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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Defence mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defence_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevalence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevalence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Prevalence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevalence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevalence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevalence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_terrestrial_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_terrestrial_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>In terrestrial ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <ul 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<span>Origins of the theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_the_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins of the theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wallace,_1867" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wallace,_1867"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Wallace, 1867</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wallace,_1867-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poulton,_1890" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poulton,_1890"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Poulton, 1890</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poulton,_1890-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supported_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supported_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Supported explanations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supported_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Alternative hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mimicry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mimicry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mimicry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mimicry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aposematism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A" title="تحذير لوني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحذير لوني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematizam" title="Aposematizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Aposematizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematisme" title="Aposematisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aposematisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismus" title="Aposematismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aposematismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematisme" title="Aposematisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aposematisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismus" title="Aposematismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aposematismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoiatusv%C3%A4rvus" title="Hoiatusvärvus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hoiatusvärvus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αποσηματισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αποσηματισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismo" title="Aposematismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aposematismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismo" title="Aposematismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aposematismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismo" title="Aposematismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aposematismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%87%D8%B4%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="رنگ هشدار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رنگ هشدار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apos%C3%A9matisme" title="Aposématisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aposématisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismo" title="Aposematismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aposematismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84%EC%83%89" title="경계색 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="경계색" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematisme" title="Aposematisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aposematisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismo" title="Aposematismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aposematismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אפוסמטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפוסמטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გამაფრთხილებელი შეფერილობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გამაფრთხილებელი შეფერილობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%82%D2%AF%D1%81" title="Апосематикалык түс – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Апосематикалык түс" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematismus" title="Aposematismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aposematismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Апосемија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Апосемија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematisme" title="Aposematisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Aposematisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematische_kleuring" title="Aposematische kleuring – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aposematische kleuring" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%A6%E5%91%8A%E8%89%B2" title="警告色 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="警告色" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varselfarge" title="Varselfarge – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Varselfarge" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varselfarge" title="Varselfarge – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Varselfarge" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubarwienie_ostrzegawcze" title="Ubarwienie ostrzegawcze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ubarwienie ostrzegawcze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apossematismo" title="Apossematismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Apossematismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Апосематизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Апосематизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warning_colouration" title="Warning colouration – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Warning colouration" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematizem" title="Aposematizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aposematizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aposematism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematizm" title="Aposematizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aposematizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Апосематизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Апосематизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADn_hi%E1%BB%87u_xua_%C4%91u%E1%BB%95i" title="Tín hiệu xua đuổi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tín hiệu xua đuổi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%A6%E6%88%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="警戒作用 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="警戒作用" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%A6%E6%88%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="警戒作用 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="警戒作用" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Honest signalling of an animal's powerful defences</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg/330px-Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg/495px-Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg/660px-Korreldragende-gifkikker-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>The bright colours of this <a href="/wiki/Granular_poison_frog" title="Granular poison frog">granular poison frog</a> <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signal</a> a warning to <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> of its <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Honey_badger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Honey_badger.jpg/330px-Honey_badger.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Honey_badger.