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.mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style> <table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> This article includes a list of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this 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.sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style> <p>In law, a <b>witness</b> is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, either oral or written, of what they know or claim to know.</p> <p>A witness might be compelled to provide testimony in court, before a grand <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jury?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jury">jury</a>, before an administrative <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tribunal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a>, before a deposition officer, or in a variety of other legal proceedings. A <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Subpoena?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Subpoena">subpoena</a> is a legal document that commands a person to appear at a proceeding. It is used to compel the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Testimony?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Testimony">testimony</a> of a witness in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Trial_(law)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial (law)">trial</a>. Usually, it can be issued by a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Judge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Judge">judge</a> or by the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lawyer?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a> representing the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plaintiff?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a> or the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Defendant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Defendant">defendant</a> in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Civil_trial?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil trial">civil trial</a> or by the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prosecutor?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> or the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Defense_attorney?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense attorney">defense attorney</a> in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Criminal_procedure?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Criminal procedure">criminal proceeding</a>, or by a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Government_agency?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Government agency">government agency</a>. In many <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jurisdiction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a>, it is compulsory to comply with the subpoena and either take an <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oath?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oath">oath</a> or solemnly <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Affirmation_in_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmation in law">affirm</a> to testify truthfully under penalty of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perjury?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perjury">perjury</a>.</p> <p>Although informally a witness includes whoever perceived the event, in law, a witness is different from an informant. A <i>confidential informant</i> is someone who claimed to have witnessed an event or have hearsay information, but whose identity is being withheld from at least one party (typically the criminal defendant). The information from the confidential informant may have been used by a police officer or other official acting as a hearsay witness to obtain a search warrant.</p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Types"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Calling_a_witness"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Calling a witness</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Testimony"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Testimony</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Reliability"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Reliability</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Credibility"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Credibility</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Witnessing_of_wills_and_documents"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Witnessing of wills and documents</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Types" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>A <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perception">percipient</a> witness (or <b>eyewitness</b>) is one with knowledge obtained through their own <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sense?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sense">senses</a> (e.g., <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Visual_perception?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearing">hearing</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Olfaction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a>, touch). That perception might be either with the unaided human sense or with the aid of an instrument, such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Microscope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Microscope">microscope</a> or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Stethoscope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Stethoscope">stethoscope</a>.</p> <p>A <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearsay?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a></i> witness is one who testifies about what someone else said or wrote. In most court proceedings there are many limitations on when hearsay evidence is admissible. Such limitations do not apply to grand jury investigations, many administrative proceedings, and may not apply to declarations used in support of an arrest or search warrant. Also some types of statements are not deemed to be hearsay and are not subject to such limitations.</p> <p>An <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Expert_witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Expert witness">expert witness</a></i> is one who allegedly has specialized knowledge relevant to the matter of interest, which knowledge purportedly helps to either make sense of other evidence,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including other testimony, documentary evidence or physical evidence (e.g., a fingerprint). An expert witness may or may not also be a percipient witness, as in a doctor or may or may not have treated the victim of an accident or crime.</p> <p>A <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Character_witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Character witness">character witness</a></i> testifies about the personality of a defendant if it helps to solve the crime in question.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>A <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Crown_witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown witness">crown witness</a></i> is one who incriminates former accomplices in a crime who following receive either a lower sentence, immunity or also a protection of themselves or/and their family by the court. After they have provided the court with their testimony they often enter into a witness protection program.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>A <i><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Secret_witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Secret witness">secret witness</a></i> or <i>anonymous witness</i> is one whose identity is kept secret by the court.