</sub>, VOCs, H<sub>2</sub>S <div class="references_link" data-target="#references102"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references102"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>. Pongamia oilcake has a gross calorific value of around 14.3 MJ/kg <div class="references_link" data-target="#references103"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references103"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>, similar to that of BV and PG oilcake, and was used in a study by Chandra <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references104"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references104"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[48]</td><td>Chandra, R., Vijay, V. K., Subbarao, P. M. V., Khura, T. K., 2012. Production of methane from anaerobic digestion of Jatropha and Pongamia oil cakes, Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 93: 148-159, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[48]</div>. They observed a gas yield of around 0.703 m<sup>3</sup>/day/kg in Pongamia cake over 30 days of retention time, with an average biogas methane content of 62.5%. Furthermore, biogas production via anaerobic digestion from BV and PG oilcake is great alternative to put oilcake to good use for energy production, and the effluent can be used for organic farming.</div><div class="Text"><i>Thermochemical conversion</i></div><div class="Text">Due to their high organic matter content, thermochemical conversion is an effective way to use BV and PG oilcake. This process involves converting biomass into intermediate products such as liquids, solids, or gases through densification, pyrolysis, and gasification processes <div class="references_link" data-target="#references105"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references105"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[8]</td><td>Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[8]</div>.</div><div class="Text">Densification involves compressing the residues to obtain high-density and calorific value solid products. Given their attractive gross energy value, as with the Jatropha oilcake used in the work of Primandari <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references106"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references106"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[49]</td><td>Primandari, S. R. P., Islam, A. K. M. A., Yaakob, Z., Chakrabarty, S., 2018. Jatropha Curcas L. biomass waste and its utilization. Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy, Intech. <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[49]</div>, the production of BV and PG oilcake briquettes can replace the use of firewood or charcoal, which would generate income and reduce deforestation rates <div class="references_link" data-target="#references107"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references107"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[50]</td><td>Yu, M., Saga, K., Imou, K., Hasegawa, F., Kaizu, Y., Toza, K., Kato, S., 2016. Solid fuel production from Jatropha oil cake by heat treatment. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food, 9, 15-20, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[50]</div>.</div><div class="Text">Pyrolysis, on the other hand, it is a process that uses heat to convert BV and PG oilcake in an inert atmosphere into three distinct products: biochar, bio-oil, and gas <div class="references_link" data-target="#references108"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references108"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>. Like the studies by Figueiredo <i>et al.</i> <div class="references_link" data-target="#references109"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references109"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[51]</td><td>Figueiredo, M. K-K., Romeiro, G. A., Silva, R. V. S., Pinto, P. A., Damasceno, R. N., Avila, L. A., Franco., A. P., 2011. Pyrolysis Oil from the Fruit and Cake of Jatropha curcas Produced Using a Low Temperature Conversion (LTC) Process: Analysis of a Pyrolysis Oil-Diesel Blend. Energy and Power Engineering, 3(3): 332-338, <p class="doi_link"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[51]</div>, pyrolytic oil could be extracted from BV and PG oilcake with satisfactory yields and calorific values as bio-oil. These products could be used as biofuels in boilers, gas turbines, and stationary engines.</div><div class="Text">Gasification is a process that converts 60-90% of the energy contained in biomass into combustible gases. Studies on the conversion of Jatropha hulls (4% ash content with a calorific value of 16 MJ/kg) into synthesis gas have been carried out. These values are similar to those of BV and PG oilcake, indicating the potential of these oilcakes for energy exploitation by gasification. The potential synthesis gas produced could be used to generate electricity <div class="references_link" data-target="#references110"><div class="references_detail" style="display: none;" id="references110"><div class="references"><table class="normal_table"><tbody><tr><td>[5]</td><td>Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></p><div class="view_article"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" target="_blank" class="normal_link">View Article<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>[5]</div>.</div></div><div class="section" id="section4"><div class="Heading1">4. Conclusion</div><div class="Text">The results of the present study indicate that BV and PG seeds have oil yields comparable to several non-edible seeds. The oils from these seeds possess excellent physicochemical properties, making them a promising alternative for biodiesel production. Also, BV and PG seedcakes are rich in nutrients such as fiber, protein, and energy. They offer several advantages as biomass and can be used in bioconversion into BSFL, bioelectricity, biogas and biofuel. Future research may enable to assess the effectiveness of using BV and PG oilcake to produce bioenergy, and to evaluate its impact on pollution and environmental conservation.