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="282" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Honey_badger" title="Honey badger">honey badger</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Reverse_countershading" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse countershading">reverse countershading</a> makes it conspicuous, <a href="/wiki/Honest_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Honest signalling">honestly signalling</a> its <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">ability to defend itself</a> through its aggressive temperament and its sharp teeth and claws.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Aposematism</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">advertising</a> by an animal, whether terrestrial or marine, to potential <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a> that it is not worth attacking or eating.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a>, foul taste or smell, sharp spines, or aggressive nature. These advertising signals may take the form of conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">coloration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">sounds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odour" class="mw-redirect" title="Odour">odours</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or other <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perceivable</a> characteristics. Aposematic <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signals are beneficial</a> for both predator and prey, since both avoid potential harm. </p><p>The term was coined in 1877 by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890Foldout_"The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses",_after_page_339_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890Foldout_"The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses",_after_page_339-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marek_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marek-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>'s concept of <b>warning coloration</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallace_1877_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace_1877-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aposematism is exploited in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</a>, where species with strong defences evolve to resemble one another. By mimicking similarly coloured species, the warning signal to predators is shared, causing them to learn more quickly at less of a cost. </p><p>A genuine aposematic signal that a species actually possesses chemical or physical defences is not the only way to deter predators. In <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimicry</a>, a mimicking species resembles an aposematic model closely enough to share the protection, while many species have bluffing <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">deimatic displays</a> which may startle a predator long enough to enable an otherwise undefended prey to escape. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term aposematism was coined by the English zoologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a> in his 1890 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colours_of_Animals" title="The Colours of Animals">The Colours of Animals</a></i>. He based the term on the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words ἀπό <i>apo</i> 'away' and σῆμα <i>sēma</i> 'sign', referring to signs that warn other animals away.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890Foldout_"The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses",_after_page_339_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890Foldout_"The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses",_after_page_339-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marek_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marek-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defence_mechanism">Defence mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Defence mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg/184px-Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg/276px-Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg/368px-Metasepia_pfefferi_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2713" data-file-height="1829" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Metasepia_pfefferi" title="Metasepia pfefferi">Flamboyant cuttlefish</a> colours warn of toxicity </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling theory</a></div> <p>The function of aposematism is to prevent attack, by warning potential predators that the prey animal has defenses such as being unpalatable or poisonous. The easily detected warning is a primary defense mechanism, and the non-visible defenses are secondary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuxtonSherrattSpeed200482–103_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuxtonSherrattSpeed200482–103-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aposematic signals are primarily visual, using bright colours and high-contrast patterns such as stripes. Warning signals are <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">honest indications</a> of noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness.<sup id="cite_ref-E._Maan,_M._E_2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E._Maan,_M._E_2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the brighter and more conspicuous the organism, the more toxic it usually is.<sup id="cite_ref-E._Maan,_M._E_2012_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-E._Maan,_M._E_2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Deimatic behavior">deimatic displays</a>, which attempt to startle a predator with a threatening appearance but which are bluffing, unsupported by any strong defences.<sup id="cite_ref-Sendova-FranksScott2015_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sendova-FranksScott2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common and effective colours are red, yellow, black, and white.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These colours provide strong contrast with green foliage, resist changes in shadow and lighting, are highly chromatic, and provide distance dependent <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_2012_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some forms of warning coloration provide this distance dependent camouflage by having an effective pattern and color combination that do not allow for easy detection by a predator from a distance, but are warning-like from a close proximity, allowing for an advantageous balance between camouflage and aposematism.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warning coloration evolves in response to background, light conditions, and predator vision.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visible signals may be accompanied by odors, sounds or behavior to provide a multi-modal signal which is more effectively detected by predators.<sup id="cite_ref-MacAuslane_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacAuslane-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hycleus_lugens,_Meloidae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg/220px-Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg/330px-Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg/440px-Hycleus_lugens%2C_Meloidae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><i>Hycleus lugens</i>, an aposematically coloured beetle</figcaption></figure> <p>Unpalatability, broadly understood, can be created in a variety of ways. Some <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladybird">ladybird</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arctiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctiidae">tiger moth</a> contain bitter-tasting chemicals,<sup id="cite_ref-Hristov_Conner_2005_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hristov_Conner_2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a> produces a noxious odor, and the poison glands of the <a href="/wiki/Poison_dart_frog" title="Poison dart frog">poison dart frog</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stinger_(organ)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stinger (organ)">sting</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Velvet_ant" title="Velvet ant">velvet ant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Latrodectus" title="Latrodectus">black widow spider</a> make them dangerous or painful to attack. Tiger moths advertise their unpalatability by either producing <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasonic</a> noises which warn bats to avoid them,<sup id="cite_ref-Hristov_Conner_2005_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hristov_Conner_2005-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by warning postures which expose brightly coloured body parts (see <a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a>), or exposing <a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">eyespots</a>. Velvet ants (actually parasitic wasps) such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dasymutilla_occidentalis" title="Dasymutilla occidentalis">Dasymutilla occidentalis</a></i> both have bright colours and produce audible noises when grabbed (via <a href="/wiki/Stridulation" title="Stridulation">stridulation</a>), which serve to reinforce the warning.