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248332772">.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text{width:95%;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-content{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox{border:none;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;margin:0 0 0 1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style></p> <table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> <div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"> <b>This section has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:EditPage/Witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:EditPage/Witness">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Talk:Witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Talk:Witness">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"> <table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> This section <b>does not <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:EditPage/Witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:EditPage/Witness">improve this section</a> by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"> <table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DWitness%26action%3Dedit%26section%3D">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2010</span>)</i></span> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Calling_a_witness">Calling a witness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Calling a witness" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Heinrich_Buscher.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Heinrich_Buscher.jpg/220px-Heinrich_Buscher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="450"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 287px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Heinrich_Buscher.jpg/220px-Heinrich_Buscher.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="287" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Heinrich_Buscher.jpg/330px-Heinrich_Buscher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Heinrich_Buscher.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Heinrich_Buscher&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Heinrich Buscher (page does not exist)">Heinrich Buscher</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Buscher" class="extiw" title="de:Heinrich Buscher">de</a>]</span> as a witness during the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a> </figcaption> </figure> <p>In a court proceeding, a witness may be <i>called</i> (requested to testify) by either the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prosecution?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecution</a> or the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Defense_(legal)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Defense (legal)">defense</a>. The side that calls the witness first asks questions in what is called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Direct_examination?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Direct examination">direct examination</a>. The opposing side then may ask their own questions in what is called <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cross-examination?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cross-examination">cross-examination</a>. In some cases, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Redirect_examination?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Redirect examination">redirect examination</a> may be used by the side that called the witness but usually only to contradict specific testimony from the cross-examination.</p> <p><b>Recalling a witness</b> means calling a witness, who has already given testimony in a proceeding, to give further testimony. A court may give leave to a party to recall a witness only to give evidence about a matter <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adduce" class="extiw" title="wikt:adduce">adduced</a> by another party if the second party's testimony contradicts evidence given by the original witness on direct examination.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Testimony">Testimony</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Testimony" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>Witnesses are usually permitted to testify only what they experienced first-hand. In most cases, they may not testify about something they were told (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearsay?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a>). That restriction does not apply to expert witnesses, but they may testify only in the area of their expertise.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Reliability">Reliability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Reliability" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>Although eyewitness testimony is often assumed to be more reliable than <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circumstantial evidence">circumstantial evidence</a>, studies have established that individual, separate witness testimony is often flawed.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mistaken <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eyewitness_identification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eyewitness identification">eyewitness identification</a> may result from such factors as faulty observation and recollection, or bias, or may involve a witness's knowingly giving false testimony. If several people witness a crime, it is possible to look for commonalities in their testimony, which are more likely to represent events as they occurred, although differences are to be expected and don't of themselves indicate dishonesty. Witness identification will help investigators get an idea of what a criminal suspect looks like, but eyewitness recollection include mistaken or misleading elements.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>One study involved an experiment, in which subjects acted as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Juror?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Juror">jurors</a> in a criminal case. Jurors heard a description of a robbery-murder, a prosecution argument, and then an argument for the defense. Some jurors heard only <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circumstantial evidence">circumstantial evidence</a>; others heard from a clerk who claimed to identify the defendant. In the former case, 18% percent found the defendant guilty, but in the latter case, 72% found the defendant guilty (Loftus 1988).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Police_lineup?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Police lineup">Police lineups</a> in which the eyewitness picks out a suspect from a group of people in the police station are often grossly suggestive, and they give the false impression that the witness remembered the suspect. In another study, students watched a staged crime. An hour later they looked through photos. A week later they were asked to pick the suspect out of lineups. 8% of the people in the lineups were mistakenly identified as criminals. 20% of the innocent people whose photographs were included were mistakenly identified.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Weapon_focus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a> effects in which the presence of a weapon impairs <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Memory">memory</a> for surrounding details is also an issue.</p> <p>Another study looked at 65 cases of "erroneous criminal convictions of innocent people." In 45% of the cases, eyewitness mistakes were responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-borchard_8-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-borchard-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The formal study of eyewitness memory is usually undertaken within the broader category of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cognition?