</div></div><div class="section" id="section5"><div class="Heading1">Abbreviations</div><div class="article_table"><table frame="hsides" rules="all" cellpadding="0.0" style="width: 100%;"> <tbody> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>AOAC</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Association of Official Analytical Chemists</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>BSFL</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Black Soldier Fly Larvae</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>BV</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>Bauhinia Variegata</i></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>BVSO</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>Bauhinia Variegata</i> Seed Oil</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>DW</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Dry Weight</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>EDTA</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Ethylenediaminetetraacetate</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>FFA</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Free Fatty Acid</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>HHV</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Higher Heating Values</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>ISO</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>International Standard Organization</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>PG</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>Pachira Glabra</i></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>PGSO</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p><i>Pachira Glabra</i> Seed Oil</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 17.947190788167557%; vertical-align: top"><p>VOCs</p></td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" valign="top" align="left" style="border-style: solid none solid; border-width: 0.0 0 0.0; font-weight: normal; background-color: white; width: 82.05280921183244%; vertical-align: top"><p>Volatile Organic Compounds</p></td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div></div><div class="section" id="section6"><div class="Heading1">Acknowledgements</div><div class="Text">The authors would like to express their thanks to the Renewable Energy Laboratory of the University of Dschang, with the collaboration of the Laboratory of Soil Science and Chemistry and the Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agronomic Sciences of the same University.</div></div><div class="section" id="section7"><div class="Heading1">Author Contributions</div><div class="Text">Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing</div><div class="Text">Julius Kewir Tangka: Conceptualization, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing</div><div class="Text">Brice Martial Kamdem: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing</div><div class="Text">Kunmi Joshua Abioye: Formal Analysis, Validation, Writing – review & editing</div></div><div class="section" id="section8"><div class="Heading1">Funding</div><div class="Text">This research received no external funding.</div></div><div class="section" id="section9"><div class="Heading1">Data Availability Statement</div><div class="Text">All data generated or analyzed during this study can be available upon request. If needed, you may contact the corresponding author for a soft copy of the data.</div></div><div class="section" id="section10"><div class="Heading1">Conflicts of Interest</div><div class="Text">The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</div></div> <div class="section" id="references"> <div class="Heading1">References</div> <div class="references"> <table class="normal_table"> <tbody> <tr id="ref_1" class="References"> <td>[1] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Su, C.-H., Nguyen, H. C., Pham, U. K., Nguyen, M. L., and Juan, H. Y., 2018. Biodiesel Production from a Novel Nonedible Feedstock, Soursop (Annona muricata L.) Seed Oil. Energies, vol. 11, 2562, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102562 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_2" class="References"> <td>[2] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Lin, J. J., Chen, Y. W., 2017. Production of biodiesel by transesterification of Jatropha oil with microwave heating. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., 75, 43–50, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2017.03.034 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_3" class="References"> <td>[3] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> GVC, (Global Village Cameroon), 2011. Etude environnementale Stratégique des Impacts de la Production et de la Commercialisation des Biocarburants au Cameroun. Rapport final. Organisation Non Gouvernementale Pour la Protection de L’environnement et le Développement durable Agrément N° 000158/A//MINATD /DAP/SDP/ONG, B. P. 3158 Yaoundé, 74. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_4" class="References"> <td>[4] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Yoca, J. E., Ossoko, J. P. L., Okandza, Y., Mboungou, M. D. M., Dzondo-Gadet, M., Tsieri, M. D. M., 2020. Nutritional study of Pachira glabra seeds from the Brazzaville Prefecture in the Republic of Congo. IOSR Journal of Biotechnology and Biochemistry (IOSR-JBB), ISSN: 2455-264X, Volume 6, Issue 3, 31-36, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/264X-0603023136 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_5" class="References"> <td>[5] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Thiagarajan, J., Srividhya, P. K., Rajasakeran, E., 2013. A Review of Thermo-chemical Energy Conversion Process of Non-edible Seed Cakes. Journal of Energy Bioscience, Vol. 4, No. 2, 7- 15, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.5376/jeb.2013.04.0002 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_6" class="References"> <td>[6] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Govindhan, P., Tamilarasan, R., Kumar, M. D., 2017. Extraction of bio-oil from nonedible urban waste source using Bauhinia variegata seeds, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 39: 1 8, 1906-1912, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1384870 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_7" class="References"> <td>[7] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Sarkar, N., Chakraborty, D., Dutta, R., Agrahari, P., Bharathi, S. D., Singh, A. A., Jacob, S., 2021. A comprehensive review on oilseed cakes and their potential as a feedstock for integrated biorefinery. Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Experimental Therapeutics, 4(3): 376-387, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.5455/jabet.2021.d137 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_8" class="References"> <td>[8] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Ancuta, P., Sonia, A., 2020. Oil Press-Cakes and Meals Valorization through Circular Economy Approaches: A Review. Applied Sciences, 10, 7432, 30, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10217432 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_9" class="References"> <td>[9] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Mateos-Aparicio, I., Matias, A., 2019. Food industry processing by-products in foods. In The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness, 1st ed.; Galanakis, C., Ed.; Elsevier Inc.: London, UK, 239–281, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-0-00437-5 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_10" class="References"> <td>[10] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Ebeneezar, S., Linga, P. D., Tejpal, C. S., Jeena, N. S., Summaya, R., Chandrasekar, S., Sayooj, P., Vijayagopal, P., 2021. Nutritional evaluation, bioconversion performance and phylogenetic assessment of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, Linn. 1758) larvae valorized from food waste. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 23, 101783, 12p, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101783 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_11" class="References"> <td>[11] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Ferronato, N., Torretta, V., 2019. Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16(6), 1060. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_12" class="References"> <td>[12] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Kumar, S., Kushwaha, R., Verma, M. L., 2020. Recovery and utilization of bioactives from food processing waste. In Biotechnological Production of Bioactive Compounds, 1st ed.; Verma, M. L., Chandel, A. K., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 37–68, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64323-0.00002-3 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_13" class="References"> <td>[13] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Goga, G., Chauhan, B. S., Mahla, S. K., Cho, H. M., Dhir, A., Lim, H. C., 2018. Properties and characteristics of various materials used as biofuels: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings 5, 28438–28445, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.130 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_14" class="References"> <td>[14] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Singh, K. L., Singh, D. K., Singh, V. K., 2016. Multidimensional Uses of Medicinal Plant Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata Linn.). American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics, (4)(02), 058-072, ISSN 2321–2748. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_15" class="References"> <td>[15] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Nariyal, V., Sharma, P., 2017. Kanchnar (Bauhinia Variegata) As A Medicinal Herb: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Advanced. Research (IJAR), 5(9), 587-591, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/5364 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_16" class="References"> <td>[16] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Sharma, K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Mehta, C. M., 2020. Bauhinia variegata: a comprehensive review on bioactive compounds, health benefits and utilization. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 11, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00472-4 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_17" class="References"> <td>[17] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Khare, P., Kishore, K., Sharma, D. K., 2018. Historical aspects, Medicinal uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological review of Bauhinia variegata. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology; 4(5) : 546–562, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.31024/ajpp.2018.4.5.3 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_18" class="References"> <td>[18] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Yatish, K. V., Lalithamba, H. S., Suresh, R., Hebbar, H. H. R., 2018. Optimization of bauhinia variegata biodiesel production and its performance, combustion and emission study on diesel engine. Renewable Energy, 38, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.124 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_19" class="References"> <td>[19] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Arain, S., Memon, N., Rajput, M. T., Sherazi, S. T. H., Bhanger, M. I., Mahesar, S. A., 2012. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Oil and Seed Residues of Bauhinia variegata and Bauhinia linnaei. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. Vol. 13, No. 1, 16-21. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_20" class="References"> <td>[20] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Govindhan, P., 2018. A Novel Approach For The Production Of Biodiesel From Non Edible Vegetable Oils Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. A Thesis, Faculty Of Science And Humanities, Anna University, CHENNAI 600 025, 133. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_21" class="References"> <td>[21] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Pinto, L. S., Neto, M. A., Bacarin, M. A., Castellón, R. R., Gadelha, T. S., Gadelha, C. A., Cavada, B. S., 2005. Caracterização química e bioquímica de sementes de Bauhinia variegata L. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental, v. 9, n. 3, 385-390. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_22" class="References"> <td>[22] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Oni, P. I, Malomo, O., Adekoyeni, O. O., 2015. Preliminary evaluation of the ecology, economic importance and nutritional potentials of Pachira glabra (Pasq.); a neglected fruit tree in Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, Volume 4, N° 2, 1030-1036, ISSN: 2319-7706. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_23" class="References"> <td>[23] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Ayodele, O., Badejo, A. A., 2022. Effect of Preprocessing Techniques on the Physicochemical Composition, Functional Properties, and Fatty Acid Profile of Malabar Chestnut (Pachira glabra Pasq) Seeds. American Chemical Society Food Science and Technology, 2, 84−91, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.1c00326 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_24" class="References"> <td>[24] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Araújo, F. D. D. S., Cavalcante, A. D. N., Sousa, M. D. D. B., De Moura, C. V. R., Chaves, M. H., Aued-Pimentel, S., Caruso, M. S. F., Tozetto, L. J., Chaves, S. K. M., 2017. Biodiesel Production from Bombacopsis glabra Oil by Methyl Transesterification Method. Energies, 10, 1360, 1–14, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10091360 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_25" class="References"> <td>[25] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Nde, D. B., Foncha, A. C., 2020. Optimization Methods for the Extraction of Vegetable Oils: A Review. Processes, 8, 209, 21, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8020209 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_26" class="References"> <td>[26] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Suganya, T., Renganathan, S., 2012. ‘Optimization and kinetic studies on algal oil extraction from marine macroalgae Ulva lactuca. Bioresource Technology, vol. 107, 319–326, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.045 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_27" class="References"> <td>[27] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Khan, A. A., Zaidi, S., Qureshi, F., Yusuf, M., Al-Kahtani, A. A., Kamyab, H., Gupta, M., Pandit, B., Gill, H. S., Ibrahim, H., 2023. Response surface optimization and support vector regression modeling of microwave-assisted essential oil extraction from cumin seeds. Industrial Crops and Products, 208, 117895, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117895 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_28" class="References"> <td>[28] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Rodrigues, A. P., Pereira, G. A., Tomé, P. H. F., Arruda, H. S., Eberlin, M. N., Pastore, G. M., 2019. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Monguba (Pachira aquatica) Seeds. Food Research International 121, 880–887, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.014 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_29" class="References"> <td>[29] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> AOAC, 2012. Association of Official Analytical Chemist. Official Method of Analysis: Washington, DC. USA, 2012. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_30" class="References"> <td>[30] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Thangiah, A S., Anthoney, A T., Laolee, W., 2022. Spectrophotometric determination of iron content in six indigenous green leafy vegetables consumed in muak lek, Thailand. Rasayan Journal Chemistry, 15(1), 197-203, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2022.1516446 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_31" class="References"> <td>[31] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Nielsen, S S., 2009. Complexometric determination of Calcium. Food Science Tests Series, 61-67, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_8 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_32" class="References"> <td>[32] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Alikord, M., Pirhadi, M., Sadighara, P., 2021. Determination of Iron, Zinc, Manganese and Copper trace elements in traditional and commercial black table olives. Novel techniques in nutrition and food science, 6(1), 4, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.31031/NTNF.2021.06.000630 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_33" class="References"> <td>[33] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Codex Alimentarius, 2015. Standard for named vegetable oils. CODEX STAN 210-1999. International Food standards, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, 13. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_34" class="References"> <td>[34] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Yasin, M. H. M., Ali, M. A., Mamat, R., Yusop, A. F., Ali, M. H., 2019. Physical properties and chemical composition of biofuels. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks, 291–320. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815162-4.00011-2 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_35" class="References"> <td>[35] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Siraj, S. R., Gitte, B. M., Joshi, S. D., Dharmadhikari, H. M., 2013. Characterization of Biodiesel: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), ISSN : 2278-0181, Vol. 2 Issue 10, 6. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_36" class="References"> <td>[36] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Makinde, F. M., Adetutu, A. O., Olorunyomi, G. O., 2016. Influence of roasting techniques on chemical composition and physio-chemical properties of Sesame (Sesamum indicum) seed flour and oil. Appl. Trop. Agric., 21, 25−31. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_37" class="References"> <td>[37] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Hoekman, S. K., Broch, A., Robbins, C., Ceniceros, E., Natarajan, M., 2012. Review of biodiesel composition, properties, and specifications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 143–169. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.143 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_38" class="References"> <td>[38] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Omowaye-Taiwo, O. A., Fagbemi, T. N., Ogunbusola, E. M., Badejo, A. A., 2015. Effect of germination and fermentation on the proximate composition and functional properties of full-fat and defatted Cucumeropsis mannii seed flours. J. Food Sci. Technol., 52, 5257−5263, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-014-1569-2 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_39" class="References"> <td>[39] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Persico, R. S., Nalin, T., Refosco, L. F., Pinto, F., de Souza, C. F. M., dos Santos, B. B., Schwartz, I. V. D., 2019. Bone mineral density assessment in patients with phenylketonuria and its correlation with nutritional parameters. Clinical & Biomedical Research, 39(1): 24-31, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.4322/2357-9730.88599 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_40" class="References"> <td>[40] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Gupta, A., Sharma, R., Sharma, S., Singh, B., 2018. Oilseed as potential functional food Ingredient. In Trends & Prospects in Food Technology, Processing and Preservation, 1st ed.; Prodyut Kumar, P., Mahawar, M. K., Abobatta, W., Panja, P., Eds.; Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers: New Delhi, India; 25–58. </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_41" class="References"> <td>[41] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Surendra, K. C., Tomberlin, J. K., van Huis, A., Cammack, J. A., Heckmann, L. L., Khanal, K S., 2020. "Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: Evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSF)," Waste Management (Elsevier), vol., no. 117, 58–80, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_42" class="References"> <td>[42] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Purkayastha, D., Sarkar, S., 2021. Sustainable waste management using black soldier fly larval: a review," International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 1–26, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_43" class="References"> <td>[43] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Wong, C. Y., Aris, M. N. M., Daud, H., Lam, M. K., Yong, C. S., Hasan, H. A., Chong, S., Show, P. L., Hajoeningtijas, O. D., Ho, Y. C., Goh, P. S., Kausarian, H., Pan, G-T., Lim, J. W., 2020. In-Situ Yeast Fermentation to Enhance Bioconversion of Coconut Endosperm Waste into Larval Biomass of Hermetia illucens: Statistical Augmentation of Larval Lipid Content. Sustainability, 12, 1558; 10, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_44" class="References"> <td>[44] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> He, S., Lian, W., Liu, X., Xu, W., Wang, W., 2022. Transesterification synthesis of high yield biodiesel from black soldier fly larvae by using the combination of lipase Eversa transform 2.0 and lipase SMG1. Food Science and Technology, Campinas, vol 42, e103221, 9, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.103221 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_45" class="References"> <td>[45] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Leonel, N. W. B., Kewir, T. J., Kanouo, B. M. D., Bertholt, S. S. H., Jospin, T. G., 2023. Productivity, Bioconversion Capacity, Protein and Fat Contents of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) Fed with Jatropha Curcas Pressed Cake. American Journal of Energy Engineering, vol. 11, No. 1, 21-28. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20231101.13 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_46" class="References"> <td>[46] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Hallare, A. V., Ruiz, P. L., Carino, J. C., 2014. Assessment of Jatropha curcas L. biodiesel seed cake toxicity using the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity (ZFET) test. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int.; 6044-56. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2539-y <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_47" class="References"> <td>[47] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Raheman, H., Padhee, D., 2016. Bio-electricity Generation using Jatropha Oil Seed Cake. Recent Pat Biotechnol.; 10(1): 79-85. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208310666160830162304 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_48" class="References"> <td>[48] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Chandra, R., Vijay, V. K., Subbarao, P. M. V., Khura, T. K., 2012. Production of methane from anaerobic digestion of Jatropha and Pongamia oil cakes, Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 93: 148-159, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.049 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_49" class="References"> <td>[49] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Primandari, S. R. P., Islam, A. K. M. A., Yaakob, Z., Chakrabarty, S., 2018. Jatropha Curcas L. biomass waste and its utilization. Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy, Intech. <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72803 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_50" class="References"> <td>[50] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Yu, M., Saga, K., Imou, K., Hasegawa, F., Kaizu, Y., Toza, K., Kato, S., 2016. Solid fuel production from Jatropha oil cake by heat treatment. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food, 9, 15-20, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eaef.2015.08.001 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr id="ref_51" class="References"> <td>[51] </td> <td style="word-break: break-word;"> Figueiredo, M. K-K., Romeiro, G. A., Silva, R. V. S., Pinto, P. A., Damasceno, R. N., Avila, L. A., Franco., A. P., 2011. Pyrolysis Oil from the Fruit and Cake of Jatropha curcas Produced Using a Low Temperature Conversion (LTC) Process: Analysis of a Pyrolysis Oil-Diesel Blend. Energy and Power Engineering, 3(3): 332-338, <p class="doi_link"> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041" class="normal_link" target="_blank"> http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/epe.2011.33041 <i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i> </a> </p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="cite_this_article" style="margin-bottom: 20px;"> <div class="Heading1">Cite This Article</div> <div class="cite_article"> <div class="mt-tabpage" js-tab="2"> <div class="mt-tabpage-title"> <a class="mt-tabpage-item mt-tabpage-item-cur">Plain Text</a> <a class="mt-tabpage-item">BibTeX</a> <a class="mt-tabpage-item">RIS</a> </div> <div class="mt-tabpage-count"> <ul class="mt-tabpage-cont__wrap"> <li class="mt-tabpage-item"> <div class="tab_div"> <div class="cite_type"> <p class="cite_type_item">APA Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info apa-copy-src">Tebe, U. C. K., Tangka, J. K., Kamdem, B. M., Abioye, K. J. (2024). Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>American Journal of Energy Engineering</i>, <i>12</i>(3), 53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="apa-copy copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".apa-copy-src" href="javascript:;" ><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.apa.txt", '.apa-copy-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> <div class="cite_type"> <p class="cite_type_item">ACS Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info acs-copy-src">Tebe, U. C. K.; Tangka, J. K.; Kamdem, B. M.; Abioye, K. J. Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>Am. J. Energy Eng.</i> <b>2024</b>, <i>12</i>(3), 53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>doi: 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="acs-copy copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".acs-copy-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.acs.txt", '.acs-copy-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> <div class="cite_type"> <p class="cite_type_item">AMA Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info ama-copy-src">Tebe UCK, Tangka JK, Kamdem BM, Abioye KJ. Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>Am J Energy Eng</i>. 2024;12(3):53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>doi: 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="ama-copy copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".ama-copy-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.ama.txt", '.ama-copy-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </div> </li> <li class="mt-tabpage-item"> <div class="tab_div"> <pre _ngcontent-anj-c150="" class="text ris-text bib-copy-src main_content_citetext">@article{10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11, author = {Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe and Julius Kewir Tangka and Brice Martial Kamdem and Kunmi Joshua Abioye}, title = {Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method }, journal = {American Journal of Energy Engineering}, volume = {12}, number = {3}, pages = {53-61}, doi = {10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11}, url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11}, eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11}, abstract = {Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I2/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O2/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. }, year = {2024} } </pre> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="bib-copy copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".bib-copy-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.bib", '.bib-copy-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </li> <li class="mt-tabpage-item"> <div class="tab_div"> <pre _ngcontent-anj-c150="" class="text ris-text ris-copy-src main_content_citetext">TY - JOUR T1 - Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method AU - Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe AU - Julius Kewir Tangka AU - Brice Martial Kamdem AU - Kunmi Joshua Abioye Y1 - 2024/09/20 PY - 2024 N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 DO - 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 