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among mammals, predators can be dissuaded when a smaller animal is aggressive and able to defend itself, as for example in <a href="/wiki/Honey_badger" title="Honey badger">honey badgers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevalence">Prevalence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prevalence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_terrestrial_ecosystems">In terrestrial ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In terrestrial ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg/220px-Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg/330px-Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg/440px-Skunk_about_to_spray.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1977" data-file-height="2408" /></a><figcaption>Skunk, <i><a href="/wiki/Mephitis_mephitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mephitis mephitis">Mephitis mephitis</a></i>, advertising its powerful defences, scent glands near the tail, by raising its tail and displaying its warning coloration</figcaption></figure> <p>Aposematism is widespread in insects, but less so in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, being mostly confined to a smaller number of <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> species, and some foul-smelling or aggressive <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pitohui" title="Pitohui">Pitohuis</a>, red and black birds whose toxic feathers and skin apparently comes from the poisonous beetles they ingest, could be included.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been proposed that aposematism played a role in human evolution, body odour carrying a warning to predators of large <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominins</a> able to defend themselves with weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-Weldon_2018_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weldon_2018-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the most numerous aposematic vertebrates are the poison dart frogs (family: <a href="/wiki/Poison_dart_frog" title="Poison dart frog">Dendrobatidae</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Maan,_M._E_2009_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maan,_M._E_2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These neotropical anuran amphibians exhibit a wide spectrum of coloration and toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species in this poison frog family (particularly <i><a href="/wiki/Dendrobates" title="Dendrobates">Dendrobates</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Epipedobates" title="Epipedobates">Epipedobates</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Phyllobates" title="Phyllobates">Phyllobates</a></i>) are conspicuously coloured and sequester one of the most toxic <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a> among all living species.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Santos_et_al_2014_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos_et_al_2014-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the same family, there are also cryptic frogs (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Colostethus" title="Colostethus">Colostethus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mannophryne" title="Mannophryne">Mannophryne</a></i>) that lack these toxic alkaloids.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these frogs display an extensive array of coloration and toxicity, there is very little genetic difference between the species.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evolution of their conspicuous coloration is correlated to traits such as chemical defense, dietary specialization, acoustic diversification, and increased body mass.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Santos_et_al_2014_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos_et_al_2014-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> are thought to employ aposematism to warn <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> of unpalatable chemicals or physical defences such as prickled leaves or thorns.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many insects, such as <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar_moth" title="Cinnabar moth">cinnabar moth</a> caterpillars, acquire toxic chemicals from their host plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974199–201_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974199–201-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among mammals, <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Striped_polecat" title="Striped polecat">zorillas</a> advertise their foul-smelling chemical defences with sharply contrasting black-and-white patterns on their fur, while the similarly-patterned <a href="/wiki/Badger" title="Badger">badger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honey_badger" title="Honey badger">honey badger</a> advertise their sharp claws, powerful jaws, and aggressive natures.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some brightly coloured birds such as <a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">passerines</a> with contrasting patterns may also be aposematic, at least in females; but since male birds are often brightly coloured through <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, and their coloration is not correlated with edibility, it is unclear whether aposematism is significant.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sound-producing rattle of <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a> is an acoustic form of aposematism.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sound production by the caterpillar of the Polyphemus moth, <i><a href="/wiki/Antheraea_polyphemus" title="Antheraea polyphemus">Antheraea polyphemus</a></i>, may similarly be acoustic aposematism, connected to and preceded by chemical defences.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar acoustic defences exist in a range of <a href="/wiki/Bombycoidea" title="Bombycoidea">Bombycoidea</a> caterpillars.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_marine_ecosystems">In marine ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In marine ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phyllidia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phyllidia.jpg/200px-Phyllidia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phyllidia.jpg/300px-Phyllidia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phyllidia.jpg/400px-Phyllidia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1260" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">There is evidence that a range of marine animals, including <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">nudibranchs</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Phyllidia_varicosa" title="Phyllidia varicosa">Phyllidia varicosa</a></i>, are aposematic.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg/200px-Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg/300px-Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg/400px-Crown_of_Thorns-jonhanson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="583" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Conspicuous colours of <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a> spines may warn of strong toxins within.