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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history_of_Islam_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Early history of Islam in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history_of_Islam_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab–Indian_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab–Indian_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Arab–Indian interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab–Indian_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_history_of_Islam_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history_of_Islam_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Political history of Islam in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_history_of_Islam_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_the_Indian_independence_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_the_Indian_independence_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Role in the Indian independence movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_the_Indian_independence_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partition_of_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partition_of_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Partition of India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partition_of_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Percentage_by_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Percentage_by_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Percentage by states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Percentage_by_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_growth_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_growth_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Population growth rate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_growth_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illegal_immigrants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illegal_immigrants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Illegal immigrants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illegal_immigrants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Projections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religiosity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religiosity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Religiosity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religiosity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denominations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denominations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Denominations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Denominations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Denominations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Denominations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sunni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Sunni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Shia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bohra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bohra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Bohra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bohra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khojas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khojas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Khojas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khojas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sufis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sufis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Sufis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sufis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ahmadiyya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahmadiyya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Ahmadiyya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahmadiyya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quranists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quranists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Quranists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quranists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_traditions_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_traditions_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Islamic traditions in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_traditions_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intra-Muslim_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intra-Muslim_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Intra-Muslim relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intra-Muslim_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shia–Sunni_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia–Sunni_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Shia–Sunni relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia–Sunni_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Religious administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_institutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_institutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Muslim institutes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_institutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_universities_and_institutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_universities_and_institutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Modern universities and institutes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_universities_and_institutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_Islamic_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_Islamic_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Traditional Islamic universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_Islamic_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership_and_organisations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_and_organisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Leadership and organisations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership_and_organisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caste_system_among_Indian_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caste_system_among_Indian_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Caste system among Indian Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caste_system_among_Indian_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1 Stratification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_and_mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_and_mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.2 Interaction and mobility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_and_mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Segregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Segregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Segregation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Segregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consanguineous_marriages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consanguineous_marriages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Consanguineous marriages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consanguineous_marriages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Art and architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mosques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.1 Mosques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tombs_and_mausoleum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tombs_and_mausoleum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.2 Tombs and mausoleum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tombs_and_mausoleum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Styles_of_Islamic_architecture_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Styles_of_Islamic_architecture_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.3 Styles of Islamic architecture in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Styles_of_Islamic_architecture_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law,_politics,_and_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law,_politics,_and_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Law, politics, and government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Law,_politics,_and_government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Law, politics, and government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Law,_politics,_and_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active_Muslim_political_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_Muslim_political_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Active