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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>In arachnids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_arachnids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_cephalopods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_cephalopods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In cephalopods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_cephalopods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deimatic_or_aposematic?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deimatic_or_aposematic?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Deimatic or aposematic?</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deimatic_or_aposematic?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div 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<div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bluffing display of an animal used to startle or scare a predator</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG/330px-Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG/495px-Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG/660px-Spirama_helicina-W-Thailand7810.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Spirama_helicina" title="Spirama helicina">Spirama helicina</a></i> resembling the face of a snake in a deimatic or bluffing display</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Deimatic behaviour</b> or <b>startle display</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> means any pattern of bluffing <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">behaviour</a> in an animal that lacks strong defences, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">eyespots</a>, to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Springer_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term deimatic or <b>dymantic</b> originates from the Greek δειματόω (deimatóo), meaning "to frighten".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deimatic display occurs in widely separated groups of animals, including <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantodea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantodea">mantises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phasmatodea" title="Phasmatodea">phasmids</a> among the insects. In the cephalopods, different species of <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopuses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Argonaut_(animal)" title="Argonaut (animal)">paper nautilus</a> are deimatic. </p><p>Displays are classified as deimatic or <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematic</a> by the responses of the animals that see them. Where predators are initially startled but learn to eat the displaying prey, the display is classed as deimatic, and the prey is bluffing; where they continue to avoid the prey after tasting it, the display is taken as aposematic, meaning the prey is genuinely distasteful. However, these categories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. It is possible for a behaviour to be both deimatic and aposematic, if it both startles a predator and indicates the presence of <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">anti-predator adaptations</a>. </p><p>Vertebrates including several species of frog put on warning displays; some of these species have <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">poison</a> glands. Among the mammals, such displays are often found in species with strong defences, such as in foul-smelling <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunks</a> and spiny <a href="/wiki/Porcupine" title="Porcupine">porcupines</a>. Thus these displays in both frogs and mammals are at least in part aposematic. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_insects">In insects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In insects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolichodial.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dolichodial.svg/170px-Dolichodial.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dolichodial.svg/255px-Dolichodial.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dolichodial.svg/340px-Dolichodial.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Threat displays are not always deimatic bluff. Some stick insects spray the <a href="/wiki/Monoterpene" title="Monoterpene">monoterpene</a> chemical <a href="/wiki/Dolichodial" title="Dolichodial">dolichodial</a> when attacked, so their displays are honest <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg/220px-Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg/330px-Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg/440px-Notodontidae_-_Cerura_vinula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>A puss moth (<i><a href="/wiki/Cerura_vinula" title="Cerura vinula">Cerura vinula</a></i>) caterpillar displaying its two flagella on its tail and red patches on its head. If the threat does not retreat, the caterpillar can fire <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a> from its flagella.</figcaption></figure> <p>Deimatic displays are made by insects including the praying mantises (<a href="/wiki/Mantodea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantodea">Mantodea</a>) and stick insects (<a href="/wiki/Phasmatodea" title="Phasmatodea">Phasmatodea</a>). While undisturbed, these insects are usually well <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflaged</a>. When disturbed by a potential predator, they suddenly reveal their hind wings, which are brightly coloured. In mantises, the wing display is sometimes reinforced by showing brightly coloured front legs, and accompanied by a loud hissing sound created by <a href="/wiki/Stridulation" title="Stridulation">stridulation</a>. For example, the grasshopper <i><a href="/wiki/Phymateus" title="Phymateus">Phymateus</a></i> displays red and yellow areas on its hind wings; it is also aposematic, producing a distasteful secretion from its thorax.