<sup id="cite_ref-Shedd_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shedd-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inbar_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inbar-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The existence of aposematism in marine ecosystems has been debated.<sup id="cite_ref-Pawlik_2012_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pawlik_2012-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many marine organisms, particularly those on coral reefs, are brightly coloured or patterned, including sponges, corals, molluscs, and fish, with little or no connection to chemical or physical defenses. Caribbean reef <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> are brightly coloured, and many species are full of toxic chemicals, but there is no statistical relationship between the two factors.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">Nudibranch</a> molluscs are the most commonly cited examples of aposematism in marine ecosystems, but the evidence for this has been contested,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mostly because (1) there are few examples of mimicry among species, (2) many species are nocturnal or cryptic, and (3) bright colours at the red end of the colour spectrum are rapidly attenuated as a function of water depth. For example, the Spanish Dancer nudibranch (genus <i><a href="/wiki/Hexabranchus" title="Hexabranchus">Hexabranchus</a></i>), among the largest of tropical marine slugs, potently chemically defended, and brilliantly red and white, is nocturnal and has no known mimics.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mimicry is to be expected as <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimic" class="mw-redirect" title="Batesian mimic">Batesian mimics</a> with weak defences can gain a measure of protection from their resemblance to aposematic species.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other studies have concluded that nudibranchs such as the slugs of the family <a href="/wiki/Phyllidiidae" title="Phyllidiidae">Phyllidiidae</a> from Indo-Pacific coral reefs are aposematically coloured.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</a> has been implicated in the coloration of some Mediterranean nudibranchs, all of which derive defensive chemicals from their sponge diet.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png/450px-Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png/675px-Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png/900px-Variable_ring_patterns_on_mantles_of_the_blue-ringed_octopus_Hapalochlaena_lunulata.png 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>Iridescent blue rings on the mantles of the venomous octopus <i><a href="/wiki/Greater_blue-ringed_octopus" title="Greater blue-ringed octopus">Hapalochlaena lunulata</a></i> are considered by some to be aposematic.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a>, like other starfish such as <i><a href="/wiki/Metrodira_subulata" title="Metrodira subulata">Metrodira subulata</a></i>, has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long, sharp spines, as well as <a href="/wiki/Cytolytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytolytic">cytolytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Saponin" title="Saponin">saponins</a>, chemicals which could function as an effective defence; this evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be considered aposematic.<sup id="cite_ref-Shedd_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shedd-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inbar_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inbar-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG/220px-Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG/330px-Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG/440px-Cercodemas_anceps_Red_box_sea_cucumber_PC260152.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>The pink warty sea cucumber, <i>Cercodemas anceps</i>, provides both chromatic and achromatic signals to predators, and both of these independently have an aposematic effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Lim_Chan_Carrasco_Todd_2019_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lim_Chan_Carrasco_Todd_2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>It has been proposed that aposematism and mimicry is less evident in marine invertebrates than terrestrial insects because predation is a more intense selective force for many insects, which disperse as adults rather than as larvae and have much shorter generation times.<sup id="cite_ref-Pawlik_2012_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pawlik_2012-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, there is evidence that fish predators such as <a href="/wiki/Bluehead" class="mw-redirect" title="Bluehead">blueheads</a> may adapt to visual cues more rapidly than do birds, making aposematism less effective.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is experimental evidence that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cercodemas_anceps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cercodemas anceps (page does not exist)">pink warty sea cucumbers</a> are aposematic, and that the chromatic and achromatic signals that they provide to predators both independently reduce the rate of attack.<sup id="cite_ref-Lim_Chan_Carrasco_Todd_2019_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lim_Chan_Carrasco_Todd_2019-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Blue-ringed_octopus" title="Blue-ringed octopus">Blue-ringed octopuses</a> are venomous. They spend much of their time hiding in crevices whilst displaying effective camouflage patterns with their dermal <a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">chromatophore</a> cells. However, if they are provoked, they quickly change colour, becoming bright yellow with each of the 50-60 rings flashing bright iridescent blue within a third of a second.<sup id="cite_ref-Mathger2012_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mathger2012-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often stated this is an aposematic warning display,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2011_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2011-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huffard2010_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huffard2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lambert2011_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambert2011-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon1998_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon1998-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the hypothesis has rarely if ever been tested.<sup id="cite_ref-Umbers2013_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Umbers2013-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behaviour">Behaviour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mechanism of defence relies on the <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> of the would-be predator; a bird that has once experienced a foul-tasting <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshopper</a> will endeavor to avoid a repetition of the experience. As a consequence, aposematic species are often gregarious. Before the memory of a bad experience attenuates, the predator may have the experience reinforced through repetition. Aposematic organisms are often slow-moving, as they have little need for speed and agility. Instead, their morphology is frequently tough and resistant to injury, thereby allowing them to escape once the predator is warned off.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aposematic species do not need to hide or stay still as cryptic organisms do, so aposematic individuals benefit from more freedom in exposed areas and can spend more time foraging, allowing them to find more and better quality food.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may make use of conspicuous mating displays, including vocal signals, which may then develop through <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Santos_et_al_2014_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos_et_al_2014-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_theory">Origins of the theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Origins of the theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg/170px-Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg/255px-Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Lygeaus_nymphs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>Gregarious nymphs of an aposematic <a href="/wiki/Milkweed_bug" class="mw-redirect" title="Milkweed bug">milkweed bug</a>, <i>Lygaeus</i> sp.