Muslim political parties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_Muslim_political_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslims_in_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslims_in_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Muslims in government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslims_in_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haj_subsidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haj_subsidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Haj subsidy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haj_subsidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_and_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_and_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Conflict and controversy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conflict_and_controversy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Conflict and controversy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Conflict_and_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conversion_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Conversion controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_non-Muslim_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_non-Muslim_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Relations with non-Muslim communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_non-Muslim_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muslim–Hindu_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim–Hindu_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Muslim–Hindu conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim–Hindu_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim–Sikh_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim–Sikh_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Muslim–Sikh conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim–Sikh_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Muslim_News_Agencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Muslim_News_Agencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Indian Muslim News Agencies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Muslim_News_Agencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominent_Muslims_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_Muslims_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Prominent Muslims in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_Muslims_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Islam in India</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="الإسلام في الهند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإسلام في الهند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="ভারতে ইসলাম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভারতে ইসলাম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_sa_indya" title="Islam sa indya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Islam sa indya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1m_v_Indii" title="Islám v Indii – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Islám v Indii" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Indien" title="Islam in Indien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Islam in Indien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BC_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ισλάμ στην Ινδία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισλάμ στην Ινδία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamo_en_Barato" title="Islamo en Barato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islamo en Barato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="اسلام در هند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسلام در هند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_en_Inde" title="Islam en Inde – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Islam en Inde" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%95%99" title="印度伊斯蘭教 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="印度伊斯蘭教" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musulunci_a_Indiya" title="Musulunci a Indiya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Musulunci a Indiya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="भारत में इस्लाम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत में इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_di_India" title="Islam di India – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Islam di India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%95" title="אסלאם בהודו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אסלאם בהודו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_ing_India" title="Islam ing India – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Islam ing India" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C4%81ms_Indij%C4%81" title="Islāms Indijā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Islāms Indijā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82" title="ഇന്ത്യയിലെ ഇസ്‌ലാം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇന്ത്യയിലെ ഇസ്‌ലാം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_di_India" title="Islam di India – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Islam di India" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Islam in India" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%81%AB%E3%81%8A%E3%81%91%E3%82%8B%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0" title="インドにおけるイスラーム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インドにおけるイスラーム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindistonda_Islom" title="Hindistonda Islom – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hindistonda Islom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="بھارت وچ اسلام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بھارت وچ اسلام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzu%C5%82manie_w_Indiach" title="Muzułmanie w Indiach – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Muzułmanie w Indiach" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Ислам в Индии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ислам в Индии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%AE_%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2_%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮ ᱤᱥᱞᱟᱢ ᱡᱚᱞᱦᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮ ᱤᱥᱞᱟᱢ ᱡᱚᱞᱦᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Islam in India" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%84%DB%95_%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ئیسلام لە ھیندستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیسلام لە ھیندستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_i_Indien" title="Islam i Indien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islam i Indien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_sa_India" title="Islam sa India – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Islam sa India" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lislam_di_Lhind" title="Lislam di Lhind – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Lislam di Lhind" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Һиндстанда ислам – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Һиндстанда ислам" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B_%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82" title="భారతదేశంలో ఇస్లాం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భారతదేశంలో ఇస్లాం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindistan%27da_%C4%B0slam" title="Hindistan'da İslam – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hindistan'da İslam" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Іслам в Індії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іслам в Індії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="بھارت میں اسلام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بھارت میں اسلام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99" title="印度伊斯兰教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="印度伊斯兰教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%95%99" title="印度伊斯蘭教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印度伊斯蘭教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Indian Muslims" and "Muslims in India" redirect here. For Islam in the Indian subcontinent, see <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam in South Asia</a>. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Muslims_in_India_(book)" title="Muslims in India (book)">Muslims in India (book)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Islam in India</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Jama_Masjid,_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of India showing the number of Muslims in each state according to the 2011 Indian census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg/280px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg/420px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg/560px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi_-_IMGL5299_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="3344" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Jama_Masjid,_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jama Masjid, Delhi">Jama Masjid, Delhi</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #d2ccb9">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a> 200 million <img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a> (14.61% of the population)<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> (<a href="/wiki/2021_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="2021 Census of India">2021 Census</a> est.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #d2ccb9">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Islam in Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></th><td class="infobox-data">38,483,970<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_West_Bengal" title="Islam in West Bengal">West Bengal</a></th><td class="infobox-data">24,654,830<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bihar" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Bihar">Bihar</a></th><td class="infobox-data">17,557,810<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Maharashtra" title="Islam in Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></th><td class="infobox-data">12,971,150<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Assam" title="Islam in Assam">Assam</a></th><td class="infobox-data">10,679,350<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kerala" title="Islam in Kerala">Kerala</a></th><td class="infobox-data">8,873,470<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)#Religion" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></th><td class="infobox-data">8,567,490<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andhra_Pradesh#Islam" title="Religion in Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> (includes present-day Telangana)</th><td class="infobox-data">8,082,410<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Karnataka#Islam" title="Religion in Karnataka">Karnataka</a></th><td class="infobox-data">7,893,070<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Rajasthan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></th><td class="infobox-data">6,215,380<a href="#cite_note-statista-numbers-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #d2ccb9">Religions</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Majority <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> with minor <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #d2ccb9">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist">Liturgical <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Quranic Arabic">Quranic Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li>Common <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a>,<a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtrian_Konkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharashtrian Konkani">Maharashtrian Konkani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nawayathi_dialect" title="Nawayathi dialect">Nawayathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Beary language">Beary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malvani_Konkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Malvani Konkani">Malvani Konkani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Pangon</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">languages of India</a></li></ul></div></li> <li>Traditional <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabi_Malayalam" title="Arabi Malayalam">Arabi Malayalam</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_in_India" title="Category:Islam in India">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#31644d;color:white;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam in India</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Jamia Masjid is the largest Mosque of India"><img alt="Jamia Masjid is the largest Mosque of India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG/200px-Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG/300px-Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG/400px-Jama_Masjid_Delhi.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="822" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Ubaidullah" title="Sheikh Ubaidullah">Sheikh Ubaidullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_bin_Deenar" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik bin Deenar">Malik bin Deenar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perumal" title="Perumal">Cheraman Perumal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheraman Juma Masjid">Cheraman Juma Masjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmani Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarat_Sultanate" title="Gujarat Sultanate">Gujarat Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunhali_Marakkar_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kunhali Marakkar I">Kunhali Marakkar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Raja" title="Ali Raja">Ali Raja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar Rebellion">Malabar Rebellion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Architecture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/File:Jumma_mazjid,_Zinad_Baksh,_Bunder,_Mangalore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Masjid Zeenath Baksh is the 3rd oldest mosque in India"><img alt="Masjid Zeenath Baksh is the 3rd oldest mosque in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg/200px-Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg/300px-Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg/400px-Jumma_mazjid%2C_Zinad_Baksh%2C_Bunder%2C_Mangalore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2301" data-file-height="3000" /></a> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Saracenic_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture">Indo-Saracenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharqi_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharqi architecture">Sharqi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Ubaidullah" title="Sheikh Ubaidullah">Sheikh Ubaidullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_bin_Deenar" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik bin Deenar">Malik bin Deenar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moinuddin_Chishti" class="mw-redirect" title="Moinuddin Chishti">Moinuddin Chishti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakhtiar_Kaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakhtiar Kaki">Bakhtiar Kaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizamuddin_Auliya" title="Nizamuddin Auliya">Nizamuddin Auliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir Khusrow">Amir Khusrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkar_Waris_Pak" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarkar Waris Pak">Sarkar Waris Pak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainuddin_Makhdoom_II" title="Zainuddin Makhdoom II">Zainuddin Makhdoom II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Raza_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Raza Khan">Ahmad Raza Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Sanaullah_Makti_Tangal" title="Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal">Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Maulana Abul Kalam Azad">Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammedali_Shihab_Thangal" title="Syed Muhammedali Shihab Thangal">Panakkad Shihab Thangal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._K._Aboobacker_Musliyar" title="E. K. Aboobacker Musliyar">E. K. Aboobacker Musliyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Ali_Kutty_Musliyar" title="K. Ali Kutty Musliyar">K. Ali Kutty Musliyar</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Famous families and ethnicities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Islam in Uttar Pradesh">Islam in Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslims" title="Bengali Muslims">Bengali Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_Muslims" title="Kashmiri Muslims">Kashmiri Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_Muslims" title="Rajasthani Muslims">Rajasthani Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Muslims" title="Gujarati Muslims">Gujarati Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappilas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappilas">Mappilas</a> (Kerala)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabadi_Muslims" title="Hyderabadi