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly the threat display of the walking stick phasmid (<i><a href="/wiki/Peruphasma_schultei" title="Peruphasma schultei">Peruphasma schultei</a></i>) is not a bluff: the insect sprays defensive <a href="/wiki/Dolichodial" title="Dolichodial">dolichodial</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Monoterpene" title="Monoterpene">monoterpene</a> chemical compounds at attackers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a> with deimatic behaviour, the eyed hawkmoth (<i><a href="/wiki/Smerinthus_ocellatus" title="Smerinthus ocellatus">Smerinthus ocellatus</a></i>) displays its large eyespots, moving them slowly as if it were a vertebrate predator such as an <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>, the peacock butterfly <i><a href="/wiki/Aglais_io" title="Aglais io">Aglais io</a></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">cryptic</a> leaf mimic with wings closed, but displays four conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">eyespots</a> when disturbed, in a display effective against insectivorous birds (flycatchers).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An experiment by the Australian zoologist A. D. Blest demonstrated that the more an eyespot resembled a real vertebrate eye in both colour and pattern, the more effective it was in scaring off insectivorous birds. In another experiment using peacock butterflies, Blest showed that when the conspicuous eyespots had been rubbed off, insectivorous birds (yellow buntings) were much less effectively frightened off, and therefore both the sudden appearance of colour, and the actual eyespot pattern, contribute to the effectiveness of the deimatic display.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Noctuidae" title="Noctuidae">noctuid</a> <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>, such as the large <a href="/wiki/Red_underwing" title="Red underwing">red underwing</a> (<i>Catocala nupta</i>), are <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">cryptic</a> at rest, but display a flash of startlingly bright colours when disturbed.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, such as many species of genus <i><a href="/wiki/Speiredonia" title="Speiredonia">Speiredonia</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Spirama" title="Spirama">Spirama</a></i>, look threatening while at rest. Also <a href="/wiki/Saturniidae" title="Saturniidae">saturniid</a> moths of the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Attacus" title="Attacus">Attacus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Rothschildia" title="Rothschildia">Rothschildia</a></i> display snake heads, but not from the frontal position.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Arctiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctiidae">arctiid</a> moths make clicks when hunted by <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocating</a> bats; they also often contain unpalatable chemicals. Some such as dogbane tiger moths (<i><a href="/wiki/Cycnia_tenera" title="Cycnia tenera">Cycnia tenera</a></i>) have ears and conspicuous coloration, and start to make clicks when echolocating bats approach. An experiment by the Canadian zoologists John M. Ratcliffe and James H. Fullard, using dogbane tiger moths and northern long-eared bats (<i><a href="/wiki/Myotis_septentrionalis" title="Myotis septentrionalis">Myotis septentrionalis</a></i>), suggests that the signals in fact both disrupt echolocation and warn of chemical defence. The behaviour of these insects is thus both deimatic and aposematic.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deimatic display of the phasmid Peruphasma schultei"><img alt="Deimatic display of the phasmid Peruphasma schultei" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg/120px-Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg/180px-Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg/240px-Fl%C3%BCgel_Peruphasma_schultei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="220" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Deimatic display of the phasmid <i><a href="/wiki/Peruphasma_schultei" title="Peruphasma schultei">Peruphasma schultei</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Threat pose of the phasmid Haaniella dehaanii"><img alt="Threat pose of the phasmid Haaniella dehaanii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG/120px-Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG/180px-Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG/240px-Haaniella_dehaanii-subadult_threaten_female.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Threat pose of the <a href="/wiki/Phasmatodea" title="Phasmatodea">phasmid</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Haaniella_dehaanii" title="Haaniella dehaanii">Haaniella dehaanii</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="An adult female Mediterranean mantis, Iris oratoria, in threat pose"><img alt="An adult female Mediterranean mantis, Iris oratoria, in threat pose" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/120px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/180px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/240px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="1380" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An adult female Mediterranean <a href="/wiki/Mantis" title="Mantis">mantis</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Iris_oratoria" title="Iris oratoria">Iris oratoria</a></i>, in threat pose</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Female eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellatus, mounted to show the large eyespots"><img alt="Female eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellatus, mounted to show the large eyespots" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg/120px-Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg/180px-Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg/240px-Smerinthus_ocellatus_MHNT_Female_dos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5361" data-file-height="2863" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Female eyed hawkmoth, <i><a href="/wiki/Smerinthus_ocellatus" title="Smerinthus ocellatus">Smerinthus ocellatus</a></i>, mounted to show the large eyespots</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Peacock butterfly, Aglais io, is a cryptic leaf mimic when its wings are closed."