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cognition">cognitive processes</a>, the different ways in which we make sense of the world around us. That is done by employing the mental skills at one's disposal like thinking, perception, memory, awareness, reasoning, and judgment. Although cognitive processes can be only inferred and cannot be seen directly, they all have very important practical implications within a legal context.</p> <p>If one were to accept that the way people think, perceive, reason, and judge is not always perfect, it becomes easier to understand why cognitive processes and the factors influencing the processes are studied by psychologists in matters of law, one being the grave implications that this imperfection can have within the criminal justice system.</p> <p>The study of witness memory has dominated the realm of investigation. As Huff and Rattner<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> note, the single most important factor contributing to wrongful conviction is eyewitness misidentification.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Credibility">Credibility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Credibility" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <p>A <b>credible witness</b> is a person who acts as a witness, including through giving <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Testimony?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Testimony">testimony</a> in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Court?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Court">court</a>, whose testimony is perceived as truthful and believable.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other witnesses may be perceived as less credible, or to have no credibility.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assessment of credibility is made of each witness, and is not affected by the number of witnesses who testify.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several factors affect witnesses' <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Credibility?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Credibility">credibility</a>. Generally, witnesses are perceived as more credible when they are perceived as more accurate and less suggestible.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <p>At <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Common_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Common law">common law</a>, the term could be used in relation to the giving of testimony, or for the witnessing of documents.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/English_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="English law">English law</a>, a credible witness is one who is <i>not</i> "speaking from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hearsay?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-wordprhase_18-0" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-wordprhase-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scottish_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish law">Scottish law</a>, a credible witness is one "whose credibility commends itself to the presiding magistrate ... the trustworthiness" of whom is good.<sup id="cite_ref-wordprhase_18-1" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-wordprhase-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Witnessing_of_wills_and_documents">Witnessing of wills and documents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Witnessing of wills and documents" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Credible witnesses must be used to give meaning or existence to certain types of legal documents. For example, in most <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Common_law_jurisdiction?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law jurisdiction">common law jurisdictions</a>, at least two witnesses must sign their names to a will in order to verify that it was executed by the testator. In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Canadian_law?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian law">Canadian law</a>, a credible witness to a Will means a witness who is not incapacitated by mental deficiency, conflict of interest, or crime.<sup id="cite_ref-wordprhase_18-2" class="reference"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-wordprhase-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Courthouse_facility_dog?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Courthouse facility dog">Courthouse facility dog</a> or courthouse dog</li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eyewitness_(disambiguation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Eyewitness (disambiguation)">Eyewitness (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eyewitness_identification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eyewitness identification">Eyewitness identification</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eyewitness_memory?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness memory</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Informant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Informant">Informant</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Martyr?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Martyr">Martyr</a> (a word which originally meant <i>witness</i>)</li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Material_witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Material witness">Material witness</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="United States Marshals Service">United States Marshals Service</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Witness_protection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Witness protection">Witness protection</a></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.justice.gov/usao/justice-101/discovery">"Discovery"</a>. <i>www.justice.gov</i>. 2014-11-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). <i>The people's law dictionary : taking the mystery out of legal language</i>. New York, NY: MJF Books. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781567315530?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/9781567315530"><bdi>9781567315530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+people%27s+law+dictionary+%3A+taking+the+mystery+out+of+legal+language&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=MJF+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781567315530&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Gerald+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTenneyMacCounSpellmanHastie2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tenney, Elizabeth R.; MacCoun, Robert J.; Spellman, Barbara A.; Hastie, Reid (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/92c2910g">"Calibration Trumps Confidence as a Basis for Witness Credibility"</a>. <i>Psychological Science</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 46–50. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1111%252Fj.1467-9280.2007.01847.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01847.x</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/PMID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17362377">17362377</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10464801">10464801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Calibration+Trumps+Confidence+as+a+Basis+for+Witness+Credibility&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46-50&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10464801%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17362377&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2007.01847.x&rft.aulast=Tenney&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+R.