Muslims">Hyderabadi Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja" title="Khoja">Khoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memon_people" title="Memon people">Memons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vora_Patel" title="Vora Patel">Vora Patel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihari_Muslims" title="Bihari Muslims">Bihari Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriya_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriya Muslims">Oriya Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Muslims">Tamil Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakhini_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Dakhini Muslims">Dakhini Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawayath" title="Nawayath">Nawayath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beary" title="Beary">Bearys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Saits" class="mw-redirect" title="The Saits">The Saits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meo_(ethnic_group)" title="Meo (ethnic group)">Meo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Bohra" title="Sunni Bohra">Sunni Bohras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Biradari" title="Iraqi Biradari">Iraqi Biradari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_India" title="Arabs in India">Arabs (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayamkhani" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayamkhani">Kayamkhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goan_Muslims" title="Goan Muslims">Goan Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaush" title="Chaush">Chaush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddi" title="Siddi">Siddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shershahabadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shershahabadia">Shershahabadia</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Schools of law</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%60i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi`i">Shafi`i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aligarh_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Aligarh movement">Aligarh movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barelvi_movement" title="Barelvi movement">Barelvi movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_movement" title="Deobandi movement">Deobandi movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Mosques in India</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_India" title="List of mosques in India">List of mosques in India</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Universities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jami%27a_Nooriyya_Arabic_College" title="Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College">Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Nizamia" title="Jamia Nizamia">Jamia Nizamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliah_University" title="Aliah University">Aliah University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darul_Huda_Islamic_University" title="Darul Huda Islamic University">Darul Huda Islamic University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markazu_Saqafathi_Sunniyya" title="Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya">Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamiatur_Raza" title="Jamiatur Raza">Jamiatur Raza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jame-atul-Islamia" title="Al-Jame-atul-Islamia">Al-Jame-atul-Islamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jamiatul_Ashrafia" title="Al Jamiatul Ashrafia">Al Jamiatul Ashrafia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manzar-e-Islam" title="Manzar-e-Islam">Manzar-e-Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27din_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'din Academy">Ma'din Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeenathul_Uloom_Arabic_College" title="Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College">Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Influential bodies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Jamaat" title="Muslim Jamaat">Muslim Jamaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board" title="All India Muslim Personal Law Board">All India Muslim Personal Law Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind">Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Ulema_%26_Mashaikh_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="All India Ulema & Mashaikh Board">All India Ulema & Mashaikh Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahle_Sunnat_Movement_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia">Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raza_Academy" title="Raza Academy">Raza Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Shia_Personal_Law_Board" title="All India Shia Personal Law Board">All India Shia Personal Law Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Muslim_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Muslim nationalism">Indian Muslim nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_chronicles_for_Indian_history" title="Muslim chronicles for Indian history">Muslim chronicles for Indian history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Majlis-e-Ittehadul_Muslimeen" title="All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen">All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen</a></li> <li>Samastha <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samastha_Kerala_Jem-iyyathul_Ulama_(1926%E2%80%931989)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989) (page does not exist)">Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samastha_Kerala_Jem-iyyathul_Ulama_(1989%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present)">Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_Nadvathul_Mujahideen" title="Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen">Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246112391">.mw-parser-output .sb-ibc img{background-color:white}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sb-ibc"><a href="/wiki/File:Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/200px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/300px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/400px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">World percentage of <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> by country</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Africa" title="Islam in Africa">Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Algeria" title="Islam in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Angola" title="Islam in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Botswana" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Islam in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Burundi" title="Islam in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cameroon" title="Islam in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cape_Verde" title="Islam in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Islam in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Chad" title="Islam in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Comoros" title="Islam in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Islam in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Islam in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Djibouti" title="Islam in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Islam in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Eritrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Eswatini" title="Islam in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ethiopia" title="Islam in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Gabon" title="Islam in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Gambia" title="Islam in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ghana" title="Islam in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Guinea" title="Islam in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Islam in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Islam in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kenya" title="Islam in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Lesotho" title="Islam in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Liberia" title="Islam in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Libya" title="Islam in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Madagascar" title="Islam in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Malawi" title="Islam in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mali" title="Islam in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mauritania" title="Islam in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mauritius" title="Islam