><img alt="Peacock butterfly, Aglais io, is a cryptic leaf mimic when its wings are closed." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg/120px-Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg/180px-Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg/240px-Inachis_io_bottom_side.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1181" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Peacock butterfly, <i><a href="/wiki/Aglais_io" title="Aglais io">Aglais io</a></i>, is a cryptic leaf mimic when its wings are closed.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="With its wings open, the peacock butterfly displays startling eyespots."><img alt="With its wings open, the peacock butterfly displays startling eyespots." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg/120px-Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg/180px-Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg/240px-Aglais_io_-_geograph.org.uk_-_235513.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">With its wings open, the peacock butterfly displays startling eyespots.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Speiredonia_spectans.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Speiredonia spectans resting mimicking a brooding head"><img alt="Speiredonia spectans resting mimicking a brooding head" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speiredonia_spectans.jpg/120px-Speiredonia_spectans.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speiredonia_spectans.jpg/180px-Speiredonia_spectans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Speiredonia_spectans.jpg/240px-Speiredonia_spectans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1670" data-file-height="1218" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Speiredonia_spectans" title="Speiredonia spectans">Speiredonia spectans</a></i> resting mimicking a brooding head</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pseudocreobotra wahlbergii flashing its wings in deimatic pose"><img alt="Pseudocreobotra wahlbergii flashing its wings in deimatic pose" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg/120px-Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg/180px-Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg/240px-Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii_defence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Pseudocreobotra_wahlbergii" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudocreobotra wahlbergii">Pseudocreobotra wahlbergii</a></i> flashing its wings in deimatic pose</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray_plate8.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A fine large "Phasma" illustrated by George Robert Gray in 1833, showing cryptic resting pose and dramatic wing flash"><img alt="A fine large "Phasma" illustrated by George Robert Gray in 1833, showing cryptic resting pose and dramatic wing flash" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gray_plate8.jpeg/70px-Gray_plate8.jpeg" decoding="async" width="70" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gray_plate8.jpeg/105px-Gray_plate8.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gray_plate8.jpeg/140px-Gray_plate8.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="570" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A fine large "<i>Phasma</i>" illustrated by <a href="/wiki/George_Robert_Gray" title="George Robert Gray">George Robert Gray</a> in 1833, showing cryptic resting pose and dramatic wing flash</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_arachnids">In arachnids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In arachnids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both spiders and scorpions are venomous, so their threat displays can be considered generally aposematic. However, some predators such as <a href="/wiki/Hedgehog" title="Hedgehog">hedgehogs</a> and spider-hunting wasps (<a href="/wiki/Pompilidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompilidae">Pompilidae</a>) actively hunt arachnids, overcoming their defences, so when a hedgehog is startled by, for instance, the sounds made by a scorpion, there is reason to describe the display as deimatic.<sup id="cite_ref-EdwardsScorpion_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdwardsScorpion-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">Spiders</a> make use of a variety of different threat displays. Some such as <i><a href="/wiki/Argiope_(spider)" title="Argiope (spider)">Argiope</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pholcus" title="Pholcus">Pholcus</a></i> make themselves and their webs vibrate rapidly when they are disturbed; this blurs their outline and perhaps makes them look larger, as well as more difficult to locate precisely for an attack.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mygalomorphae" title="Mygalomorphae">Mygalomorphae</a> spiders such as <a href="/wiki/Tarantula" title="Tarantula">tarantulas</a> exhibit deimatic behaviour; when threatened, the spider rears back with its front legs and <a href="/wiki/Pedipalp" title="Pedipalp">pedipalps</a> spread and fangs bared. Some species, such as the dangerous Indian ornamental tree spider (<i><a href="/wiki/Poecilotheria_regalis" title="Poecilotheria regalis">Poecilotheria regalis</a></i>) have bright colouring on the front legs and mouthparts which are shown off in its threat display when it "rears up on its hind legs, and brandishes the fore limbs and palpi in the air".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">Scorpions</a> perform non-bluffing threat displays, as they have powerful defences, but various predators still eat them. When provoked, they spread their pincers and in some cases raise their abdomens, their tails standing near-erect with the sting ready for immediate use. Some scorpions in addition produce deimatic noises by stridulating with the pedipalps and first legs.