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wallace,_1867"><span id="Wallace.2C_1867"></span>Wallace, 1867</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wallace, 1867"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> dated 23 February 1867, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> wrote, "On Monday evening I called on <a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Bates</a> & put a difficulty before him, which he could not answer, & as on some former similar occasion, his first suggestion was, 'you had better ask Wallace'. My difficulty is, why are caterpillars sometimes so beautifully & artistically coloured?"<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin was puzzled because his theory of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> (where females choose their mates based on how attractive they are) could not apply to caterpillars since they are immature and hence not sexually active. </p><p>Wallace replied the next day with the suggestion that since some caterpillars "...are protected by a disagreeable taste or odour, it would be a positive advantage to them never to be mistaken for any of the palatable catterpillars [<i>sic</i>], because a slight wound such as would be caused by a peck of a bird's bill almost always I believe kills a growing catterpillar. Any gaudy & conspicuous colour therefore, that would plainly distinguish them from the brown & green eatable catterpillars, would enable <u>birds</u> to recognise them easily as <s>at</s> a kind not fit for food, & thus they would escape <u>seizure</u> which is as bad as being <u>eaten</u>."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Darwin was enthusiastic about the idea, Wallace asked the <a href="/wiki/Entomological_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomological Society of London">Entomological Society of London</a> to test the hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, the entomologist <a href="/wiki/John_Jenner_Weir" title="John Jenner Weir">John Jenner Weir</a> conducted experiments with caterpillars and birds in his aviary, and in 1869 he provided the first experimental evidence for warning coloration in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of aposematism surprised 19th-century naturalists because the probability of its establishment in a population was presumed to be low, since a conspicuous signal suggested a higher chance of predation.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poulton,_1890"><span id="Poulton.2C_1890"></span>Poulton, 1890</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Poulton, 1890"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_(first_use_of_Aposematic).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_%28first_use_of_Aposematic%29.jpg/220px-The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_%28first_use_of_Aposematic%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_%28first_use_of_Aposematic%29.jpg/330px-The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_%28first_use_of_Aposematic%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/The_Colours_of_Animals_Classified_According_to_Their_Uses_from_Poulton_1890_%28first_use_of_Aposematic%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>First edition of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colours_of_Animals" title="The Colours of Animals">The Colours of Animals</a></i>, 1890, introduced a set of new terms for animal coloration including "aposematic".</figcaption></figure> <p>Wallace coined the term "warning colours" in an article about animal coloration in 1877.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallace_1877_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace_1877-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1890 <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a> renamed the concept <i>aposematism</i> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colours_of_Animals" title="The Colours of Animals">The Colours of Animals</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marek_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marek-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He described the derivation of the term as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The second head (Sematic Colours) includes Warning Colours and Recognition Markings: the former warn an enemy off, and are therefore called Aposematic [Greek, <i>apo</i>, from, and <i>sema</i>, sign]<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890337–338_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulton1890337–338-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aposematism is paradoxical in <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> terms, as it makes individuals conspicuous to predators, so they may be killed and the trait eliminated before predators learn to avoid it.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If warning coloration puts the first few individuals at such a strong disadvantage, it would never last in the species long enough to become beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-mappes2005_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mappes2005-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supported_explanations">Supported explanations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Supported explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence for explanations involving <a href="/wiki/Dietary_conservatism" title="Dietary conservatism">dietary conservatism</a>, in which predators avoid new prey because it is an unknown quantity;<sup id="cite_ref-thomas2003_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is a long-lasting effect.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas2003_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-marples2005_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marples2005-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lindstrom2001_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindstrom2001-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dietary conservatism has been demonstrated experimentally in some species of birds and fish.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-thomas2003_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lindstrom2001_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindstrom2001-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further, birds recall and avoid objects that are both conspicuous and foul-tasting longer than objects that are equally foul-tasting but cryptically coloured.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that Wallace's original view, that warning coloration helped to teach predators to avoid prey thus coloured, was correct.<sup id="cite_ref-Roper1987_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roper1987-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some birds (inexperienced starlings and domestic chicks) also <a href="/wiki/Innate" title="Innate">innately</a> avoid conspicuously coloured objects, as demonstrated using mealworms painted yellow and black to resemble wasps, with dull green controls. This implies that warning coloration works at least in part by stimulating the evolution of predators to encode the meaning of the warning signal, rather than by requiring each new generation to learn the signal's meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Roper1987_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roper1987-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these results contradict the idea that novel, brightly coloured individuals would be more likely to be eaten or attacked by predators.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas2003_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_hypotheses">Alternative hypotheses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alternative hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other explanations are possible. Predators might innately fear unfamiliar forms (<a href="/wiki/Neophobia" title="Neophobia">neophobia</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-speed2001_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-speed2001-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> long enough for them to become established, but this is likely to be only temporary.