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class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Barbara Saunders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barbara_Saunders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Lucy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Lucy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>John Lucy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Lucy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Recent scholarship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recent_scholarship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recent scholarship subsection</span> </button> <ul 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href="#Levinson_and_the_Yele_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Levinson and the Yele language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Levinson_and_the_Yele_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anna_Wierzbicka_and_universals_of_visual_semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anna_Wierzbicka_and_universals_of_visual_semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Anna Wierzbicka and universals of visual semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anna_Wierzbicka_and_universals_of_visual_semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pitchford_and_Mullen:_The_developmental_acquisition_of_basic_colour_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pitchford_and_Mullen:_The_developmental_acquisition_of_basic_colour_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Pitchford and Mullen: <i>The developmental acquisition of basic colour terms</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pitchford_and_Mullen:_The_developmental_acquisition_of_basic_colour_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vision_science_and_theoretical_compatibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision_science_and_theoretical_compatibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Vision science and theoretical compatibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision_science_and_theoretical_compatibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probabilistic_inference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probabilistic_inference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Probabilistic inference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probabilistic_inference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonlinguistic_influences_on_color_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonlinguistic_influences_on_color_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Nonlinguistic influences on color memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonlinguistic_influences_on_color_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_significance_across_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_significance_across_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Color significance across cultures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_significance_across_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Question regarding language and thought</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The concept of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">linguistic relativity</a> concerns the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Language_and_thought" title="Language and thought">language and thought</a>, specifically whether language influences thought, and, if so, how. This question has led to research in multiple disciplines—including <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. Among the most debated theories in this area of work is the <a href="/wiki/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapir–Whorf hypothesis">Sapir–Whorf hypothesis</a>. This theory states that the language a person speaks will affect the way that this person thinks.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory varies between two main proposals: that language structure determines how individuals perceive the world and that language structure influences the world view of speakers of a given language but does not determine it.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two formal sides to the color debate, the universalist and the relativist. The universalist side claims that the biology of all human beings is all the same, so the development of <a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">color terminology</a> has absolute universal constraints. The relativist side asserts that the variability of color terms cross-linguistically points to more culture-specific phenomena. Because color exhibits both biological and linguistic aspects, it has become a focus of the study of the relationship between language and thought.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2006 review of the debate <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kay" title="Paul Kay">Paul Kay</a> and Terry Regier concluded that "There are universal constraints on color naming, but at the same time, differences in color naming across languages cause differences in color cognition and/or perception."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The color debate was made popular in large part due to <a href="/wiki/Brent_Berlin" title="Brent Berlin">Brent Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kay" title="Paul Kay">Paul Kay</a>'s 1969 study and their subsequent publishing of <i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Color_Terms:_Their_Universality_and_Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution">Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-name_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-name-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although much on color terminology has been done since Berlin and Kay's study, other research predates it, including the mid-nineteenth century work of <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazarus_Geiger" title="Lazarus Geiger">Lazarus Geiger</a>, which also predates the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, as well as the work of <a href="/wiki/Eric_Lenneberg" title="Eric Lenneberg">Eric Lenneberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a> in 1950s and 1960s. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universalist_view">Universalist view</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Universalist view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_and_Kay">Berlin and Kay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Berlin and Kay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The universalist theory that color cognition is an innate, physiological process rather than a cultural one was introduced in 1969 by <a href="/wiki/Brent_Berlin" title="Brent Berlin">Brent Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kay" title="Paul Kay">Paul Kay</a> in their book <i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Color_Terms:_Their_Universality_and_Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution">Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-name_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-name-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their study was intended to challenge the formerly prevailing theory of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">linguistic relativity</a> set forth by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Benjamin Lee Whorf</a>. Berlin and Kay found universal restrictions on the number of basic color terms (BCTs) that a language can have, and on the ways the language can use these terms. The study included data collected from speakers of twenty different languages from a range of <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a>. Berlin and Kay identified eleven possible basic color categories: white, black, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray. To be considered a basic color category, the term for the color in each language had to meet certain criteria: </p> <ol><li>It is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/monolexemic" class="extiw" title="wikt:monolexemic">monolexemic</a> (for example, red, not red-yellow or yellow-red.)</li> <li>It is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/monomorphemic" class="extiw" title="wikt:monomorphemic">monomorphemic</a> (for example, blue, but not bluish)</li> <li>Its signification is not included in that of any other color term (for example, crimson is a type of red)</li> <li>Its application must not be restricted to a narrow class of objects (for example, blonde is restricted to hair, wood and beer)</li> <li>It must be psychologically <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">salient</a> for <a href="/wiki/Informant_(linguistics)" title="Informant (linguistics)">informants</a> (for example, "the color of grandma's freezer" is not psychologically salient for all speakers)</li></ol> <p>In case of doubt, the following "subsidiary criteria" were implemented: </p> <ol><li>The doubtful form should have the same distributional potential as the previously established basic color terms (for example, objects can be described as reddish but not salmonish)</li> <li>Color terms that are also the name of an object characteristically having that color are suspect, for example, gold, silver and ash</li> <li>Recent foreign loan words may be suspect</li> <li>In cases where lexemic status is difficult to assess, morphological complexity is given some weight as a secondary criterion (for example, red-orange might be questionable)</li></ol> <p>Berlin and Kay also found that, in languages with fewer than the maximum eleven color categories, the colors followed a specific evolutionary pattern. This pattern is as follows: </p> <ol><li>All languages contain terms for black and white.</li> <li>If a language contains three terms, then it contains a term for red.</li> <li>If a language contains four terms, then it contains a term for either green or yellow (but not both).</li> <li>If a language contains five terms, then it contains terms for both green and yellow.</li> <li>If a language contains six terms, then it contains a term for blue.</li> <li>If a language contains seven terms, then it contains a term for brown.</li> <li>If a language contains eight or more terms, then it contains terms for purple, pink, orange or gray.</li></ol> <p>In addition to following this evolutionary pattern absolutely, each of the languages studied also selected virtually identical focal hues for each color category present. For example, the term for "red" in each of the languages corresponded to roughly the same shade in the <a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell color system</a>. Consequently, they posited that the cognition, or perception, of each color category is also universal.<sup id="cite_ref-name_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-name-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256386598">.mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#F0F2F5;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#CCFFCC;color:inherit}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}</style> <div style="margin-left:0"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-archivedtalk mw-collapsed" style="color:inherit; background: transparent; text-align: left; border: 1px solid Silver; margin: 0.2em auto auto; width:100%; clear: both; padding: 1px;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="cot-header-mainspace" style="; font-size:87%; padding:0.2em 0.3em; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:115%;margin:0 4em">List of colors in various languages</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="color:inherit; border: solid 1px Silver; padding: 0.6em; background: var(--background-color-base, #fff);"> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language(s) </th> <th style="background: red; color: white;">Red </th> <th style="background: dodgerblue">Blue </th> <th style="background: gold">Yellow </th> <th style="background: lime">Green </th> <th style="background: black"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Black</span> </th> <th style="background: white">White </th> <th style="background: plum">Purple </th> <th style="background: pink">Pink </th> <th style="background: orange">Orange </th> <th style="background: chocolate">Brown </th> <th style="background: grey">Grey </th> <th style="background: cyan">Cyan </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaans Language">Afrikaans</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rooi </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blou </td> <td style="background: gold">Geel </td> <td style="background: lime">Groen </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Swart</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Wit </td> <td style="background: plum">Purper </td> <td style="background: pink">Pienk </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranje </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Bruin </td> <td style="background: grey">Grys </td> <td style="background: cyan">Siaan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Kuqe </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blu </td> <td style="background: gold">Verdhë </td> <td style="background: lime">Jeshile </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Zezë</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bardhë </td> <td style="background: plum">Purpurt </td> <td style="background: pink">Rozë </td> <td style="background: orange">Portokalli </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Kafe </td> <td style="background: grey">Gri </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cijan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> </td> <td style="background: red"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أحمر</span></span> (Aḥmar) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أزرق</span></span> (Azraq) </td> <td style="background: gold"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أصفر</span></span> (Aṣfar) </td> <td style="background: lime"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">أخضر</span></span> (Akhḍar) </td> <td style="background: black"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">أسود</span></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">(Aswad)</span> </td> <td style="background: white"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أبيض</span></span> (Abyaḍ) </td> <td style="background: plum"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بنفسجي</span></span> (Banafsajī) </td> <td style="background: pink"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">وردي</span></span> (Wardī), <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">زهري</span></span> (Zahrī) </td> <td style="background: orange"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">برتقالي</span></span> (Burtuqālī) </td> <td style="background: chocolate"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بني</span></span> (Bunnī) </td> <td style="background: grey"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">رمادي</span></span> (Ramādī) </td> <td style="background: cyan"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">تركوازي</span></span> (Turkuwāzī) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Կարմիր (Karmir) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Կապույտ (Kapuyt) </td> <td style="background: gold">Դեղին (Deghin) </td> <td style="background: lime">Կանաչ (Kanačʿ) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"> Սեւ (Sew)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Սպիտակ (Spitak) </td> <td style="background: plum">Մանուշակագույն (Manušakaguyn) </td> <td style="background: pink">Վարդագույն (Vardaguyn) </td> <td style="background: orange">Նարնջագույն (Narnǰaguyn) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Դարչնագույն (Darčʿnaguyn) </td> <td style="background: grey">Մոխրագույն (Moxraguyn) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Երկնագույն (Erknaguyn) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a> </td> <td style="background: red">ৰঙা (Ronga) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">নীলা (Nila) </td> <td style="background: gold">হালধীয়া (Halodhia) </td> <td style="background: lime">সেউজীয়া (Xeuzia) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"> ক’লা (Kóla)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">বগা (Boga) </td> <td style="background: plum">বেঙুনীয়া (Bengunia) </td> <td style="background: pink">গুলপীয়া (Gulopia) </td> <td style="background: orange">কমলা (Komola) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">মটীয়া (Motia) </td> <td style="background: grey">ধোঁৱা বৰণীয়া (Dhü͂a boronia) </td> <td style="background: cyan">চিয়ান (Ciyaan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Gorri </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Urdin </td> <td style="background: gold">Hori </td> <td style="background: lime">Berde </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Beltz</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Zuri </td> <td style="background: plum">More </td> <td style="background: pink">Arrosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Laranja </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marroi </td> <td style="background: grey">Gris </td> <td style="background: cyan">Zian </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Чырвоны (Čyrvony) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Сіні (Sini) </td> <td style="background: gold">Жоўты (Žoŭty) </td> <td style="background: lime">Зялёны (Zialiony) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Чорны (Čorny)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Белы (Biely) </td> <td style="background: plum">Фіялетавы (Fijalietavy) </td> <td style="background: pink">Ружовы (Ružovy) </td> <td style="background: orange">Аранжавы (Aranžavy) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Карычневы (Karyčnievy) </td> <td style="background: grey">Шэры (Šery) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Блакітны (Blakitny) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Червен (Červen) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Син (Sin) </td> <td style="background: gold">Жълт (Žãlt) </td> <td style="background: lime">Зелен (Zelen) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Черен (Cheren)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Бял (Bjal) </td> <td style="background: plum">Лилав (Lilav) </td> <td style="background: pink">Розов (Rozov) </td> <td style="background: orange">Оранжев (Oranžev) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Кафяв (Kafjav) </td> <td style="background: grey">Сив (Siv) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Циан (Cian) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Vermell </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blau </td> <td style="background: gold">Groc </td> <td style="background: lime">Verd </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Negre</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Blanc </td> <td style="background: plum">Porpra </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Taronja </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marró </td> <td style="background: grey">Gris </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cian </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cebuano Language">Cebuano</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Pulá </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Pughaw </td> <td style="background: gold">Dalág </td> <td style="background: lime">Lunhaw </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Itóm</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Putî </td> <td style="background: plum">Tapól </td> <td style="background: pink">Limbahon, Puláng Luspad </td> <td style="background: orange">Kahil, Maraag, Pulagáw </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Tabonon </td> <td style="background: grey">Abohon </td> <td style="background: cyan">Sayan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> </td> <td style="background: red">紅色/红色 (Hóngsè) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">藍色/蓝色 (Lánsè) </td> <td style="background: gold">黄色 (Huángsè) </td> <td style="background: lime">綠色/绿色 (Lǜ sè) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">黑色 (Hēisè)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">白色 (Báisè) </td> <td style="background: plum">紫色 (Zǐsè) </td> <td style="background: pink">粉紅色/粉红色 (Fěnhóngsè) </td> <td style="background: orange">橙色 (Chéngsè) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">棕色 or 褐色 (Zōngsè) /（Hè sè） </td> <td style="background: grey">灰色 (Huīsè) </td> <td style="background: cyan">青色 (Qīngsè) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>/<a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Crvena </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Plava </td> <td style="background: gold">Žuta </td> <td style="background: lime">Zelena </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Crna</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bijela </td> <td style="background: plum">Ljubičasta </td> <td style="background: pink">Ružičasta </td> <td style="background: orange">Narančasta </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Smeđa </td> <td style="background: grey">Siva </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cijan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>/<a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Červená </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Modrá </td> <td style="background: gold">Žlutá </td> <td style="background: lime">Zelená </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Černá</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bílá </td> <td style="background: plum">Fialová </td> <td style="background: pink">Růžová </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranžová </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Hnědá </td> <td style="background: grey">Šedá </td> <td style="background: cyan">Azurová </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rød </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blå </td> <td style="background: gold">Gul </td> <td style="background: lime">Grøn </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Sort</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Hvid </td> <td style="background: plum">Lilla </td> <td style="background: pink">Lyserød </td> <td style="background: orange">Orange </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brun </td> <td style="background: grey">Grå </td> <td style="background: cyan">Turkis </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>/<a href="/wiki/Flemish_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Language">Flemish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rood </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blauw </td> <td style="background: gold">Geel </td> <td style="background: lime">Groen </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Zwart</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Wit </td> <td style="background: plum">Paars </td> <td style="background: pink">Roze </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranje </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Bruin </td> <td style="background: grey">Grijs </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyaan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Red </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blue </td> <td style="background: gold">Yellow </td> <td style="background: lime">Green </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Black</span> </td> <td style="background: white">White </td> <td style="background: plum">Purple </td> <td style="background: pink">Pink </td> <td style="background: orange">Orange </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brown </td> <td style="background: grey">Grey </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Punane </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Sinine </td> <td style="background: gold">Kollane </td> <td style="background: lime">Roheline </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Must</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Valge </td> <td style="background: plum">Lilla </td> <td style="background: pink">Roosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranž </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Pruun </td> <td style="background: grey">Hall </td> <td style="background: cyan">Tsüaan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino Language">Filipino</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Pula </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Bughaw </td> <td style="background: gold">Dilaw </td> <td style="background: lime">Luntian </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Itim</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Puti </td> <td style="background: plum">Lila </td> <td style="background: pink">Kulay-Rosas </td> <td style="background: orange">Dalandan </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Kayumanggi </td> <td style="background: grey">Kulay-Abo </td> <td style="background: cyan">Siyano </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Punainen </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Sininen </td> <td style="background: gold">Keltainen </td> <td style="background: lime">Vihreä </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Musta</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Valkoinen </td> <td style="background: plum">Violetti </td> <td style="background: pink">Pinkki </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranssi </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Ruskea </td> <td style="background: grey">Harmaa </td> <td style="background: cyan">Turkoosi </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rouge </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Bleu </td> <td style="background: gold">Jaune </td> <td style="background: lime">Vert </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Noir</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Blanc </td> <td style="background: plum">Violet </td> <td style="background: pink">Rose </td> <td style="background: orange">Orange </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marron or Brun </td> <td style="background: grey">Gris </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">წითელი (Citeli) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">ლურჯი (Lurǯi) </td> <td style="background: gold">ყვითელი (Qviteli) </td> <td style="background: lime">მწვანე (Mc̣vane) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"> შავი (Šavi)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">თეთრი (Tetri) </td> <td style="background: plum">მეწამული (Mec̣amuli) </td> <td style="background: pink">ვარდისფერი (Vardisperi) </td> <td style="background: orange">ნარინჯისფერი (Narinǯisperi) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">ყავისფერი (Qavisperi) </td> <td style="background: grey">ნაცრისფერი (Nacrisperi) </td> <td style="background: cyan">ცისფერი (Cisperi) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rot </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blau </td> <td style="background: gold">Gelb </td> <td style="background: lime">Grün </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Schwarz</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Weiß </td> <td style="background: plum">Lila </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Orange </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Braun </td> <td style="background: grey">Grau </td> <td style="background: cyan">Türkis / Cyan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Κόκκινο (Kókkino) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Μπλε (Ble) </td> <td style="background: gold">Κίτρινο (Kítrino) </td> <td style="background: lime">Πράσινο (Prásino) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Μαύρο (Mávro)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Άσπρο (Áspro) </td> <td style="background: plum">Μοβ (Mov) </td> <td style="background: pink">Ροζ (Roz) </td> <td style="background: orange">Πορτοκαλί (Portokalí) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Καφέ (Kafé) </td> <td style="background: grey">Γκρι (Gkri) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Γαλάζιο (Galázio) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> </td> <td style="background: red">लाल (Laal) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">नीला (Neela) </td> <td style="background: gold">पीला (Peela) </td> <td style="background: lime">हरा (Haraa) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">काला (Kaala))</span> </td> <td style="background: white">सफ़ेद (Safed) </td> <td style="background: plum">बैंगनी (Baingani) </td> <td style="background: pink">गुलाबी (Gulaabi) </td> <td style="background: orange">नारंगी (Naarangi) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">भूरा (Bhoora) </td> <td style="background: grey">धूसर (Dhoosar) </td> <td style="background: cyan">आसमानी (Aasmaani) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> </td> <td style="background: red">אדום (Adom) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">כחול (Kakhol) </td> <td style="background: gold">צהוב (Tsahov) </td> <td style="background: lime">ירוק (Yarok) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">שחור (Shakhor)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">לבן (Lavan) </td> <td style="background: plum">סגול (Sagol) </td> <td style="background: pink">ורוד (Varod) </td> <td style="background: orange">כתום (Katom) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">חום (Khoom) </td> <td style="background: grey">אפור (Afor) </td> <td style="background: cyan">תכלת (Tekhelet) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Piros / Vörös </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Kék </td> <td style="background: gold">Sárga </td> <td style="background: lime">Zöld </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Fekete</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Fehér </td> <td style="background: plum">Lila </td> <td style="background: pink">Rózsaszín </td> <td style="background: orange">Narancs </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Barna </td> <td style="background: grey">Szürke </td> <td style="background: cyan">Türkiz </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rauður </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blár </td> <td style="background: gold">Gulur </td> <td style="background: lime">Grænn </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Svartur</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Hvitur </td> <td style="background: plum">Fjólublár </td> <td style="background: pink">Bleikur </td> <td style="background: orange">Appelsínugulur </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brúnn </td> <td style="background: grey">Grár </td> <td style="background: cyan">Blágrænn </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">merah </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">biru </td> <td style="background: gold">kuning </td> <td style="background: lime">hijau </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">hitam</span> </td> <td style="background: white">putih </td> <td style="background: plum">ungu </td> <td style="background: pink">patma </td> <td style="background: orange">jingga </td> <td style="background: chocolate">cokelat </td> <td style="background: grey">abu-abu </td> <td style="background: cyan">nilangsuka </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Dearg </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Gorm </td> <td style="background: gold">Buí </td> <td style="background: lime">Glas </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Dubh</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bán </td> <td style="background: plum">Corcra </td> <td style="background: pink">Bándearg </td> <td style="background: orange">Flannbhuí / Oráiste </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Donn </td> <td style="background: grey">Liath </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cian </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rosso </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blu </td> <td style="background: gold">Giallo </td> <td style="background: lime">Verde </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Nero</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bianco </td> <td style="background: plum">Viola </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Arancione </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marrone </td> <td style="background: grey">Grigio </td> <td style="background: cyan">Ciano </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> </td> <td style="background: red">赤 (Aka) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">青 (Ao) </td> <td style="background: gold">黄 (Ki) </td> <td style="background: lime">緑 (Midori) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">黒 (Kuro)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">白 (Shiro) </td> <td style="background: plum">紫 (Murasaki) </td> <td style="background: pink">桃色 (Momoiro) / ピンク (Pink) </td> <td style="background: orange">橙色 (Daidaiiro) / オレンジ (Orenji) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">茶色 (Chairo) </td> <td style="background: grey">灰色 (Haiiro) </td> <td style="background: cyan">水色 (Mizuiro) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> </td> <td style="background: red">abang / abrit </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">biru </td> <td style="background: gold">kuning </td> <td style="background: lime">ijo / ijem </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">ireng / cemeng</span> </td> <td style="background: white">putih / pethak </td> <td style="background: plum">ungu / wungu / kembang térông </td> <td style="background: pink">jambon </td> <td style="background: orange">oranye / kuning télô </td> <td style="background: chocolate">coklat / soklat </td> <td style="background: grey">abu-abu </td> <td style="background: cyan">biru muda </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Қызыл (Qyzyl) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Көк (Kók) </td> <td style="background: gold">Сары (Sary) </td> <td style="background: lime">Жасыл (Jasyr) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Қара (Qara)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Ақ (Aq) </td> <td style="background: plum">Күлгін (Kúlgin) </td> <td style="background: pink">Қызғылт (Qyzǵylt) </td> <td style="background: orange">Қызғылт сары (Qyzǵylt sary) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Қоңыр (Qońyr) </td> <td style="background: grey">Сұр (Sur) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Көгілдір (Kógildir) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> </td> <td style="background: red">빨강 (Bbal-Gang) / 빨간색 (Bbal-Gan-Saek) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">파랑 (Pa-Rang) / 파란색 (Pa-Ran-Saek) </td> <td style="background: gold">노랑 (No-Rang) / 노란색 (No-Ran-Saek) </td> <td style="background: lime">초록 (Cho-Rok) / 초록색 (Cho-Rok-Saek) / 녹색 (Nok-Saek) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"> 검정 (Geom-Jeong) / 검은색 (Geom-Eun-Saek)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">하양 (Ha-Yang) / 하얀색 (Ha-Yan-Saek) </td> <td style="background: plum">보라 (Bo-Ra) / 보라색 (Bo-Ra-Saek) </td> <td style="background: pink">분홍 (Bun-Hong) / 분홍색 (Bun-Hong-Saek) </td> <td style="background: orange">주황 (Ju-Hwang) / 주황색 (Ju-Hwang-Saek) / 오렌지 (O-Ren-Ji) / 오렌지색 (O-Ren-Ji-Saek) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">갈색 (Gal-Saek) </td> <td style="background: grey">회색 (Hoe-Saek) </td> <td style="background: cyan">시안 (Si-An) / 시안색 (Si-An-Saek) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Ruber </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Caeruleus </td> <td style="background: gold">Flavus </td> <td style="background: lime">Viridis </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Niger</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Albus </td> <td style="background: plum">Violaceus </td> <td style="background: pink">Roseus </td> <td style="background: orange">Aurantius </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Fuscus </td> <td style="background: grey">Canus </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyaneus </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Sarkans </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Zils </td> <td style="background: gold">Dzeltens </td> <td style="background: lime">Zaļš </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Melns</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Balts </td> <td style="background: plum">Purpursarkana </td> <td style="background: pink">Rozā </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranžs </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brūns </td> <td style="background: grey">Pelēks </td> <td style="background: cyan">Ciāna </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Raudona </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Mėlyna </td> <td style="background: gold">Geltona </td> <td style="background: lime">Žalia </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Juoda</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Balta </td> <td style="background: plum">Violetinė </td> <td style="background: pink">Rožinė </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranžinė </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Ruda </td> <td style="background: grey">Pilka </td> <td style="background: cyan">Žydra </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lojban_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lojban language">Lojban</a> </td> <td style="background: red">xunre </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">blanu </td> <td style="background: gold">pelxu </td> <td style="background: lime">crino </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">xekri</span> </td> <td style="background: white">blabi </td> <td style="background: plum">zirpu </td> <td style="background: pink"> </td> <td style="background: orange">narju </td> <td style="background: chocolate">bunre </td> <td style="background: grey">grusi </td> <td style="background: cyan">cicna </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rød </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blå </td> <td style="background: gold">Gul </td> <td style="background: lime">Grønn </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Svart</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Hvit </td> <td style="background: plum">Lilla </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Oransje </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brun </td> <td style="background: grey">Grå </td> <td style="background: cyan">Turkis </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> </td> <td style="background: red"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">قرمز</span></span> (Ghermez) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">آبی</span></span> (Aabi) </td> <td style="background: gold"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">زرد</span></span> (Zard) </td> <td style="background: lime"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">سبز</span></span> (Sabz) </td> <td style="background: black"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">سیاه (Siah)</span></span></span> </td> <td style="background: white"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">سفید</span></span> (Sefid) </td> <td style="background: plum"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ارغوانی</span></span> (Arghavani) </td> <td style="background: pink"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">صورتی</span></span> (Soorati) </td> <td style="background: orange"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">نارنجی</span></span> (Naranji) </td> <td style="background: chocolate"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">قهوه‌ای</span></span> (Ghahve-ee) </td> <td style="background: grey"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">خاکستری</span></span> (Khakestari) </td> <td style="background: cyan"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">فیروزه‌ای</span></span> (Firuze-ee) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Czerwony </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Niebieski </td> <td style="background: gold">Żółty </td> <td style="background: lime">Zielony </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Czarny</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Biały </td> <td style="background: plum">Fioletowy </td> <td style="background: pink">Różowy </td> <td style="background: orange">Pomarańczowy </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brązowy </td> <td style="background: grey">Szary </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyjan / Turkus </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Vermelho </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Azul </td> <td style="background: gold">Amarelo </td> <td style="background: lime">Verde </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Preto</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Branco </td> <td style="background: plum">Violeta, Roxo, Púrpura or Lilás </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Laranja </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marrom </td> <td style="background: grey">Cinza </td> <td style="background: cyan">Ciano </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> </td> <td style="background: red">ਲਾਲ (lāla) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">ਨੀਲਾ (nīlā) </td> <td style="background: gold">ਪੀਲੇ (pīlē) </td> <td style="background: lime">ਹਰੇ (harē) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">ਕਾਲਾ (kālā)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">ਚਿੱਟੇ (ciṭē) </td> <td style="background: plum">ਜਾਮਨੀ (jāmanī) </td> <td style="background: pink">ਗੁਲਾਬੀ (gulābī) </td> <td style="background: orange">ਸੰਤਰੀ (satarī) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">ਭੂਰਾ (bhūrā) </td> <td style="background: grey">ਸਲੇਟੀ (salēṭī) </td> <td style="background: cyan">ਸਿਆਨ (Si'āna) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Roșu </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Albastru </td> <td style="background: gold">Galben </td> <td style="background: lime">Verde </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Negru</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Alb </td> <td style="background: plum">Violet </td> <td style="background: pink">Roz </td> <td style="background: orange">Portocaliu </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Maro </td> <td style="background: grey">Gri </td> <td style="background: cyan">Bleu </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Красный (Krasnyj) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Синий (Sinij) </td> <td style="background: gold">Жёлтый (Žoltyj) </td> <td style="background: lime">Зелёный (Zeljonyj) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Чёрный (Čornyj)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Белый (Belyj) </td> <td style="background: plum">Фиолетовый (Fioletovyj) </td> <td style="background: pink">Розовый (Rozovyj) </td> <td style="background: orange">Оранжевый (Oranževyj) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Коричневый (Koričnevyj) </td> <td style="background: grey">Серый (Seryj) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Голубой (Goluboj) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rdeč </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Moder </td> <td style="background: gold">Rumen </td> <td style="background: lime">Zelen </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Črn</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Bel </td> <td style="background: plum">Vijoličen </td> <td style="background: pink">Roza </td> <td style="background: orange">Oranžen </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Rjav </td> <td style="background: grey">Siv </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cián </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Rojo </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Azul </td> <td style="background: gold">Amarillo </td> <td style="background: lime">Verde </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Negro</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Blanco </td> <td style="background: plum">Púrpura or Violeta </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa </td> <td style="background: orange">Naranja </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Marrón </td> <td style="background: grey">Gris </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cian </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> </td> <td style="background: red">-ekundu </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">-a bluu, -a buluu </td> <td style="background: gold">-a njano, -a manjano, -a kimanjano </td> <td style="background: lime">-a kijani, -a kibichi </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">-eusi</span> </td> <td style="background: white">-eupe </td> <td style="background: plum">-a zambarau, -a urujuani </td> <td style="background: pink">-a waridi, -a pinki </td> <td style="background: orange">-a machungwa </td> <td style="background: chocolate">-a hudhurangi, -a kahawia </td> <td style="background: grey">-a kijivu </td> <td style="background: cyan">-a samawati </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Röd </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Blå </td> <td style="background: gold">Gul </td> <td style="background: lime">Grön </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Svart</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Vit </td> <td style="background: plum">Violett/lila </td> <td style="background: pink">Rosa/skär </td> <td style="background: orange">Orange </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brun </td> <td style="background: grey">Grå </td> <td style="background: cyan">Cyan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> </td> <td style="background: red">சிவப்பு (Civappu) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">நீலம் (Nīlam) </td> <td style="background: gold">மஞ்சள் (Mañcaḷ) </td> <td style="background: lime">பச்சை (Paccai) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">கருப்பு (Karuppu)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">வெள்ளை (Veḷḷai) </td> <td style="background: plum">ஊதா (Ūtā) </td> <td style="background: pink">இளஞ்சிவப்பு (Iḷañcivappu) </td> <td style="background: orange">செம்மஞ்சள் (Cemmañcaḷ) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">மண்ணிறம் (Maṇṇiṟam) </td> <td style="background: grey">சாம்பல்நிறம் (Cāmpalniṟam) </td> <td style="background: cyan">நீர்மம் (Nīrmam) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> </td> <td style="background: red">แดง </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">น้ำเงิน </td> <td style="background: gold">เหลือง </td> <td style="background: lime">เขียว </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">ดำ</span> </td> <td style="background: white">ขาว </td> <td style="background: plum">ม่วง </td> <td style="background: pink">ชมพู </td> <td style="background: orange">ส้ม </td> <td style="background: chocolate">น้ำตาล </td> <td style="background: grey">เทา </td> <td style="background: cyan">ฟ้า </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Kırmızı </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Mavi </td> <td style="background: gold">Sarı </td> <td style="background: lime">Yeşil </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Siyah</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Beyaz </td> <td style="background: plum">Mor </td> <td style="background: pink">Pembe </td> <td style="background: orange">Turuncu </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Kahve Rengi </td> <td style="background: grey">Gri </td> <td style="background: cyan">Camgöbeği </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Червоний (Červonyj) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Синій (Synij) </td> <td style="background: gold">Жовтий (Žovtyj) </td> <td style="background: lime">Зелений (Zelenyj) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"> Чорний (Čornyj)</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Білий (Bilyj) </td> <td style="background: plum">Фіолетовий (Fioletovyj) </td> <td style="background: pink">Рожевий (Roževyj) </td> <td style="background: orange">Оранжевий (Oranževyj) </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Коричневий (Koryčnevyj) </td> <td style="background: grey">Сірий (Siryj) </td> <td style="background: cyan">Ціаній (Tsianij) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a> </td> <td style="background: red"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">قىزىل</span></span> (qizil) </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">كۆك</span></span> (kök) </td> <td style="background: gold"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">سېرىق</span></span> (sëriq) </td> <td style="background: lime"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">يېشىل</span></span> (yëshil) </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">قارا</span></span> (qara)</span> </td> <td style="background: white"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">ئاق</span></span> (aq) </td> <td style="background: plum"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">زەڭگەر</span></span> (zengger) </td> <td style="background: pink"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">ھال رەڭ</span></span> (hal reng) </td> <td style="background: orange"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">توق سەرىڭ</span></span> (toq seriq) </td> <td style="background: chocolate"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">قۇڭۇر رەڭ</span></span> (qungur reng) </td> <td style="background: grey"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">كۈل رەڭ</span></span> (kül reng) </td> <td style="background: cyan"><span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">سۇس كۆك</span></span> (sus kök) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> </td> <td style="background: red">Coch </td> <td style="background: dodgerblue">Glas </td> <td style="background: gold">Melyn </td> <td style="background: lime">Gwyrdd </td> <td style="background: black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Du</span> </td> <td style="background: white">Gwyn </td> <td style="background: plum">Porffor </td> <td style="background: pink">Pinc </td> <td style="background: orange">Oren </td> <td style="background: chocolate">Brown </td> <td style="background: grey">Llwyd </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_universalist_arguments">Additional universalist arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Additional universalist arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A later study supporting this universal, physiological theory was done by Kessen, Bornstein, and Weiskopf. In this study, sixteen four-month-old infants were presented with lights of different frequencies corresponding to different colors. The lengths of <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> were measured and found to be longer when the infant was presented with successive hues surrounding a certain focal color than with successive focal colors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="If it took them longer to habituate, doesn't that mean they distinguished more between colors centered around one focus than between different foci? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This pattern of response is what is expected when the infants are distinguishing between the focal colors, but not distinguishing between successive hues (i.e. different shades of red are all "red" but "blue" and "red" focal colors are different). This is to say that infants respond to different hues of color in much the same way as adults do, demonstrating the presence of color vision at an age younger than previously expected. Kessen, Bornstein and Weiskopf therefore claim that the ability to perceive the same distinct focal colors is present even in small children.<sup id="cite_ref-bornsteinkessenand_weiskopf_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bornsteinkessenand_weiskopf-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_before_Berlin_and_Kay_(1969)"><span id="Research_before_Berlin_and_Kay_.281969.29"></span>Research before Berlin and Kay (1969)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Research before Berlin and Kay (1969)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gladstone_and_Geiger">Gladstone and Geiger</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gladstone and Geiger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In their paper <i>Language and thought: Which side are you on anyway?