<sup id="cite_ref-EdwardsScorpion_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdwardsScorpion-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tarantula,_Attacking_Position,_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aposematic threat display of Brazilian tarantula"><img alt="Aposematic threat display of Brazilian tarantula" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg/120px-Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg/180px-Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg/240px-Tarantula%2C_Attacking_Position%2C_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Aposematic threat display of Brazilian tarantula</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_Poecilotheria_regalis,_ventral_shot.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Belly of the spider Poecilotheria regalis. The bright yellow forelegs are used in deimatic displays."><img alt="Belly of the spider Poecilotheria regalis. The bright yellow forelegs are used in deimatic displays." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg/75px-Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg/113px-Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg/150px-Female_Poecilotheria_regalis%2C_ventral_shot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="757" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Belly of the spider <i><a href="/wiki/Poecilotheria_regalis" title="Poecilotheria regalis">Poecilotheria regalis</a></i>. The bright yellow forelegs are used in deimatic displays.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skorsh.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scorpion's threat display with pincers spread wide, abdomen raised to present sting"><img alt="Scorpion's threat display with pincers spread wide, abdomen raised to present sting" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Skorsh.jpg/120px-Skorsh.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Skorsh.jpg/180px-Skorsh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Skorsh.jpg/240px-Skorsh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="757" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Scorpion's threat display with pincers spread wide, abdomen raised to present sting</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_cephalopods">In cephalopods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In cephalopods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Octopus_macropus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/170px-Octopus_macropus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/255px-Octopus_macropus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/340px-Octopus_macropus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Deimatic display: <i><a href="/wiki/Callistoctopus_macropus" title="Callistoctopus macropus">Callistoctopus macropus</a></i> generates a bright brownish red colour with white oval spots when disturbed.</figcaption></figure> <p>Deimatic behaviour is found in <a href="/wiki/Cephalopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopoda">cephalopods</a> including the common cuttlefish <i><a href="/wiki/Sepia_officinalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepia officinalis">Sepia officinalis</a></i>, squid such as the Caribbean reef squid (<i><a href="/wiki/Sepioteuthis_sepioidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepioteuthis sepioidea">Sepioteuthis sepioidea</a></i>) and bigfin reef squid (<i><a href="/wiki/Sepioteuthis_lessoniana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepioteuthis lessoniana">Sepioteuthis lessoniana</a></i>), octopuses<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the common octopus <i><a href="/wiki/Octopus_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus vulgaris">Octopus vulgaris</a></i> and the Atlantic white-spotted octopus (<i><a href="/wiki/Octopus_macropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus macropus">Octopus macropus</a></i>), and the paper nautilus (<i><a href="/wiki/Argonauta_argo" title="Argonauta argo">Argonauta argo</a></i>). Deimatic cephalopod displays involve suddenly creating bold stripes, often reinforced by stretching out the animal's arms, fins or web to make it look as big and threatening as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, in the common cuttlefish the display consists of flattening the body, making the skin pale, showing a pair of eyespots on the mantle, dark eye rings, and a dark line on the fins, and dilating the pupils of the eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common octopus similarly displays pale skin and dark eye rings with dilated pupils, but also curls its arms and stretches out the web between the arms as far as possible, and squirts out jets of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other octopuses such as Atlantic white-spotted octopus turn bright brownish red with oval white spots all over in a high contrast display.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paper nautilus can rapidly change its appearance: it suddenly withdraws the shining iridescent web formed by its first pair of arms from its shell.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanlon_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_vertebrates">In vertebrates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg/220px-Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg/330px-Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg/440px-Chlamydosaurus_kingii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chlamydosaurus_kingii" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydosaurus kingii">Frill-necked lizard</a> faces predators, making itself look big with head frills, raising its body and waving its tail.</figcaption></figure> <p>Among vertebrates, the Australian frill-necked lizard (<i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydosaurus_kingii" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydosaurus kingii">Chlamydosaurus kingii</a></i>) has a startling display in which wide semicircular frills on either side of the head are fanned out; the mouth is opened wide exposing the gape; the tail is waved over the body, and the body is raised, so that the animal appears as large and threatening as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">Frogs</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Physalaemus_nattereri" title="Physalaemus nattereri">Physalaemus nattereri</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Physalaemus_deimaticus" title="Physalaemus deimaticus">Physalaemus deimaticus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Pleurodema_brachyops" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleurodema brachyops">Pleurodema brachyops</a></i> have a warning display behaviour. These animals inflate themselves with air and raise their hind parts to appear as large as possible, and display brightly coloured markings and eyespots to intimidate predators. Seven species of frogs in the genus <i>Pleurodema</i> have lumbar glands (making the animals distasteful, so in their case the display is likely aposematic); these glands are usually boldly contrasted in black as a further warning.