<sup id="cite_ref-mappes2005_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mappes2005-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-speed2001_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-speed2001-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatively, prey animals might be sufficiently <a href="/wiki/Gregarious" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregarious">gregarious</a> to form clusters tight enough to enhance the warning signal. If the species was already unpalatable, predators might learn to avoid the cluster, protecting gregarious individuals with the new aposematic trait.<sup id="cite_ref-gamberale1998_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gamberale1998-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mappes1996_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mappes1996-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gregariousness would assist predators to learn to avoid unpalatable, gregarious prey.<sup id="cite_ref-ruxton2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruxton2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aposematism could also be favoured in dense populations even if these are not gregarious.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas2003_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-speed2001_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-speed2001-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another possibility is that a gene for aposematism might be <a href="/wiki/Recessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive">recessive</a> and located on the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brodie2001_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brodie2001-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If so, predators would learn to associate the colour with unpalatability from males with the trait, while heterozygous females carry the trait until it becomes common and predators understand the signal.<sup id="cite_ref-brodie2001_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brodie2001-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Well-fed predators might also ignore aposematic morphs, preferring other prey species.<sup id="cite_ref-mappes2005_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mappes2005-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A further explanation is that females might prefer brighter males, so <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> could result in aposematic males having higher reproductive success than non-aposematic males if they can survive long enough to mate. Sexual selection is strong enough to allow seemingly maladaptive traits to persist despite other factors working against the trait.<sup id="cite_ref-Maan,_M._E_2009_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maan,_M._E_2009-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once aposematic individuals reach a certain threshold population, for whatever reason, the predator learning process would be spread out over a larger number of individuals and therefore is less likely to wipe out the trait for warning coloration completely.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the population of aposematic individuals all originated from the same few individuals, the predator learning process would result in a stronger warning signal for surviving kin, resulting in higher inclusive fitness for the dead or injured individuals through <a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">kin selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A theory for the evolution of aposematism posits that it arises by reciprocal selection between predators and prey, where distinctive features in prey, which could be visual or chemical, are selected by non-discriminating predators, and where, concurrently, avoidance of distinctive prey is selected by predators. Concurrent reciprocal selection (CRS) may entail learning by predators or it may give rise to unlearned avoidances by them. Aposematism arising by CRS operates without special conditions of the gregariousness or the relatedness of prey, and it is not contingent upon predator sampling of prey to learn that aposematic cues are associated with unpalatability or other unprofitable features.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mimicry">Mimicry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mimicry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></div> <p>Aposematism is a sufficiently successful strategy to have had significant effects on the evolution of both aposematic and non-aposematic species. </p><p>Non-aposematic species have often <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimic</a> the conspicuous markings of their aposematic counterparts. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Hornet_moth" title="Hornet moth">hornet moth</a> is a deceptive mimic of the yellowjacket wasp; it resembles the wasp, but has no sting. A predator which avoids the wasp will to some degree also avoid the moth. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimicry</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a>, a British naturalist who studied Amazonian butterflies in the second half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Batesian mimicry is frequency dependent: it is most effective when the ratio of mimic to model is low; otherwise, predators will encounter the mimic too often.<sup id="cite_ref-Harper_1955–1961_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harper_1955–1961-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974112_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974112-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second form of mimicry occurs when two aposematic organisms share the same <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">anti-predator adaptation</a> and non-deceptively mimic each other, to the benefit of both species, since fewer individuals of either species need to be attacked for predators to learn to avoid both of them. This form of mimicry is known as <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller" title="Fritz Müller">Fritz Müller</a>, a German naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon</a> in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many species of bee and wasp that occur together are Müllerian mimics. Their similar coloration teaches predators that a striped pattern is associated with being stung. Therefore, a predator which has had a negative experience with any such species will likely avoid any that resemble it in the future. Müllerian mimicry is found in vertebrates such as the mimic poison frog (<i><a href="/wiki/Ranitomeya_imitator" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranitomeya imitator">Ranitomeya imitator</a></i>) which has several morphs throughout its natural geographical range, each of which looks very similar to a different species of poison frog which lives in that area.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 250.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 248.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrurus_tener.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A model (to be mimicked), the venomous and genuinely aposematic coral snake"><img alt="A model (to be mimicked), the venomous and genuinely aposematic coral snake" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg/373px-Micrurus_tener.jpg" decoding="async" width="249" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg/560px-Micrurus_tener.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="386" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A model (to be mimicked), the venomous and genuinely aposematic <a href="/wiki/Coral_snake" title="Coral snake">coral snake</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 208px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 206px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_milk_snake.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The harmless red milk snake, a Batesian mimic of the coral snake"><img alt="The harmless red milk snake, a Batesian mimic of the coral snake" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Red_milk_snake.JPG/309px-Red_milk_snake.JPG" decoding="async" width="206" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Red_milk_snake.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="342" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The harmless <a href="/wiki/Milk_snake" title="Milk snake">red milk snake</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimic" class="mw-redirect" title="Batesian mimic">Batesian mimic</a> of the coral snake</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSantos,_J._C.Coloma,_Luis_A.Cannatella,_D._C.