in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mayotte" title="Islam in Mayotte">Mayotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Morocco" title="Islam in Morocco">Morocco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Western_Sahara" title="Islam in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mozambique" title="Islam in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Namibia" title="Islam in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Niger" title="Islam in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Nigeria" title="Islam in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_R%C3%A9union" title="Islam in Réunion">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Rwanda" title="Islam in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Islam in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Senegal" title="Islam in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Seychelles" title="Islam in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Islam in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Somalia" title="Islam in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Africa" title="Islam in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Sudan" title="Islam in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sudan" title="Islam in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tanzania" title="Islam in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Togo" title="Islam in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tunisia" title="Islam in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uganda" title="Islam in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Zambia" title="Islam in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Zimbabwe" title="Islam in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Asia" title="Islam in Asia">Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Afghanistan" title="Islam in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Armenia" title="Islam in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Azerbaijan" title="Islam in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bahrain" title="Islam in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bangladesh" title="Islam in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Brunei" title="Islam in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cambodia" title="Islam in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cyprus" title="Islam in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Islam in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Hong_Kong" title="Islam in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Islam in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Israel" title="Islam in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Japan" title="Islam in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Jordan" title="Islam in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan" title="Islam in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Korea" title="Islam in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kuwait" title="Islam in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Islam in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Laos" title="Islam in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Lebanon" title="Islam in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Macau" title="Islam in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Malaysia" title="Islam in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Maldives" title="Islam in Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mongolia" title="Islam in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Myanmar" title="Islam in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Nepal" title="Islam in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Oman" title="Islam in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Pakistan" title="Islam in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Palestine" title="Islam in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Philippines" title="Islam in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Qatar" title="Islam in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Islam in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Singapore" title="Islam in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Islam in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Taiwan" title="Islam in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tajikistan" title="Islam in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Thailand" title="Islam in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey" title="Islam in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkmenistan" title="Islam in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Islam in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uzbekistan" title="Islam in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Vietnam" title="Islam in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Yemen" title="Islam in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in the Americas">Americas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Islam in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Argentina" title="Islam in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_The_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in The Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Barbados" title="Islam in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bolivia" title="Islam in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Brazil" title="Islam in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Canada" title="Islam in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Chile" title="Islam in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Colombia" title="Islam in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Costa_Rica" title="Islam in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cuba" title="Islam in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Dominica" title="Islam in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Islam in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ecuador" title="Islam in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_El_Salvador" title="Islam in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_French_Guiana" title="Islam in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Grenada" title="Islam in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Guatemala" title="Islam in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Guyana" title="Islam in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Haiti" title="Islam in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Honduras" title="Islam in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Jamaica" title="Islam in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mexico" title="Islam in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Nicaragua" title="Islam in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Panama" title="Islam in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Paraguay" title="Islam in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Peru" title="Islam in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Islam in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Islam in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Islam in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Suriname" title="Islam in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Islam in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_States" title="Islam in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uruguay" title="Islam in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Venezuela" title="Islam in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Europe" title="Islam in Europe">Europe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Albania" title="Islam in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Andorra" title="Islam in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Austria" title="Islam in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Belarus" title="Islam in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Belgium" title="Islam in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bulgaria" title="Islam in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Croatia" title="Islam in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Islam in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Denmark" title="Islam in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Estonia" title="Islam in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Finland" title="Islam in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_France" title="Islam in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Germany" title="Islam