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-bluffing (aposematic) displays occur in mammals which possess powerful defences such as spines or stink glands, and which habitually warn off potential predators rather than attempting escape by running. The lowland streaked tenrec (<i><a href="/wiki/Hemicentetes_semispinosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemicentetes semispinosus">Hemicentetes semispinosus</a></i>) raises the spines on its head and back when confronted by a predator, and moves its head up and down. Porcupines such as <i><a href="/wiki/Erethizon" title="Erethizon">Erethizon</a></i> erect their long sharp quills and adopt a hunched, head-down posture when a predator is nearby. The spotted skunk (<i><a href="/wiki/Spilogale_putorius" class="mw-redirect" title="Spilogale putorius">Spilogale putorius</a></i>) balances on its front legs, its body raised vertically with its bold pelage pattern conspicuously displayed, and its tail (near the scent glands) raised and spread out.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chamaeleo_namaquensis_(Namib-Naukluft,_2011).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Namaqua chameleon showing threat display with dewlap"><img alt="Namaqua chameleon showing threat display with dewlap" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg/120px-Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg/180px-Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg/240px-Chamaeleo_namaquensis_%28Namib-Naukluft%2C_2011%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2666" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Namaqua_chameleon" title="Namaqua chameleon">Namaqua chameleon</a> showing threat display with <a href="/wiki/Dewlap" title="Dewlap">dewlap</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Colombian four-eyed frog, Pleurodema brachyops"><img alt="Colombian four-eyed frog, Pleurodema brachyops" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg/120px-Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg/180px-Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg/240px-Pleurodema_brachyops.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="511" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Colombian four-eyed frog, <i><a href="/wiki/Pleurodema_brachyops" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleurodema brachyops">Pleurodema brachyops</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec,_Mantadia,_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lowland streaked tenrec, Hemicentetes semispinosus, erects spines on head and body when threatened."><img alt="Lowland streaked tenrec, Hemicentetes semispinosus, erects spines on head and body when threatened." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg/120px-Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg/180px-Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg/240px-Lowland_Streaked_Tenrec%2C_Mantadia%2C_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1284" data-file-height="1012" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lowland streaked tenrec, <i><a href="/wiki/Hemicentetes_semispinosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemicentetes semispinosus">Hemicentetes semispinosus</a></i>, erects spines on head and body when threatened.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eurasian eagle owl, Bubo bubo, erects the feathers on its neck to make itself appear larger."><img alt="Eurasian eagle owl, Bubo bubo, erects the feathers on its neck to make itself appear larger." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg/120px-1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg/180px-1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg/240px-1Puchacz_obronna_poza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="926" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Eurasian eagle owl, <i><a href="/wiki/Bubo_bubo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bubo bubo">Bubo bubo</a></i>, erects the feathers on its neck to make itself appear larger.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis, displays prominent lighter markings against black, with raised bushy tail, honestly advertising its squirting scent glands."><img alt="Striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis, displays prominent lighter markings against black, with raised bushy tail, honestly advertising its squirting scent glands." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg/120px-Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg/180px-Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg/240px-Striped_Skunk_Big_Bend_NP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="575" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Striped skunk, <i><a href="/wiki/Mephitis_mephitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mephitis mephitis">Mephitis mephitis</a></i>, displays prominent lighter markings against black, with raised bushy tail, honestly advertising its squirting scent glands.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Sunbittern, Eurypyga helias, opening its wings to display two large eye spots when threatened"><img alt="A Sunbittern, Eurypyga helias, opening its wings to display two large eye spots when threatened" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg/120px-Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg/180px-Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg/240px-Stavenn_Eurypiga_helias_00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Sunbittern, <i><a href="/wiki/Eurypyga_helias" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurypyga helias">Eurypyga helias</a></i>, opening its wings to display two large eye spots when threatened</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deimatic_or_aposematic?"