</i>, Regier et al. discuss the presence of a universalist perspective on the color debate in the mid-nineteenth century. </p> <blockquote><p>In the mid-nineteenth century, various scholars, notably William Gladstone (1858) and Lazarus Geiger (1880), noted that the speakers of ancient written languages did not name colors as precisely and consistently – as they saw it – as the speakers of modern European languages. They proposed a universal evolutionary sequence in which color vocabulary evolves in tandem with an assumed biological evolution of the color sense<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Gladstone was a Homeric scholar and in his writings, notably <i><a href="/wiki/Studies_on_Homer_and_the_Homeric_Age" title="Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age">Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age</a></i>, expressed that, because there was virtually a lack of color terminology in Homeric Greek literature, Greeks could probably not see color the same way people see color today. </p> <blockquote><p>... that the organ of color and its impressions were but partially developed among the Greeks of the heroic age<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Geiger expanded on Gladstone's ideas by looking at other classic works and hypothesized that man gradually became aware of color over time. He posited the idea that this awareness was connected to the order colors came up in the spectrum, starting with longest wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lenneberg_and_Roberts">Lenneberg and Roberts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lenneberg and Roberts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lenneberg and Roberts presented their paper <i>The Denotata of Color Terms</i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Society_of_America" title="Linguistic Society of America">Linguistic Society of America</a> in 1953. In this paper they reported their findings on color recall in <a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a> speakers. Zuni has one color term for yellow and orange, and Lenneberg and Roberts' study reported that Zuni speakers encountered greater difficulty in color recall for these colors than English speakers, who have available terms to distinguish them. Brown and Lenneberg attributed this effect to the property of codability. </p><p>Linguistic codability is whether naming an object is difficult or not. It also includes a focus on the effect that naming can have on behavior and cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brown_and_Lenneberg">Brown and Lenneberg</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Brown and Lenneberg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brown and Lenneberg published <i>A Study in Language and Cognition</i><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1954, in which they discussed the effect of codability on recognition. In their experiment they used a series of Munsell chips to test color recall and recognition in English speakers. Their findings suggested that the availability of a basic color term in a given language affected the retention of that color in recall testing. Brown and Lenneberg linked their study to Lenneberg and Roberts' 1953 findings on color recall in Zuni speakers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relativist_view">Relativist view</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relativist view"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially, Berlin and Kay's theory received little direct criticism. But in the decades since their 1969 book, a significant scholarly debate has developed surrounding the universalism of color terminology. Many relativists find significant issues with this universalism. Discussed below, Barbara Saunders and John A. Lucy are two scholars who are prominent advocates of the opposing relativist position. Also, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Everett" title="Daniel Everett">Daniel Everett</a>'s work on the <a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a controversial case, found several peculiarities, including what he interpreted as the Pirahã language's lack of color terms in the way those are otherwise defined. Everett's conclusions were met with skepticism from universalists,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who claimed that the linguistic deficit is explained by the lack of need for such concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barbara_Saunders">Barbara Saunders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Barbara Saunders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Saunders&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barbara Saunders (page does not exist)">Barbara Saunders</a> believes that Berlin and Kay's theory of basic color terminology contains several unspoken assumptions and significant flaws in research methodology. Included in these assumptions is an ethnocentric bias based on traditions of Western scientific and philosophical thought. She regards the evolutionary component of Berlin and Kay's theory as "an endorsement of the idea of progress" and references Smart's belief that it is "a Eurocentric narrative that filters everything through the West and its values and exemplifies a universal evolutionary process of modernization." </p><p>With regard to Berlin and Kay's research, Saunders criticizes the translation methods used for the color terms they gathered from the 78 languages they had not studied directly. Like many others, she also questions the effectiveness of using the <a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell color system</a> in the elicitation of color terminology and identification of focal hues. She feels that "use of this chart exemplifies one of the mistakes commonly made by the social sciences: that of taking data-sets as defining a (laboratory) phenomenon which supposedly represents the real world", and entails "taking a picture of the world for the world and then claiming that that picture is the concept". Finally, she takes issue with the anomalous cases of color term use that she believes Berlin, Kay and Merrifield disregarded in their work on the <i>World Color Survey</i> for the purpose of purifying their results.<sup id="cite_ref-saunders95_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saunders95-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Saunders' 1997 article with van Brakel, they criticize the amount of weight given to the study of physiological color perception as support for the universalism of color terminology. They primarily criticize the idea that there is an autonomous neuro-physiological color pathway, citing a lack of concrete evidence for its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Saunders is also bothered by the overall de-contextualization of color terminology and the failure of universalists to address the limitations of their methodologies. She points out that:<sup id="cite_ref-saunders95_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saunders95-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Ordinary colour talk is used in a variety of ways – for flat coloured surfaces, surfaces of natural objects, patches of paintings, transparent objects, shining objects, the sky, flames, illumination, vapours, volumes, films and so on, all of which interact with overall situation, illumination, edges, textures, patternings and distances, making the concept of sameness of colour inherently indeterminate.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Lucy">John Lucy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: John Lucy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_A._Lucy" title="John A. Lucy">John A. Lucy</a>'s criticisms of Berlin and Kay's theory are similar to those of Saunders and other relativists, primarily focusing on shortcomings in research methodologies and the assumptions that underlie them. </p><p>Lucy believes that there are problems with how linguistic analysis has been used to characterize the meanings of color terms across languages. Referential range (what a color term can refer to) and grammatical distribution (how the term can be used) are two dimensions Lucy believes are critical to defining the meaning of a term, both of which "are routinely ignored in research on color terms which focuses primarily on denotational overlap across languages without any consideration of the typical use of the terms or their formal status." He also feels that any attempt to contrast color term systems requires understanding of each individual language and the systems it uses to structure reference. </p><p>Lucy also believes that there is significant bias present in the design of Berlin and Kay's research, due to their English-speaking and Western points of view. He thinks the use of the <a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell color system</a> demonstrates their adherence to the ideas that "speech is about labeling accuracy" and that "Meaning is really about accurate denotation," which he believes "...both derive directly from the folk understandings of English speakers about how their language works." He refers to Conklin's study of <a href="/wiki/Hanun%C3%B3%27o_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanunó'o language">Hanunóo</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a demonstration of what a study might reveal about a language's color term system when such bias is not present. He demonstrates that "an 'adequate knowledge' of the system would never have been produced by restricting the stimuli to color chips and the task of labeling" (original emphasis). </p><p>In summation, he feels that the approach universalists have taken in researching color term universals sets up a procedure that "...guarantees both their discovery and their form," and that, "It does not really even matter whether the researchers involved are open-minded and consciously willing to recognize relativism as a possible outcome—because the universalist conclusion is guaranteed by their methodological assumptions."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_scholarship">Recent scholarship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Recent scholarship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholarship on color vision has proceeded in three principal domains within the last twenty years. There have been revisions to the Berlin and Kay hypothesis; in response, there have been continued challenges to that hypothesis; and lastly, the field of vision science has expanded to explore hue categorization at a perceptual level, independent of language-based distinctions, possibly offering compromise in the two polar theories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revisions_of_the_Berlin_and_Kay_hypothesis">Revisions of the Berlin and Kay hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Revisions of the Berlin and Kay hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1999 Paul Kay and <a href="/wiki/Luisa_Maffi" title="Luisa Maffi">Luisa Maffi</a> published an article entitled <i>Color Appearance and the Emergence and Evolution of Basic Color Lexicons</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kay_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which they outline a series of revisions in response to data collected in the World Color Survey (WCS) and to Stephen Levinson and his work on the <a href="/wiki/Yele_language" title="Yele language">Yele language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Levinson_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levinson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While upholding an evolutionary track for the addition of basic color terms (BCTs) to any given lexicon, they outlined a series of three Partition Rules (i.e., superordinate rules that determine the evolution of BCTs): </p> <ol><li>Black and White (Bk&W): Distinguish black and white.</li> <li>Warm and Cool (Wa&C): Distinguish the warm primaries (red and yellow) from the cool primaries (green and blue).</li> <li>Red: Distinguish red.</li></ol> <p>The ordering of these rules is reflective of the data of the overwhelming majority of languages studied in the WCS. However, exceptions do exist, as was accounted for by Yele and other languages within the WCS. Furthermore, they also propose a 0) rule, one which simply states: partition. Such a rule is necessary to motivate the specification of later basic color terms, namely those that can no longer be brought about by application of rules 1)–3). </p><p>Concerning the evolution of color terms within a given lexicon, Kay and Maffi further outlined the possibilities of different trajectories of evolution, though all of those numerically possible are not attested in the World Color Survey. Another significant contribution of this article is a discussion of the Emergence Hypothesis, its relation to the Yele language, and its motivation for the authors' revision of evolutionary trajectories. </p><p>Using a <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> approach, Bowern & Haynie found support for Berlin & Kay hypothesis in the <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a>, as well as other alternative trajectories for gaining and losing color terms.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_Berlin_and_Kay_et_al.">Opposition to Berlin and Kay et al.</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Opposition to Berlin and Kay et al."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three approaches to such criticisms: </p> <ol><li>Those brought about by implications within the taxonomic structure of the B&K model (as seen further in Berlin's treatment of ethnobiological systems of classification<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li>Those as seen in research in color perception in children and infants</li> <li>Those brought about by specific fieldwork</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Levinson_and_the_Yele_language">Levinson and the Yele language</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Levinson and the Yele language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Yele_language" title="Yele language">Yele language</a> is a language isolate spoken on <a href="/wiki/Rossel_Island" title="Rossel Island">Rossel Island</a> in Papua New Guinea. Among observations about the class, derivation, usage of, and disagreement over, color naming words in Yele is a critique of the BCT-model's assumption that languages which have not yet fully lexicalized the semantic space of color (as was posited to be universal in the original and subsequent B&K papers [1969<sup id="cite_ref-name_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-name-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> &1978<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>]) with the use of all eleven basic color names do so by use of the fewer composite terms that they do possess (by B&K's criteria for Yele, three). As <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Levinson" title="Stephen Levinson">Stephen Levinson</a> argues using methodology similar to that used by B&K for their initial tests and later for the WCS, there are simply regions of the color spectrum for which Yele has no name, and which are not subsumed by larger composite categories, even despite the inventive nature of color terms in Yele that fall outside the criteria for "basic" status. Given the fact that such color naming words are extremely inventive, (a "semi-productive" mode of adjectival derivation is the duplication of related nouns), Levinson argues that this is highly detrimental to the BCT-theory, insomuch that Yele is "a language where a semantic field of color has not yet jelled", and thus one not open to universal constraint.