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Santos, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crown+of+Thorns+Sea+Star&rft.pub=Shedd+Aquarium&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Shedd&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsea.sheddaquarium.org%2Fsea%2Ffact_sheets.asp%3Fid%3D69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inbar-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Inbar_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Inbar_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInbarLev-Yadun2005" class="citation journal cs1">Inbar, Moshe; Lev-Yadun, Simcha (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151216065258/http://research.haifa.ac.il/~minbar/Inbar%20%26%20Lev%202005.pdf">"Conspicuous and aposematic spines in the animal kingdom"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Naturwissenschaften</i>. <b>92</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">170–</span>172. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NW.....92..170I">2005NW.....92..170I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-005-0608-2">10.1007/s00114-005-0608-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15761732">15761732</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8525349">8525349</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.haifa.ac.il/~minbar/Inbar%20%26%20Lev%202005.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2015</span>. <q>defensive animal spines are often conspicuous (shape and colour) and should be considered aposematic... 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W (22 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275182">"Mimicry on the edge: why do mimics vary in resemblance to their model in different parts of their geographical range?"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>274</b> (1621): <span class="nowrap">1955–</span>1961. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0558">10.1098/rspb.2007.0558</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275182">2275182</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17567563">17567563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Mimicry+on+the+edge%3A+why+do+mimics+vary+in+resemblance+to+their+model+in+different+parts+of+their+geographical+range%3F&rft.volume=274&rft.issue=1621&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1955-%3C%2Fspan%3E1961&rft.date=2007-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2275182%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17567563&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0558&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rft.au=Pfennig%2C+D.+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2275182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974112-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmunds1974112_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdmunds1974">Edmunds 1974</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1878" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller" title="Fritz Müller">Müller, Fritz</a> (1878). "Ueber die Vortheile der Mimicry bei Schmetterlingen" [On the Advantages of Mimicry in Butterflies]. <i>Zoologischer Anzeiger</i> (in German). <b>1</b>: <span class="nowrap">54–</span>55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zoologischer+Anzeiger&rft.atitle=Ueber+die+Vortheile+der+Mimicry+bei+Schmetterlingen&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1879" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller" title="Fritz Müller">Müller, Fritz</a> (1879). "<i>Ituna</i> and <i>Thyridia</i>; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies". <i>Proclamations of the Entomological Society of London</i>. <b>1879</b>. Translated by R. Meldola: <span class="nowrap">20–</span>29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proclamations+of+the+Entomological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Ituna+and+Thyridia%3B+a+remarkable+case+of+mimicry+in+butterflies&rft.volume=1879&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwomeyBrown1986" class="citation web cs1">Twomey, Evan; Brown, Jason (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161025165447/http://www.dendrobates.org/imitator.html">"Ranitomeya imitator"</a>. <i>Dendrobates.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dendrobates.org/imitator.html">the original</a> on 25 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dendrobates.org&rft.atitle=Ranitomeya+imitator&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Twomey&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft.au=Brown%2C+Jason&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dendrobates.org%2Fimitator.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmunds1974" class="citation book cs1">Edmunds, Malcolm (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/defenceinanimals0000edmu"><i>Defence in Animals</i></a></span>. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-44132-3"><bdi>978-0-582-44132-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defence+in+Animals&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-582-44132-3&rft.aulast=Edmunds&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefenceinanimals0000edmu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulton1890" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Poulton, Edward Bagnall</a> (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/edward-bagnall-poulton/the-colours-of-animals-their-meaning-and-use-especially-considered-in-the-case-ala/1-the-colours-of-animals-their-meaning-and-use-especially-considered-in-the-case-ala.shtml"><i>The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Kegan_Paul,_Trench_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Kegan Paul, Trench and Company">Kegan Paul, Trench & Trübner</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colours+of+Animals%2C+their+meaning+and+use%2C+especially+considered+in+the+case+of+insects&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Kegan+Paul%2C+Trench+%26+Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Poulton&rft.aufirst=Edward+Bagnall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebooksread.com%2Fauthors-eng%2Fedward-bagnall-poulton%2Fthe-colours-of-animals-their-meaning-and-use-especially-considered-in-the-case-ala%2F1-the-colours-of-animals-their-meaning-and-use-especially-considered-in-the-case-ala.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuxtonSherrattSpeed2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Ruxton" title="Graeme Ruxton">Ruxton, Graeme D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_N._Sherratt" title="Thomas N. Sherratt">Sherratt, T. N.</a>; Speed, M. P. (2004). <i>Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852859-3"><bdi>978-0-19-852859-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoiding+Attack%3A+The+Evolutionary+Ecology+of+Crypsis%2C+Warning+Signals+and+Mimicry&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852859-3&rft.aulast=Ruxton&rft.aufirst=Graeme+D.&rft.au=Sherratt%2C+T.+N.&rft.au=Speed%2C+M.