T2 - American Journal of Energy Engineering JF - American Journal of Energy Engineering JO - American Journal of Energy Engineering SP - 53 EP - 61 PB - Science Publishing Group SN - 2329-163X UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 AB - Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I2/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O2/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. VL - 12 IS - 3 ER - </pre> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="ris-copy copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".ris-copy-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.ris", '.ris-copy-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="author_information" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 50px;"> <div class="Heading1">Author Information</div> <div class="author_information"> <ul> <li> <div class="author_info"> <p class="article_author_name">Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe</p> <p class="Affiliation">Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721831"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> <p><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0004-2013-0096" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://orcid.org/0009-0004-2013-0096<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a> </p> </div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="author_info"> <p class="article_author_name">Julius Kewir Tangka</p> <p class="Affiliation">Laboratory of Renewable Energies, Department of Rural Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, the University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721832"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> </div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="author_info"> <p class="article_author_name">Brice Martial Kamdem</p> <p class="Affiliation">Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure, Université du Québec, Montréal, Canada</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721833"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> <p><img src="/img/orcid_icon.png"><a href="http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4271-513X" target="_blank" class="normal_link">http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4271-513X<i class="fas fa-external-link-alt"></i></a> </p> </div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="author_info"> <p class="article_author_name">Kunmi Joshua Abioye</p> <p class="Affiliation">Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia</p> <div class="contact_info"> <input type="hidden" class="person-id" value="10721834"> <p><img src="/img/email_icon.png"><a href="javascript:;" class="EmailAddress btn-email" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#emailModalScrollable">Contact Email</a></p> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article_position right"> <div class="article_content_right"> <div class="toggle-close clearfix"><i class="fas fa-times"></i></div> <input type="hidden" id="articleID" value="10091539"> <div class="right_content_btn download_right"> <a href="javascript:;" onclick="downLoadArticle(10091539, "https:\/\/w.sciencepublishinggroup.com\/", '.spanDownloads', "https:\/\/article.sciencepg.com\/", "pdf\/j.ajee.20241203.11", true)" > <i class="fas fa-file-pdf"></i>Download PDF </a> </div> <div id="slider" class="article_tab">  <div class="controls-center"> <div id="slider_controls"> <ul id="slider_nav" class="clearfix"> <li><a href="javascript:;"><i class="fas fa-bars"></i>Sections</a></li> <li><a href="javascript:;"><i class="fas fa-image"></i>Figures</a></li> <li><a href="javascript:;"><i class="fas fa-border-all"></i>Tables</a></li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div class="article_tab_item" style="background-color: white;"> <div id="slideshow"> <div class="slider-item"> <ul class="section_ul"> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="abstract">Abstract</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="keywords">Keywords</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <p class="document_section">Document Sections</p> <ol class="document_section_ol"> <script> var sectionOfBodyList = [{"id":"1","caption":"Introduction","level":1},{"id":"2","caption":"Materials \u0026 Methods","level":1},{"id":"2_1","caption":"2.1. Raw Materials and Sample Preparation","level":2},{"id":"2_2","caption":"2.2. Oil Extraction from Seeds","level":2},{"id":"2_3","caption":"2.3. Chemical Composition of Oils","level":2},{"id":"2_4","caption":"2.4. Characterization of Solid Residues","level":2},{"id":"2_5","caption":"2.5. Data Analysis","level":2},{"id":"3","caption":"Results \u0026 Discussion","level":1},{"id":"3_1","caption":"3.1. Chemical Analysis of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra Seed Oils","level":2},{"id":"3_2","caption":"3.2. Proximate Analysis of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra Oilcakes","level":2},{"id":"3_3","caption":"3.3. Mineral Analysis of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra Oilcakes","level":2},{"id":"3_4","caption":"3.4. Energy Applications of Products","level":2},{"id":"4","caption":"Conclusion","level":1}]; </script> <li class="document_section_nav" data="1"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section1">1. Introduction</a> </li> <li class="document_section_nav" data="2"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section2">2. Materials & Methods</a> </li> <li class="document_section_nav" data="3"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section3">3. Results & Discussion</a> </li> <li class="document_section_nav" data="4"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section4">4. Conclusion</a> </li> </ol> <div id="toggleFullOutline" class="toggle_second_nav" onclick="toggleFullOutline()">Show Full Outline<i class="fas fa-caret-down"></i></div> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section5">Abbreviations</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section6">Acknowledgements</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section7">Author Contributions</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section8">Funding</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section9">Data Availability Statement</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="section10">Conflicts of Interest</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="references">References</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="cite_this_article">Cite This Article</a> </li> <li class="section_nav"> <a href="javascript:;" data="author_information">Author Information</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="slider-item overflow-y"> <ul class="figures_ul"> <li> <p class="figure_number"><a href="javascript:;" data="figure_1">Figure 1</a></p> <a href="javascript:;" data="figure_1"> <img src="https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/figure/1681166/1681166_Figure_1.png"> <p class="figure_description">Figure 1. <i>BV seeds (A) and PG seeds (B)</i><i>.