<sup id="cite_ref-Levinson_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levinson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Levinson points out, there is evidence that supports the emergence of BCTs through physical objects and words used to signify simultaneous properties such as lightness. As such, these terms do not cohere as a unique, separable semantic domain denoting hue (see Bornstein for this criterion). Over time, though, and through processes of <a href="/wiki/Semantic_change" title="Semantic change">semantic change</a>, such a domain can emerge. In response to work by Levinson and Lyons, Kay dubs this perspective the Emergence Hypothesis (EH). (See Levinson's article for a discussion on the co-existing evolutionary tracks for color words if one accepts both B&K's position and the Emergence Hypothesis.) Kay & Maffi (1999) incorporate the EH into their evolutionary track by removing from their model the assumption that languages begin by fully segmenting the color spectrum. This inverts their Partition Principles (see above), namely by placing 1) and 3) over 0) and 2). That is, languages partially segment the space into black, white, and red (i.e., 1) & 3)), and then the assignment to partition (0)) and split warm and cool colors (2)) accommodates the rest of the space. As Kay & Maffi explain, this is essential to explications of Y/G/Bu terms (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>), which were previously incompatible with the model. However, this model also introduces the possibility for previously divergent evolutionary paths for color terms, since it is only after the rearrangement and reassignment of the Partition Principles that a language that derived from EH origins joins with a language that originally partitioned the whole of the color spectrum.<sup id="cite_ref-Kay_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anna_Wierzbicka_and_universals_of_visual_semantics">Anna Wierzbicka and universals of visual semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Anna Wierzbicka and universals of visual semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an article titled <i>The Semantics of Colour: A New Paradigm</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wierzbicka discusses three main critiques of the universalist approach: </p> <ol><li>The inability to prove the existence of true color terms (i.e., those based on variations in hue) in languages that lack a superordinate word for color in their <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomies</a></li> <li>The lack of inquiry into the semantic range of any given language's assumed color naming.</li> <li>That the Western universalist tradition "[imposes] on other languages and cultures one's own conceptual grid" and does not reflect " 'the native's point of view'", citing <a href="/wiki/Malinowski" title="Malinowski">Malinowski</a> in the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>With regard to 1), she states that "the basic point ... is that, in many languages, one cannot ask the question, 'What color is it?'" The assumption oscillates between two versions: on the one hand she argues that languages with no superordinate word for color simply do not have minimal color terms. On the other hand, she argues that even if one contests the first point (i.e., agree that languages that lack a word for color still have color terms), the fact that one cannot ask the question she posits (above) means that color is not a salient <a href="/wiki/Semantic_domain" title="Semantic domain">semantic domain</a> in these languages. In the structure of her <a href="/wiki/Natural_Semantic_Metalanguage" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Semantic Metalanguage">Natural Semantic Metalanguage</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> color does not constitute a semantic "primitive", though she argues for many others cross-linguistically. (For more on the NSM related to color terms, see <i>Theoretical Linguistics</i> 29:3.)<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pitchford_and_Mullen:_The_developmental_acquisition_of_basic_colour_terms">Pitchford and Mullen: <i>The developmental acquisition of basic colour terms</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pitchford and Mullen: The developmental acquisition of basic colour terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This study<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compares the evolutionary model of color terms of Berlin and Kay to the acquisition of color terms in children (something which has been thought to lag behind other lexical acquisitions). Their study proceeds to three main questions: </p> <ol><li>Are color terms acquired late?</li> <li>Are basic color terms acquired in a fixed developmental order?</li> <li>What factors may influence the acquisition of basic color terms?</li></ol> <p>With regard to 1), they find that color terms are not acquired any later than other relevant lexemes to distinguish objects. It had been thought, for example, that since color is not necessarily unique to a given object, and diverse objects are more likely to share common color than a common shape, that color terms lagged behind shape terms in development. This was found not to be the case. </p><p>Second, they found no correlation between the order of color term acquisition in children and in languages generally. It was found that gray and brown are learned later in development; there was no preference for the six primary color terms over the remaining three secondary ones. The similarity between the acquisition of these terms in children and in language vocabularies was assumed to be comparable, since even in current notions of the B&K hypothesis the evolutionary order of color terms is thought to be based on universals of <a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>. While some studies in neurophysiology have shown greater salience for the basic color terms (and thus correlate their earlier evolutionary status), neurophysiology has not been able to account for such phenomena as intuitive separations of warm and cool colors (the second partition rule posited by Kay [see above] is essential to such early-onset warm/cool distinctions, yet is overridden in language with a yellow/green/blue color term).<sup id="cite_ref-Kay_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kay-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vision_science_and_theoretical_compatibility">Vision science and theoretical compatibility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vision science and theoretical compatibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bornstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc Bornstein">Marc Bornstein</a>'s essay <i>Hue Categorization and Color Naming: Physics to Sensation to Perception</i><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> separates an analytical review of <a href="/wiki/Vision_science" title="Vision science">vision science</a> and color naming into three sections: </p> <ol><li>Categorization and its aids to both perceptual and cognitive functions generally</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color vision</a> and hue categorization</li> <li>Color naming (an unarticulated derivative of the first two ideas [see his companion essay <i>Hue Categorization and Color Naming: Cognition to Language to Culture</i><sup id="cite_ref-Bornstein_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bornstein-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for a further discussion of this point])</li></ol> <p>As a result, he summarizes both the findings of vision science (as it relates to color naming) and the linking of three separate but causally related processes within the study of color naming phenomena. He states that "the physics of color, the psychophysics of color discrimination, and the psychology of color naming are not isomorphic". The color spectrum clearly exists at a physical level of <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> (inter al.), humans cross-linguistically tend to react most saliently to the primary color terms (a primary motive of Bornstein's work and vision science generally) as well as select similar exemplars of these primary color terms, and lastly comes the process of linguistic color naming, which adheres both to universal patterns but demonstrates individual uniqueness. While one may have origins in its predecessor, variation among test subjects in vision science and linguistic variation demonstrate that it is not a process of whole causality. In his companion essay,<sup id="cite_ref-Bornstein_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bornstein-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he demonstrates that this process of causality may indeed be reversed, which he explains through a set of "models of development": </p> <ol><li>Undeveloped</li> <li>Partially developed</li> <li>Fully developed</li></ol> <p>In response, there are three ways that outside experience may affect this development: through (A) induction, (B) modification, or (C) deprivation. Thus the logical possibilities are 1A & 1C; 2A, 2B & 2C; and 3B & 3C. Using this format, he explains that developmental altering in hue categories "entail perceptual 'sharpening' and 'broadening'". He attributes this to either "maturation" (perceptually) or "experience". Such a conclusion is necessarily indeterminate because understanding of why certain hue categories are lost and others induced (cf. developmental processes above) "requires further exacting research". Coming from these two perspectives (i.e., those outlined in the causation above, and the models of development), this leads Bornstein to conclude that "there appear to be nontrivial biological constraints on color categorization [and that] ... the available evidence seems compatible with a position of moderate universality that leads to expectations of probabilistic rather than deterministic cross-cultural correspondence", and that "in color, relativism appears to overlay a universalist foundation".<sup id="cite_ref-Bornstein_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bornstein-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probabilistic_inference">Probabilistic inference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Probabilistic inference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Probabilistic inference uses <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">probabilistic models</a> that describe the problem in terms of probability theory and probability distributions. The research article "The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and Probabilistic Inference: Evidence from the Domain of Color"<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> seeks to clarify the argument through the lens of probabilistic inference. The probabilistic model is a conjunction of both a universal color space and a language-specific categorical organization of that space. This approach realizes that color cognition involves an interaction between these two tiers. There are incursions of linguistic categorization into nonlinguistic processes of thinking, and taking the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis does not necessarily entail a complete rejection of the universal components of human cognition. The probabilistic model is useful because many findings to support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis do not replicate reliably. Framing the issue in terms of probabilistic inference addresses this issue by highlighting the role of uncertainty.   