><span id="Deimatic_or_aposematic.3F"></span>Deimatic or aposematic?</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Deimatic or aposematic?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Rattlesnake.ogg" title="File:Rattlesnake.ogg">Rattlesnake sound (length 15 s)</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="16" data-mwtitle="Rattlesnake.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Rattlesnake.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/22/Rattlesnake.ogg/Rattlesnake.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>In a study of the rattling made by <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a> of different species, the Canadian zoologists Brock Fenton and Lawrence Licht found that the sounds are always similar: they have rapid onset (starting suddenly, and reaching full volume in a few milliseconds); they consist of a "broadband" mixture of frequencies between 2 kHz and 20 kHz, with little energy either in the ultrasonic (above 20 kHz) or in the rattlesnakes' hearing range (below 700 Hz); and the frequencies do not change much with time (the rattling after two minutes having a similar spectrum to that at onset). There was no clear difference in the sounds made by the different species measured: <i><a href="/wiki/Crotalus_horridus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalus horridus">Crotalus horridus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Crotalus_adamanteus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalus adamanteus">Crotalus adamanteus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Crotalus_atrox" class="mw-redirect" title="Crotalus atrox">Crotalus atrox</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Crotalus_cerastes" title="Crotalus cerastes">Crotalus cerastes</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Crotalus_viridis" title="Crotalus viridis">Crotalus viridis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sistrurus_catenatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sistrurus catenatus">Sistrurus catenatus</a></i>. This pattern implies that the rattling "could serve as a general attention-getting device", which "is designed as a deimatic or startle display". Its similarity to the "broadband, harsh sounds" used as warning calls by birds and mammals may enhance its effectiveness. Since rattlesnakes can barely hear the sound, it is unlikely to serve as any form of communication to other snakes of the same species. Finally, the sounds are not in themselves loud enough to cause pain and hence keep predators away.<sup id="cite_ref-FentonLicht_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FentonLicht-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fenton and Licht note that the effect of a rattlesnake's rattling could be deimatic (startle) in inexperienced animals, whether predators or large animals that might injure the snake by stepping on it, but <a href="/wiki/Aposematic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aposematic">aposematic</a> (a warning signal) in animals that are aware of the rattle's meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-FentonLicht_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FentonLicht-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They refer to the work of Fenton and his colleague David Bates on the responses of the big brown bat, <i><a href="/wiki/Eptesicus_fuscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eptesicus fuscus">Eptesicus fuscus</a></i>, to the defensive clicks made by moths in the family <a href="/wiki/Arctiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctiidae">Arctiidae</a>, which includes the garden tiger moth, <i><a href="/wiki/Arctia_caja" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctia caja">Arctia caja</a></i>. This family includes large, furry, bitter-tasting or poisonous moths. They found that while sounds can startle inexperienced bats, after a few trials the bats ignored the sounds if the prey was edible; but the same sounds can warn experienced bats of bitter-tasting prey (an <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">honest signal</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-BatesFenton_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BatesFenton-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rattlesnake_Mivart.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Rattlesnake raising rattle on tail, drawn by St. George Mivart, On The Genesis of Species, 1871. The rattle may both startle inexperienced predators and warn off experienced ones."><img alt="Rattlesnake raising rattle on tail, drawn by St. George Mivart, On The Genesis of Species, 1871. The rattle may both startle inexperienced predators and warn off experienced ones." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rattlesnake_Mivart.png/99px-Rattlesnake_Mivart.png" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rattlesnake_Mivart.png/148px-Rattlesnake_Mivart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rattlesnake_Mivart.png/198px-Rattlesnake_Mivart.png 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1216" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rattlesnake raising rattle on tail, drawn by <a href="/wiki/St._George_Mivart" class="mw-redirect" title="St. George Mivart">St. George Mivart</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_The_Genesis_of_Species" class="extiw" title="s:On The Genesis of Species">On The Genesis of Species</a></i>, 1871. The rattle may both startle inexperienced predators and warn off experienced ones.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arctia_caja_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Garden tiger moth, Arctia caja, displays startling bright pattern of black spots on orange-red hindwings. The insect is bitter-tasting, so the pattern may be aposematic as well as deimatic."><img alt="Garden tiger moth, Arctia caja, displays startling bright pattern of black spots on orange-red hindwings. The insect is bitter-tasting, so the pattern may be aposematic as well as deimatic." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Arctia_caja_2010.jpg/120px-Arctia_caja_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Arctia_caja_2010.jpg/180px-Arctia_caja_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Arctia_caja_2010.jpg/240px-Arctia_caja_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Garden tiger moth, <i><a href="/wiki/Arctia_caja" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctia caja">Arctia caja</a></i>, displays startling bright pattern of black spots on orange-red hindwings. The insect is bitter-tasting, so the pattern may be aposematic as well as deimatic.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour/featured-articles/startle-displays-in-katydids">Startle Display</a>. Elsevier. Retrieved 17 December 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStevens2005" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Martin (2005). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interdisciplinary+Information+Sciences&rft.atitle=Some+Old+and+New+Genera+of+Octopus&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-112&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4036%2Fiis.2004.99&rft.aulast=Gleadall&rft.aufirst=Ian+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fir.library.tohoku.ac.jp%2Fre%2Fbitstream%2F10097%2F17309%2F1%2F10_99.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanlon-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanlon_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanlon and Messenger, 1998. pp 80–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigtonWood" class="citation web cs1">Wigton, Rachel; Wood, James B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160119135721/http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/MarineInvertebrateZoology/Octopusmacropus1.html">"Marine Invertebrates of Bermuda"</a>. <i>Grass octopus (Octopus macropus)</i>. 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Brock (1990). "Aposematism or startle? Predators learn their responses to the defenses of prey". <i>Canadian Journal of Zoology</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 49–52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990CaJZ...68...49B">1990CaJZ...68...49B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fz90-009">10.1139/z90-009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Zoology&rft.atitle=Aposematism+or+startle%3F+Predators+learn+their+responses+to+the+defenses+of+prey&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-52&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fz90-009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990CaJZ...68...49B&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft.au=Fenton%2C+M.+Brock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deimatic_behaviour&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCott1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bamford_Cott" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Bamford Cott">Cott, Hugh B.</a> (1940). <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals"><i>Adaptive Coloration in Animals</i></a>. London: Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptive+Coloration+in+Animals&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Cott&rft.aufirst=Hugh+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmunds1974" class="citation book cs1">Edmunds, Malcolm (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/defenceinanimals0000edmu"><i>Defence in Animals</i></a></span>. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-44132-3"><bdi>978-0-582-44132-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defence+in+Animals&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-582-44132-3&rft.aulast=Edmunds&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefenceinanimals0000edmu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmunds2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Edmunds, Malcolm (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i9ITMiiohVQC&pg=PA1173">"Deimatic Behavior"</a>. In Capinera, John L. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Entomology</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402062421" title="Special:BookSources/9781402062421"><bdi>9781402062421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deimatic+Behavior&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Entomology&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781402062421&rft.aulast=Edmunds&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di9ITMiiohVQC%26pg%3DPA1173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGullanCranston2010" class="citation book cs1">Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zeoq2zfHJGgC&pg=PA370"><i>Secondary Lines of Defense</i></a>. John Wiley - Blackwell. p. 370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444317671" title="Special:BookSources/9781444317671"><bdi>9781444317671</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secondary+Lines+of+Defense&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=John+Wiley+-+Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781444317671&rft.aulast=Gullan&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft.au=Cranston%2C+P.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzeoq2zfHJGgC%26pg%3DPA370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanlonMessenger1998" class="citation book cs1">Hanlon, Roger T.; Messenger, John B. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nxfv6xZZ6WYC&pg=PA80"><i>Cephalopod Behaviour</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521645836" title="Special:BookSources/9780521645836"><bdi>9780521645836</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cephalopod+Behaviour&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780521645836&rft.aulast=Hanlon&rft.aufirst=Roger+T.