&rft.au=MacCoun%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Spellman%2C+Barbara+A.&rft.au=Hastie%2C+Reid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F92c2910g&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmanPhelps2005" class="citation book cs1">Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005). <i>West's Encyclopedia of American Law</i>. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 407. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780787663773?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/9780787663773"><bdi>9780787663773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=West%27s+Encyclopedia+of+American+Law&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=407&rft.pub=Thomson%2FGale&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780787663773&rft.aulast=Lehman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=Phelps%2C+Shirelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewcombeBransgrove2007" class="citation journal cs1">Newcombe, Peter A.; Bransgrove, Jennifer (July 2007). "Perceptions of witness credibility: Variations across age". <i>Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>28</b> (4): 318–331. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1016%252Fj.appdev.2007.04.003">10.1016/j.appdev.2007.04.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+witness+credibility%3A+Variations+across+age&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=318-331&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.appdev.2007.04.003&rft.aulast=Newcombe&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rft.au=Bransgrove%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeippeManionRomanczyk1992" class="citation journal cs1">Leippe, Michael R.; Manion, Andrew P.; Romanczyk, Ann (August 1992). "Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults' and children's memory reports?". <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>63</b> (2): 181–197. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1037%252F0022-3514.63.2.181">10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Eyewitness+persuasion%3A+How+and+how+well+do+fact+finders+judge+the+accuracy+of+adults%27+and+children%27s+memory+reports%3F&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=181-197&rft.date=1992-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.63.2.181&rft.aulast=Leippe&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rft.au=Manion%2C+Andrew+P.&rft.au=Romanczyk%2C+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2020" class="citation journal cs1">Wong, Anna (2020). "Looks Can Be Deceiving: The Irrelevance of Demeanour in Witness Assessments". <i>Criminal Law Quarterly</i>. <b>68</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criminal+Law+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Looks+Can+Be+Deceiving%3A+The+Irrelevance+of+Demeanour+in+Witness+Assessments&rft.volume=68&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-wordprhase-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-wordprhase_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-wordprhase_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eye-witness?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-wordprhase_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Words and phrases legally defined, Vol. 1</i> (3rd ed.). London: Butterworths. 1988. pp. 373–374. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780406080431?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/9780406080431"><bdi>9780406080431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Words+and+phrases+legally+defined%2C+Vol.+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=373-374&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Butterworths&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780406080431&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitness" class="Z3988"></span></span></li> </ol> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul> <li>Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946). <i>A Guide to Historical Method</i>. New York: Fordham University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-7132-6?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-7132-6">0-8371-7132-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Louis_R._Gottschalk?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Louis R. Gottschalk">Gottschalk, Louis</a> (1950). <i>Understanding History: A Primer of Historical Method</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-30215-X?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-30215-X">0-394-30215-X</a>.</li> <li>Johnson, M. K. (2001). False Memories, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International <i>Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5254–5259).</li> <li>Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In: Lakatos, I. & Musgrave, A. E. (eds.), <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 59–89.</li> <li>Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1996). <i>Eyewitness Testimony. Revised edition</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harward University Press. (Original edition: 1979).</li> <li>Read, J. D. (2001). Eyewitness Memory: Psychological Aspects. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International <i>Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5217–5221).</li> <li>Roediger III, H. L. (2001). Reconstructive Memory, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International <i>Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 12844–12849.</li> <li>Ross D F, Read J D, Toglia M P (1994) <i>Adult Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Shepherd J W, Ellis H D, Davies G M (1982). <i>Identification Evidence: A Psychological Evaluation</i>. Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, UK</li> <li>Thompson C P, Herrmann D, Read J D, Bruce D, Payne D G, Toglia, M P (1998). <i>Eyewitness Memory: Theoretical and Applied Perspective</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.lfcc.on.ca/cwp.htm">Child Witness Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012080301/http://www.lfcc.on.ca/cwp.htm">Archived</a> 2013-10-12 at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wayback_Machine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/CrimeJusticeAndTheLaw/VictimsOfCrime/index.htm">Victims and witnesses of crime (Directgov, England and Wales)</a></li> </ul> <div class="navbox-styles"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Witness&action=history&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"><span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="InternetArchiveBot" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1707860396"> <span>Last edited on 13 February 2024, at 21:39</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div></a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2587%25D8%25AF" title="شاهد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شاهد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigu" title="Testigu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Testigu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C5%259Eahid" title="Şahid – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şahid" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%25C3%25A8ng-j%25C3%25AEn" title="Chèng-jîn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chèng-jîn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A8%25D0%25B0%25D2%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582" title="Шаһит – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Шаһит" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB" title="Свидетел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Свидетел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimoni_(dret_processal)" title="Testimoni (dret processal) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Testimoni (dret processal)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259A%25D3%25B3%25D0%25BD%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD" title="Кӳнтелен – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кӳнтелен" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%25C4%259Bdek" title="Svědek – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Svědek" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapupu" title="Chapupu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chapupu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidne" title="Vidne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vidne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeuge" title="Zeuge – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zeuge" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigo" title="Testigo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Testigo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lekuko" title="Lekuko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lekuko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2587%25D8%25AF" title="شاهد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شاهد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%25C3%25A9moin" title="Témoin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Témoin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsj%25C3%25BBge_(rjocht)" title="Tsjûge (rjocht) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Tsjûge (rjocht)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemoni" title="Testemoni – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Testemoni" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemu%25C3%25B1a_ocular" title="Testemuña ocular – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Testemuña ocular" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EC%25A6%259D%25EC%259D%25B8" title="증인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="증인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D5%258E%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1_(%25D5%25AB%25D6%2580%25D5%25A1%25D5%25BE%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25B6%25D6%2584)" title="Վկա (իրավունք) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վկա (իրավունք)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svjedok" title="Svjedok – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Svjedok" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testo" title="Testo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Testo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi" title="Saksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Saksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimone_(diritto)" title="Testimone (diritto) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Testimone (diritto)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%25A2%25D7%2593" title="עד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B2%25B8%25E0%25B2%25BE%25E0%25B2%2595%25E0%25B3%258D%25E0%25B2%25B7%25E0%25B2%25BF_(%25E0%25B2%2595%25E0%25B2%25BE%25E0%25B2%25A8%25E0%25B3%2582%25E0%25B2%25A8%25E0%25B3%2581)" title="ಸಾಕ್ಷಿ (ಕಾನೂನು) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾಕ್ಷಿ (ಕಾನೂನು)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259A%25D1%2583%25D3%2599%25D0%25BD%25D1%2596%25D2%25A3_%25D2%259B%25D2%25B1%25D2%259B%25D1%258B%25D2%2593%25D1%258B" title="Куәнің құқығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Куәнің құқығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govan" title="Govan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Govan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testis" title="Testis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Testis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi" title="Saksi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Saksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getuige" title="Getuige – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Getuige" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25A8%25BC%25E4%25BA%25BA" title="証人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="証人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitne" title="Vitne – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitne" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitne" title="Vitne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vitne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guvoh" title="Guvoh – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Guvoh" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%2597%25E0%25A8%25B5%25E0%25A8%25BE%25E0%25A8%25B9" title="ਗਵਾਹ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਵਾਹ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C5%259Awiadek" title="Świadek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Świadek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemunho_(direito)" title="Testemunho (direito) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Testemunho (direito)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martor" title="Martor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Martor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BB%25D1%258C" title="Свидетель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Свидетель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%25B1%25A5%25E1%25B1%259F.%25E1%25B1%25A0%25E1%25B1%25B7%25E1%25B1%25A4" title="ᱥᱟ.ᱠᱷᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱟ.ᱠᱷᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%25C3%25ABshmitari" title="Dëshmitari – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dëshmitari" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witness" title="Witness – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Witness" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BA" title="Сведок – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сведок" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todistaja" title="Todistaja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Todistaja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittne" title="Vittne – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vittne" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B0%25B8%25E0%25B0%25BE%25E0%25B0%2595%25E0%25B1%258D%25E0%25B0%25B7%25E0%25B0%25BF" title="సాక్షి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సాక్షి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B8%259E%25E0%25B8%25A2%25E0%25B8%25B2%25E0%25B8%2599%25E0%25B8%259A%25E0%25B8%25B8%25E0%25B8%2584%25E0%25B8%2584%25E0%25B8%25A5" title="พยานบุคคล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พยานบุคคล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D1%2583%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE%25D2%25B3" title="Гувоҳ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гувоҳ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan%25C4%25B1k" title="Tanık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tanık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25B2%25D1%2596%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BA" title="Свідок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Свідок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25DA%25AF%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25DB%2581" title="گواہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گواہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%25C3%25A2n_ch%25E1%25BB%25A9ng" title="Nhân chứng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhân chứng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25AD%2589%25E4%25BA%25BA" title="證人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="證人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25AD%2589%25E4%25BA%25BA" title="證人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="證人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> <img 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