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonlinguistic_influences_on_color_memory">Nonlinguistic influences on color memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nonlinguistic influences on color memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is unlikely that linguistic factors are the sole component to differences in color perception across cultures. The culture differences in color naming and color perception can be extended to nonlinguistic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color in the environment determines the language individuals of that group use in colloquial conversation. Thus, the communicability scores of color categories depends partly on the language, and even more so on the salient objects in the environment. In other words, for colors to be differentiated, they have to be already readily available in the individual or cultural group's environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_significance_across_cultures">Color significance across cultures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Color significance across cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the color categorization model: <a href="/wiki/Vantage_theory" title="Vantage theory">Vantage theory</a></div> <p>The significance of colors differs widely from culture to culture, which in turn affects the perception of different color hues between different nation-states. Cultures assign different meanings to colors due to religious influences and social beliefs. <sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences in color categorization between languages are caused by differences in the overall usefulness of color to a culture or language group. <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different areas of the world can differ widely in environment and the colors readily available in that environment. These environmental differences can also have an influence on color naming. The saliency and use of objects in a culture provides direct contribution to the color significance and color naming in that culture. </p><p>Red </p> <ul><li>India: A married woman can be identified by red <a href="/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">henna</a> on her hands and <a href="/wiki/Sindoor" title="Sindoor">sindoor</a> worn along her hairline.</li> <li>South Africa: The red section of the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_South_Africa" title="Flag of South Africa">South African flag</a> symbolizes violence and sacrifices that were made during the struggle for independence.</li> <li>Thailand: Red is the color for Sundays and is linked with <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a>, the solar god.</li> <li>China: Red is worn during New Year and wedding celebrations, as well as being the main color for decorations for such events.</li></ul> <p>Yellow </p> <ul><li>France: In the 10th century, the French painted the doors of traitors and criminals yellow.</li> <li>China: "Yellow picture" or "yellow book" is used to discuss publication or media related to pornographic images and websites. Yellow was considered a color exclusive to royalty and only the emperor was allowed to wear yellow clothes during Ming and Qing Dynasties.</li> <li>Africa: Yellow is reserved for people of high rank because of its resemblance to the color of gold.</li> <li>Egyptians: Used yellow to paint <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> and tombs before the deceased were sent to the afterlife.</li> <li>Japan: Yellow represents bravery, wealth, and refinement since the War of the Dynasties in 1357.</li></ul> <p>Blue </p> <ul><li>English language: The feeling of melancholy is typically referred to as having "the blues"</li> <li>United States: Many American banks such as <a href="/wiki/Citigroup" title="Citigroup">Citi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_America" title="Bank of America">Bank of America</a> use blue for their logo to symbolize trust, security and authority.</li> <li>Middle East: Blue signifies safety and protection, and it is a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a>, spirituality and immortality.</li> <li>Christianity: <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Virgin Mary</a> is traditionally portrayed in blue.</li> <li>Hinduism: The color of <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>, the most highly worshipped Hindu god who embodies love and joy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_words_for_snow" title="Eskimo words for snow">Eskimo words for snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93green_distinction_in_language" title="Blue–green distinction in language">Blue–green distinction in language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cibelli, Emily; Xu, Yang; Austerweil, Joseph L; Griffiths, Thomas L; Regier, Terry (July 19, 2016). 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(1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1979.81.3.02a00040">"Whorf and His Critics: Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Influences on Color Memory"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>81</b> (3): 581–615. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1979.81.3.02a00040">10.1525/aa.1979.81.3.02a00040</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-1433">1548-1433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Whorf+and+His+Critics%3A+Linguistic+and+Nonlinguistic+Influences+on+Color+Memory&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=581-615&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1979.81.3.02a00040&rft.issn=1548-1433&rft.aulast=Lucy&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Shweder%2C+Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1979.81.3.02a00040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-colors-mean-in-other_b_9078674">"So THAT'S Why You Shouldn't Wear a Green Hat in China"</a>. <i>HuffPost</i>. 2016-01-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=So+THAT%27S+Why+You+Shouldn%27t+Wear+a+Green+Hat+in+China&rft.date=2016-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fwhat-colors-mean-in-other_b_9078674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConwayJara-EttingerMahowaldPiantadosi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Conway, Bevil; Jara-Ettinger, Julian; Mahowald, Kyle; Piantadosi, Steven; Bergen, Leon; Futrell, Richard; Gibson, Edward (2016-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1167%2F16.12.619">"Color language reflects usefulness of color"</a>. <i>Journal of Vision</i>. <b>16</b> (12): 619. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1167%2F16.12.619">10.1167/16.12.619</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1534-7362">1534-7362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vision&rft.atitle=Color+language+reflects+usefulness+of+color&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=619&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1167%2F16.12.619&rft.issn=1534-7362&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=Bevil&rft.au=Jara-Ettinger%2C+Julian&rft.au=Mahowald%2C+Kyle&rft.au=Piantadosi%2C+Steven&rft.au=Bergen%2C+Leon&rft.au=Futrell%2C+Richard&rft.au=Gibson%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1167%252F16.12.619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Various<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> (2005). <i>Journal of Cognition and Culture</i> 5:3–4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brill.publisher.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/jocc/2005/00000005/f0020003;jsessionid=4u89982u04p2d.alice">BRILL</a></li> <li>Various<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> (2005). <i>Cross-Cultural Research</i> 39:1–2.</li> <li>Biggam, C. P. (2012). <i>The Semantics of Colour. A Historical Approach</i>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge [etc.]. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B052%2B189%2B992%2B5" title="Special:BookSources/978+052+189+992+5">978 052 189 992 5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesCorbettMtenjeSowden1995" class="citation journal cs1">Davies, Ian; Corbett, Greville; Mtenje, Al; Sowden, Paul (1995). "The Basic Colour Terms of Chichewa". <i>Lingua</i>. <b>95</b> (4): 259–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0024-3841%2894%2900024-G">10.1016/0024-3841(94)00024-G</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingua&rft.atitle=The+Basic+Colour+Terms+of+Chichewa&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=259-278&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0024-3841%2894%2900024-G&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Corbett%2C+Greville&rft.au=Mtenje%2C+Al&rft.au=Sowden%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Deutscher, Guy (2010). <i>Through the language glass: how words colour your world</i>, William Heinemann.</li> <li>Jones, William Jervis (2013). <i>German Colour Terms: A study in their historical evolution from earliest times to the present</i>. John Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4610-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4610-3">978-90-272-4610-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayBerlinMerrifield1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kay, Paul; Berlin, Brent; Merrifield, William (1991). "Biocultural Implications of Systems of Color Naming". <i>Journal of Linguistic Anthropology</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 12–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fjlin.1991.1.1.12">10.1525/jlin.1991.1.1.12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Linguistic+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Biocultural+Implications+of+Systems+of+Color+Naming&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-25&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fjlin.1991.1.1.12&rft.aulast=Kay&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Berlin%2C+Brent&rft.au=Merrifield%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacLaury1992" class="citation journal cs1">MacLaury, Robert E. (1992). "From Brightness to Hue: An Explanatory Model of Color-Category Evolution". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 137–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F204049">10.1086/204049</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144088006">144088006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=From+Brightness+to+Hue%3A+An+Explanatory+Model+of+Color-Category+Evolution&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-186&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F204049&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144088006%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MacLaury&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+relativity+and+the+color+naming+debate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>MacLaury, Robert E. 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/150px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/200px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color<br />philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_scheme" title="Color scheme">Color scheme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_picker" title="Color picker">Color tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monochromatic_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic colors">Monochromatic colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_colors" title="Complementary colors">Complementary colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogous_colors" title="Analogous colors">Analogous colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Achromatic colors (Neutral)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">Polychromatic colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-on-dark_color_scheme" title="Light-on-dark color scheme">Light-on-dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">Web colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tincture_(heraldry)" title="Tincture (heraldry)">Tinctures in heraldry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">Color theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_mixing" title="Color mixing">Color mixing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">Primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_color" title="Secondary color">Secondary color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">Chromaticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_solid" title="Color solid">Color solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_wheel" title="Color wheel">Color wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_triangle" title="Color triangle">Color triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_analysis" title="Color analysis">Color analysis</a> (fashion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_realism_(art_style)" title="Color realism (art style)">Color realism (art style)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Vision_and_Colours" title="On Vision and Colours">On Vision and Colours</a></i> (Schopenhauer)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" title="Theory of Colours">Theory of Colours</a></i> (Goethe)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">Color terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term#Basic_color_terms" title="Color term">Basic terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown" title="Brown">Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_in_culture" title="Category:Color in culture">Cultural differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93green_distinction_in_language" title="Blue–green distinction in language">Blue–green distinction in language</a></li></ul></li> <li>Color history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_dualism" title="Black-and-white dualism">Black-and-white dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_in_culture" title="Blue in culture">Blue in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_in_Chinese_culture" title="Color in Chinese culture">Color in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan" title="Traditional colors of Japan">Traditional colors of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">Human skin color</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color dimensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">Hue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromatism" title="Dichromatism">Dichromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorfulness" title="Colorfulness">Colorfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_(color)" title="Pastel (color)">Pastel colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">Luminance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">Lightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness" title="Darkness">Darkness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brightness" title="Brightness">Brightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">Iridescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grayscale" title="Grayscale">Grayscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tint,_shade_and_tone" title="Tint, shade and tone">Tint, shade and tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color<br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantone" title="Pantone">Pantone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Marketing_Group" title="Color Marketing Group">Color Marketing Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Association_of_the_United_States" title="Color Association of the United States">Color Association of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Authority" title="International Colour Authority">International Colour Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Illumination" title="International Commission on Illumination">International Commission on Illumination</a> (CIE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Color_Consortium" title="International Color Consortium">International Color Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Association" title="International Colour Association">International Colour Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_colors" title="Lists of colors">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_A%E2%80%93F" title="List of colors: A–F">List of colors: A–F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_G%E2%80%93M" title="List of colors: G–M">List of colors: G–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_N%E2%80%93Z" title="List of colors: N–Z">List of colors: N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_(compact)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colors (compact)">List of colors (compact)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">List of colors by shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_palettes" title="List of color palettes">List of color palettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses" title="List of color spaces and their uses">List of color spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors" title="List of Crayola crayon colors">List of Crayola crayon colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crayola_crayons" title="History of Crayola crayons">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_chart" title="Color chart">Color chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RAL_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of RAL colors">List of RAL colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">List of web colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">Shades of:</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Violet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta">Magenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_black" title="Shades of black">Black</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">Contrast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Lighting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Color" title="Category:Color">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Color_classifications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Color_classifications" title="Template:Color classifications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Color_classifications" title="Template talk:Color classifications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Color_classifications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Color classifications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Color_classifications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Color classifications</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color systems,<br />standards and palettes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_Media_Alliance" title="News Media Alliance">ANPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_chart" title="Color chart">Color charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_palettes" title="List of color palettes">Color palettes</a> (computer graphics)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_Index_International" title="Colour Index International">Colour Index International</a> (CI <a href="/wiki/List_of_dyes" title="List of dyes">list of dyes</a>)</li> <li>Crayola <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors" title="List of Crayola crayon colors">Crayons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIC_Corporation" title="DIC Corporation">DIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Standard_595" title="Federal Standard 595">Federal Standard 595</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HKS_(colour_system)" title="HKS (colour system)">HKS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISCC%E2%80%93NBS_system" title="ISCC–NBS system">ISCC–NBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Color_System" title="Natural Color System">NCS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostwald_color_system" title="Ostwald color system">Ostwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantone#Pantone_Color_Matching_System" title="Pantone">Pantone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAL_colour_standard" title="RAL colour standard">RAL</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RAL_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of RAL colors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">Web colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X11_color_names" title="X11 color names">X11</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color names (alphabetic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_A%E2%80%93F" title="List of colors: A–F">List of colors: A–F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_G%E2%80%93M" title="List of colors: G–M">List of colors: G–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_N%E2%80%93Z" title="List of colors: N–Z">List of colors: N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_(compact)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colors (compact)">List of colors (compact)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variations of base colors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="background:transparent; width:100%"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">Shades of red</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Shades_of_red.png/90px-Shades_of_red.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Shades_of_red.png/135px-Shades_of_red.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Shades_of_red.png/180px-Shades_of_red.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow">Shades of yellow</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Color_icon_yellow.svg/90px-Color_icon_yellow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Color_icon_yellow.svg/135px-Color_icon_yellow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Color_icon_yellow.svg/180px-Color_icon_yellow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green">Shades of green</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Color_icon_green.svg/90px-Color_icon_green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Color_icon_green.svg/135px-Color_icon_green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Color_icon_green.svg/180px-Color_icon_green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan">Shades of cyan</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/CyanIcon.png/90px-CyanIcon.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/CyanIcon.png/135px-CyanIcon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/CyanIcon.png/180px-CyanIcon.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="220" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">Shades of blue</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Color_icon_blue.svg/90px-Color_icon_blue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Color_icon_blue.svg/135px-Color_icon_blue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Color_icon_blue.svg/180px-Color_icon_blue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta">Shades of magenta</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MagentaIcon.png/90px-MagentaIcon.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MagentaIcon.png/135px-MagentaIcon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/MagentaIcon.png/180px-MagentaIcon.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="220" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange">Shades of orange</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Shades_of_orange.svg/90px-Shades_of_orange.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Shades_of_orange.svg/135px-Shades_of_orange.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Shades_of_orange.svg/180px-Shades_of_orange.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_chartreuse" title="Shades of chartreuse">Shades of chartreuse</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_chartreuse" title="Shades of chartreuse"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Shades_of_chartreuse.svg/90px-Shades_of_chartreuse.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Shades_of_chartreuse.svg/135px-Shades_of_chartreuse.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Shades_of_chartreuse.svg/180px-Shades_of_chartreuse.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_spring_green" class="mw-redirect" title="Shades of spring green">Shades of spring green</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spring_green" title="Spring green"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shades_of_spring_green.svg/90px-Shades_of_spring_green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shades_of_spring_green.svg/135px-Shades_of_spring_green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Shades_of_spring_green.svg/180px-Shades_of_spring_green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_azure" class="mw-redirect" title="Shades of azure">Shades of azure</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_azure" title="Shades of azure"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shades_of_azure.svg/90px-Shades_of_azure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shades_of_azure.svg/135px-Shades_of_azure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shades_of_azure.svg/180px-Shades_of_azure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Shades of violet</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Color_icon_violet_v2.svg/90px-Color_icon_violet_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Color_icon_violet_v2.svg/135px-Color_icon_violet_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Color_icon_violet_v2.svg/180px-Color_icon_violet_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_rose" title="Shades of rose">Shades of rose</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_rose" title="Shades of rose"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Color_icon_pink.svg/90px-Color_icon_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Color_icon_pink.svg/135px-Color_icon_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Color_icon_pink.svg/180px-Color_icon_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown">Shades of brown</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Color_icon_brown_v2.svg/90px-Color_icon_brown_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Color_icon_brown_v2.svg/135px-Color_icon_brown_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Color_icon_brown_v2.svg/180px-Color_icon_brown_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">Shades of purple</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Color_icon_purple_v2.svg/90px-Color_icon_purple_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Color_icon_purple_v2.svg/135px-Color_icon_purple_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Color_icon_purple_v2.svg/180px-Color_icon_purple_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink">Shades of pink</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Color_icon_pink_v2.svg/90px-Color_icon_pink_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Color_icon_pink_v2.svg/135px-Color_icon_pink_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Color_icon_pink_v2.svg/180px-Color_icon_pink_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white">Shades of white</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Color_icon_white.svg/90px-Color_icon_white.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Color_icon_white.svg/135px-Color_icon_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Color_icon_white.svg/180px-Color_icon_white.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray">Shades of gray</a> <br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Color_icon_gray_v2.svg/90px-Color_icon_gray_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Color_icon_gray_v2.svg/135px-Color_icon_gray_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Color_icon_gray_v2.svg/180px-Color_icon_gray_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> </td> <td width="16.667%"><a 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