&rft.au=Messenger%2C+John+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNxfv6xZZ6WYC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarks1987" class="citation book cs1">Marks, Isaac Meyer (1987). <i>Fears, Phobias, and Rituals: The Nature of Anxiety and Panic Disorders</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fears%2C+Phobias%2C+and+Rituals%3A+The+Nature+of+Anxiety+and+Panic+Disorders&rft.pages=70-74&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Isaac+Meyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcFarland2006" class="citation book cs1">McFarland, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198607212.001.0001/acref-9780198607212-e-121">"Deimatic display"</a>. <i>A Dictionary of Animal Behaviour</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198607212.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198607212.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198607212" title="Special:BookSources/9780198607212"><bdi>9780198607212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deimatic+display&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Animal+Behaviour&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198607212.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780198607212&rft.aulast=McFarland&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198607212.001.0001%2Facref-9780198607212-e-121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuxtonSherrattSpeed2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruxton, Graeme D.; Sherratt, Thomas N.; Speed, Michael P. (2004). <i>Avoiding Attack: The evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852860-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852860-9"><bdi>978-0-19-852860-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoiding+Attack%3A+The+evolutionary+ecology+of+crypsis%2C+warning+signals+and+mimicry&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852860-9&rft.aulast=Ruxton&rft.aufirst=Graeme+D.&rft.au=Sherratt%2C+Thomas+N.&rft.au=Speed%2C+Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeimatic+behaviour" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">Alarm signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Distraction display</a></li></ul></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Signalling_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Signalling theory (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Signalling_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Signalling theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Signalling_in_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling in biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-mimicry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">Advertising in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agonistic_behaviour" title="Agonistic behaviour">Agonistic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">Alarm signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_(zoology)" title="Display (zoology)">Display</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">Courtship display</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Distraction display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)#Mobbing_calls" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotting" title="Stotting">Stotting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mimicry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mimicry" title="Template:Mimicry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mimicry" title="Template talk:Mimicry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mimicry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mimicry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mimicry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry#Classification" title="Mimicry">In animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">Aggressive/Wicklerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">Ant/Myrmecomorphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Aristotelian/Distraction display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automimicry" title="Automimicry">Automimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locomotor_mimicry" title="Locomotor mimicry">Locomotor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_mimicry" title="Chemical mimicry">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emsleyan_mimicry" title="Emsleyan mimicry">Emsleyan/Mertensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">Eyespot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_mimicry" title="Sexual mimicry">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_vertebrates" title="Mimicry in vertebrates">In vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wasmannian_mimicry" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasmannian mimicry">Wasmannian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Batesplate_ArM.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Batesian mimicry in butterflies"><img alt="Batesian mimicry in butterflies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/70px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/105px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Batesplate_ArM.jpg/140px-Batesplate_ArM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants" title="Mimicry in plants">In plants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants#Bakerian" title="Mimicry in plants">Bakerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry_in_plants#Dodsonian" title="Mimicry in plants">Dodsonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbertian_mimicry" title="Gilbertian mimicry">Gilbertian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pouyannian_mimicry" title="Pouyannian mimicry">Pouyannian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vavilovian_mimicry" title="Vavilovian mimicry">Vavilovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Co-evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Coloration evidence for natural selection</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dazzled_and_Deceived" title="Dazzled and Deceived">Dazzled and Deceived</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry#Evolution" title="Mimicry">Mimicry#Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-dependent_selection" title="Frequency-dependent selection">Frequency-dependent selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagomimicry" title="Phagomimicry">Phagomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></li> 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