</i></p> </a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="slider-item overflow-y"> <ul class="table_ul"> <li> <p class="table_number"><a href="javascript:;" data="table_1"><i class="fas fa-border-all"></i>Table 1</a></p> <a href="javascript:;" data="table_1"><p class="table_description">Table 1. <i>Physicochemical properties of BVSO and PGSO.</i></p></a> </li> <li> <p class="table_number"><a href="javascript:;" data="table_2"><i class="fas fa-border-all"></i>Table 2</a></p> <a href="javascript:;" data="table_2"><p class="table_description">Table 2. <i>Proximate composition of BV and PG seed cakes.</i></p></a> </li> <li> <p class="table_number"><a href="javascript:;" data="table_3"><i class="fas fa-border-all"></i>Table 3</a></p> <a href="javascript:;" data="table_3"><p class="table_description">Table 3. <i>Macro- and micro-mineral content of BV and PG seeds.</i></p></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </div> <div class="tab-nav-shortcut"> <ul class="clearfix"> <li> <a href="javascript:;" onclick="downLoadArticle(10091539, "https:\/\/w.sciencepublishinggroup.com\/", '.spanDownloads', "https:\/\/article.sciencepg.com\/", "pdf\/j.ajee.20241203.11", true)" > <p class="shortcut_i"><i class="fas fa-bars"></i></p> <p class="shortcut_name">Download</p> </a> </li> <li> <a data-toggle="modal" data-target="#citeModalScrollable"> <p class="shortcut_i"><i class="fas fa-file-alt"></i></p> <p class="shortcut_name">Cite</p> </a> </li> <li> <a class="toggle_nav" data="0"> <p class="shortcut_i"><i class="fas fa-bars"></i></p> <p class="shortcut_name">Sections</p> </a> </li> <li> <a class="toggle_nav" data="1"> <p class="shortcut_i"><i class="fas fa-image"></i></p> <p class="shortcut_name">Figures</p> </a> </li> <li> <a class="toggle_nav" data="2"> <p class="shortcut_i"><i class="fas fa-border-all"></i></p> <p class="shortcut_name">Tables</p> </a> </li> </ul> </div>  <div class="modal fade" id="emailModalScrollable" tabindex="-1" aria-labelledby="exampleModalScrollableTitle" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-dialog-scrollable modal-lg modal-dialog-centered"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h5 class="modal-title">Verification Code</h5> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <div class="code_item"> <input type="hidden" id="visitId" value="c51f3c20-5eac-42d3-8950-a30bfcd8495b"> <input type="text" id="txtCode" name="verificationCode" class="fm_code" maxlength="10" onkeyup="hideError(this, '.pCodeError,.pVerificationCodeError')" placeholder="Please type captcha"> <img src="/captcha/captchaImage?type=math&visitId=c51f3c20-5eac-42d3-8950-a30bfcd8495b" onclick="refreshCaptcha()" id="imgCaptcha" class="vercode"> <a class="renew" onclick="refreshCaptcha()">Renew</a> <p class="error pCodeError" style="display: none;"><i class="fas fa-exclamation-triangle"></i>The captcha is required.</p> <p class="error pVerificationCodeError" style="display: none;"><i class="fas fa-exclamation-triangle"></i>Captcha is not valid.</p> </div> <p class="puple_email"><img src="/img/email_icon.png">Email: <a href="mailto:" class="normal_link"></a></p> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-primary confirm-btn" onclick="getEmailAuthor()">Confirm</button> <button type="button" class="btn btn-secondary" data-dismiss="modal">Cancel</button> </div> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="modal fade" id="citeModalScrollable" tabindex="-1" aria-labelledby="exampleModalScrollableTitle" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-dialog-scrollable modal-lg modal-dialog-centered"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h5 class="modal-title">Cite This Article</h5> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <div class="cite_article"> <div class="mt-tabpage puple_cite" js-tab="1"> <div class="mt-tabpage-title puple_cite"> <a href="javascript:;" class="mt-tabpage-item mt-tabpage-item-cur">Plain Text</a> <a href="javascript:;" class="mt-tabpage-item">BibTeX</a> <a href="javascript:;" class="mt-tabpage-item">RIS</a> </div> <div class="mt-tabpage-count_puple puple_cite"> <ul class="mt-tabpage-cont__wrap"> <li class="mt-tabpage-item puple_cite"> <div class="tab_div"> <div class="cite_type_puple"> <p class="cite_type_item">APA Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info apa-copy-pop-src">Tebe, U. C. K., Tangka, J. K., Kamdem, B. M., Abioye, K. J. (2024). Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>American Journal of Energy Engineering</i>, <i>12</i>(3), 53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="apa-copy-pop copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".apa-copy-pop-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.apa.txt", '.apa-copy-pop-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> <div class="cite_type_puple"> <p class="cite_type_item">ACS Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info acs-copy-pop-src">Tebe, U. C. K.; Tangka, J. K.; Kamdem, B. M.; Abioye, K. J. Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>Am. J. Energy Eng.</i> <b>2024</b>, <i>12</i>(3), 53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>doi: 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="acs-copy-pop copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".acs-copy-pop-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.acs.txt", '.acs-copy-pop-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> <div class="cite_type_puple"> <p class="cite_type_item">AMA Style</p> <p class="cite_type_info ama-copy-pop-src">Tebe UCK, Tangka JK, Kamdem BM, Abioye KJ. Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method. <i>Am J Energy Eng</i>. 2024;12(3):53-61. <a href='https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11'>doi: 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11</a></p> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="ama-copy-pop copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".ama-copy-pop-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.ama.txt", '.ama-copy-pop-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </div> </li> <li class="mt-tabpage-item puple_cite"> <div class="tab_div"> <pre _ngcontent-anj-c150="" class="text ris-text bib-copy-pop-src">@article{10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11, author = {Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe and Julius Kewir Tangka and Brice Martial Kamdem and Kunmi Joshua Abioye}, title = {Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method }, journal = {American Journal of Energy Engineering}, volume = {12}, number = {3}, pages = {53-61}, doi = {10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11}, url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11}, eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11}, abstract = {Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I2/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O2/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. }, year = {2024} } </pre> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="bib-copy-pop copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".bib-copy-pop-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.bib", '.bib-copy-pop-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </li> <li class="mt-tabpage-item puple_cite"> <div class="tab_div"> <pre _ngcontent-anj-c150="" class="text ris-text ris-copy-pop-src">TY - JOUR T1 - Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from Bauhinia variegata L. and Pachira glabra pasq. Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method AU - Ulrich Cabrel Kenmegne Tebe AU - Julius Kewir Tangka AU - Brice Martial Kamdem AU - Kunmi Joshua Abioye Y1 - 2024/09/20 PY - 2024 N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 DO - 10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 T2 - American Journal of Energy Engineering JF - American Journal of Energy Engineering JO - American Journal of Energy Engineering SP - 53 EP - 61 PB - Science Publishing Group SN - 2329-163X UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajee.20241203.11 AB - Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I2/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O2/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of Bauhinia variegata and Pachira glabra showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others. VL - 12 IS - 3 ER - </pre> <p class="cite_operation"> <span><a class="ris-copy-pop copy-el" data-clipboard-action="copy" data-clipboard-target=".ris-copy-pop-src" href="javascript:;"><img src="/img/copy_icon.png">Copy</a></span> <span class="line">|</span> <span><a href="javascript:;" onclick="spgCommon.bindDownloadDataFromEl("10.11648.j.ajee.20241203.11.ris", '.ris-copy-pop-src')"><img src="/img/download_icon.png">Download</a></span> </p> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-secondary" data-dismiss="modal">Cancel</button> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="modal fade" id="downloadValidationModal" tabindex="-1" aria-labelledby="exampleModalScrollableTitle" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-dialog-scrollable modal-lg modal-dialog-centered"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <h5 class="modal-title">Verification Code</h5> <button type="button" class="close" data-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Close"> <span aria-hidden="true">×</span> </button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <div class="code_item"> <input type="hidden" id="downloadValidationVisitId" value="56548e34-1e2b-462b-961e-a0e55c3b20aa"> <input type="hidden" id="downloadValidationUrl" value="https://article.sciencepg.com/"> <input type="hidden" id="downloadValidationWebsite"> <input type="text" id="downloadValidationCode" name="downloadValidationCode" class="fm_code" maxlength="10" onkeyup="hideError(this, '.pCodeError,.pVerificationCodeError')" placeholder="Please type captcha"> <img src="https://article.sciencepg.com/captcha/captchaImage?type=math&visitId=56548e34-1e2b-462b-961e-a0e55c3b20aa" onclick="downloadValidation.fun.refreshCaptcha()" id="downloadValidationCaptcha" class="vercode"> <a class="renew" onclick="downloadValidation.fun.refreshCaptcha()">Renew</a> <p class="error pCodeError" style="display: none;"><i class="fas fa-exclamation-triangle"></i>The captcha is required.</p> <p class="error pVerificationCodeError" style="display: none;"><i class="fas fa-exclamation-triangle"></i>Captcha is not valid.</p> </div> </div> <div class="modal-footer"> <button type="button" class="btn btn-primary confirm-btn" onclick="downloadValidation.fun.downloadArticle()">Confirm</button> <button type="button" class="btn btn-secondary" data-dismiss="modal">Cancel</button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer"> <div class="content clearfix"> <div class="foot_item" style="width:458px;"> <p class="foot_p"><a href="/about-sciencepg" target="_blank">About Us</a></p> <p class="foot_about"><a href="/about-sciencepg" target="_blank">Science Publishing Group (SciencePG) is an Open Access publisher, with more than 300 online, peer-reviewed journals covering a wide range of academic disciplines.</a></p> <p class="foot_more_link"><a href="/about-sciencepg" target="_blank" class="foot_about_more">Learn More About SciencePG <i class="fas fa-angle-right"></i></a></p> <div class="foot_logo"> <a href="/" target="_blank"><img src="/img/foot_logo.png"></a> </div> </div> <div class="foot_item"> <p class="foot_p">Products</p> <div class="foot_link"> <ul> <li> <a href="/journals/browse-by-subject" target="_blank">Journals</a> </li> <li> <a href="/special-issues/ongoing" target="_blank">Special Issues</a> </li> <li> <a href="/proceedings" target="_blank">Proceedings</a> </li> <li> <a href="/books" target="_blank">Books</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.academicevents.org" target="_blank">AcademicEvents</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://scholarprofiles.com/" target="_blank">ScholarProfiles</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="foot_item" style="margin-right: 40px;"> <p class="foot_p">Information</p> <div class="foot_link"> <ul> <li> <a href="/information/for-authors" target="_blank">For Authors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/for-reviewers" target="_blank">For Reviewers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/for-editors" target="_blank">For Editors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/for-conference-organizers" target="_blank">For Conference Organizers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/for-librarians" target="_blank">For Librarians</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/article-processing-charges" target="_blank">Article Processing Charges</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="foot_item" style="margin-top:34px;"> <div class="foot_link"> <ul> <li> <a href="/special-issues/guidelines" target="_blank">Special Issues Guidelines</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/editorial-process" target="_blank">Editorial Process</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/peer-review-at-sciencepg" target="_blank">Peer Review at SciencePG</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/open-access" target="_blank">Open Access</a> </li> <li> <a href="/information/ethical-guidelines" target="_blank">Ethical Guidelines</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="foot_item double_box"> <p class="foot_p">Important Link</p> <div class="foot_link"> <ul> <li> <a href="/submit-an-article" target="_blank">Manuscript Submission</a> </li> <li> <a href="/special-issues/propose" target="_blank">Propose a Special Issue</a> </li> <li> <a href="/join-the-editorial-board" target="_blank">Join the Editorial Board</a> </li> <li> <a href="/become-a-reviewer" target="_blank">Become a Reviewer</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="copyright">Copyright © 2012 -- 2024 Science Publishing Group – All rights reserved.</div> </body> </html>