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAposematism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Warning_coloration" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Warning coloration">Warning coloration</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Coloration evidence for natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergent evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_examples_of_convergent_evolution" title="List of examples of convergent evolution">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">Alarm signal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Distraction display</a></li></ul></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vision_in_animals86" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vision_in_animals" title="Template:Vision in animals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vision_in_animals" title="Template talk:Vision in animals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vision_in_animals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vision in animals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vision_in_animals86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Vision in animals</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chameleon_vision" title="Chameleon vision">Chameleons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_vision" title="Dinosaur vision">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_in_fish" title="Vision in fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalian_vision" title="Mammalian vision">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equine_vision" title="Equine vision">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy#Vision" title="Dog anatomy">dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_senses#Sight" title="Cat senses">cats</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fish surveying its world"><img alt="Fish surveying its world" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg/140px-Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg/210px-Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg/280px-Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">Eyes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_eye" title="Arthropod eye">Arthropod eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">Compound eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_eye" title="Eagle eye">Eagle eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" title="Tapetum lucidum">Eye shine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_eye_in_invertebrates" title="Simple eye in invertebrates">Simple eye in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalian_eye" title="Mammalian eye">Mammalian eye</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusc_eye" title="Mollusc eye">Mollusc eye</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_eye" title="Cephalopod eye">cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropod_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod eye">gastropod</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holochroal_eye" title="Holochroal eye">Holochroal eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">Parietal eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizochroal_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizochroal eye">Schizochroal eye</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Evolution of the eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Evolution of color vision in primates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coloration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">Chromatophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-illumination" title="Counter-illumination">Counter-illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countershading" title="Countershading">Countershading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_coloration" title="Disruptive coloration">Disruptive coloration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coincident_disruptive_coloration" title="Coincident disruptive coloration">coincident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">Eyespot (mimicry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Animal senses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness_in_animals" title="Blindness in animals">Blindness in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_detection_(nervous_system)" title="Feature detection (nervous system)">Feature detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocular_deprivation" title="Monocular deprivation">Monocular deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ommatidium" title="Ommatidium">Ommatidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palpebral_(bone)" title="Palpebral (bone)">Palpebral (bone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopupil" title="Pseudopupil">Pseudopupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhopalium" title="Rhopalium">Rhopalium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Signalling_in_biology65" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Signalling_theory" title="Template:Signalling theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Signalling_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Signalling theory (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Signalling_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Signalling theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Signalling_in_biology65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling in biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-mimicry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">Advertising in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agonistic_behaviour" title="Agonistic behaviour">Agonistic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">Alarm signal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aposematism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_(zoology)" title="Display (zoology)">Display</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">Courtship display</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Distraction display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)#Mobbing_calls" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotting" title="Stotting">Stotting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mimicry217" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mimicry" title="Template:Mimicry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mimicry" title="Template talk:Mimicry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mimicry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mimicry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mimicry217" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry#Classification" title="Mimicry">In animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">Aggressive/Wicklerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">Ant/Myrmecomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Aristotelian/Distraction display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automimicry" title="Automimicry">Automimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locomotor_mimicry" title="Locomotor mimicry">Locomotor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_mimicry" title="Chemical mimicry">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emsleyan_mimicry" title="Emsleyan mimicry">Emsleyan/Mertensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">Eyespot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_mimicry" title="Sexual mimicry">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_vertebrates" title="Mimicry in vertebrates">In vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wasmannian_mimicry" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasmannian mimicry">Wasmannian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Batesplate_ArM.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Batesian mimicry in butterflies"><img alt="Batesian mimicry in butterflies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/70px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/105px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/140px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants" title="Mimicry in plants">In plants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants#Bakerian" title="Mimicry in plants">Bakerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants#Dodsonian" title="Mimicry in plants">Dodsonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbertian_mimicry" title="Gilbertian mimicry">Gilbertian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pouyannian_mimicry" title="Pouyannian mimicry">Pouyannian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vavilovian_mimicry" title="Vavilovian mimicry">Vavilovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Co-evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Coloration evidence for natural selection</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dazzled_and_Deceived" title="Dazzled and Deceived">Dazzled and Deceived</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry#Evolution" title="Mimicry">Mimicry#Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-dependent_selection" title="Frequency-dependent selection">Frequency-dependent selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagomimicry" title="Phagomimicry">Phagomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mimicry" title="Category:Mimicry">Category mimicry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&oldid=1270567454">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aposematism&oldid=1270567454</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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