in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Greece" title="Islam in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Hungary" title="Islam in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iceland" title="Islam in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Italy" title="Islam in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kosovo" title="Islam in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Latvia" title="Islam in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Liechtenstein" title="Islam in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Lithuania" title="Islam in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Luxembourg" title="Islam in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Malta" title="Islam in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Moldova" title="Islam in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Montenegro" title="Islam in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Netherlands" title="Islam in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_North_Macedonia" title="Islam in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Norway" title="Islam in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Poland" title="Islam in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Portugal" title="Islam in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Romania" title="Islam in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tatarstan" title="Islam in Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_San_Marino" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Serbia" title="Islam in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Slovakia" title="Islam in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Slovenia" title="Islam in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Spain" title="Islam in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sweden" title="Islam in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Switzerland" title="Islam in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Ukraine" title="Islam in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Islam in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_England" title="Islam in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Islam in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Scotland" title="Islam in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Wales" title="Islam in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Oceania" title="Islam in Oceania">Oceania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Australia" title="Islam in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Christmas_Island" title="Islam in Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Islam in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Islam in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Fiji" title="Islam in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Islam in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_New_Caledonia" title="Islam in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_New_Zealand" title="Islam in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Islam in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Palau" title="Islam in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Islam in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Samoa" title="Islam in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Islam in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tonga" title="Islam in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tuvalu" title="Islam in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Vanuatu" title="Islam in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_by_country" title="Template:Islam by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_by_country" title="Template talk:Islam by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Islam is India's <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">second-largest religion</a>, with 14.2% of the country's population, or approximately 172.2 million people, identifying as adherents of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in a 2011 census.<a href="#cite_note-2011census-Religion-pca-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> also has the <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">third-largest</a> number of <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-2015-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The majority of India's Muslims are <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> making up around 15% of the Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-USSD-IRFR-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> spread in Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> shortly after the religion emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. Islam arrived in the inland of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> in the 7th century when the Arabs invaded and conquered <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> and later arrived in <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> in the 12th century via the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids conquest</a> and has since become a part of India's <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">religious and cultural heritage</a>. The Barwada Mosque in <a href="/wiki/Ghogha" title="Ghogha">Ghogha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> built before 623 CE, <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Mosque" title="Cheraman Juma Mosque">Cheraman Juma Mosque</a> (629 CE) in <a href="/wiki/Methala" title="Methala">Methala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaiya_Jumma_Palli" title="Palaiya Jumma Palli">Palaiya Jumma Palli</a> (or The Old Jumma Masjid, 628–630 CE) in <a href="/wiki/Kilakarai" title="Kilakarai">Kilakarai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> are three of <a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_India" title="List of mosques in India">the first mosques in India</a> which were built by <a href="/wiki/Seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafaring">seafaring</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Legend_of_Cheraman_Perumals" class="mw-redirect" title="Legend of Cheraman Perumals">legend of Cheraman Perumals</a>, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> with the mandate of the last ruler (the Tajudeen Cheraman Perumal) of the <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera dynasty</a>, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Prophet Muhammad</a> (c. 570–632). Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Tamil Muslims</a> on the eastern coasts also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div> The vast majority of the Muslims in India belong to <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">South Asian ethnic groups</a>. However, some Indian Muslims were found with detectable, traceable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from the Middle East and Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-genestudy-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kashif-ul-Huda-19">[19]</a> However, they are found in very low levels.<a href="#cite_note-Kashif-ul-Huda-19">[19]</a> Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of the concept of Kafa'a.<a href="#cite_note-EoI-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sikand-22">[22]</a> Those who are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashraf">Ashrafs</a> are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreign <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> ancestry,<a href="#cite_note-pratap_caste-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-zarina_social_strat-24">[24]</a> while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts from <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, and have a lower status But According to Islamic teachings, Muslims are regarded as one <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>, and dividing into sects is considered a sin, as it contradicts the unity and brotherhood emphasized in the Quran and Hadith.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The Prophet Muhammad, in his final sermon, stated that no Arab is superior to a non-Arab, neither is a white superior to a black, nor a black to a white, except by piety and good deeds.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Which Emphasize the principle of equality among Muslims. Many of these ulema also believed that it is best to marry within one's own caste. The practice of endogamous marriage in one's caste is strictly observed in India.<a href="#cite_note-dalitmuslims.com-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In two of the three genetic studies referenced here, in which is described that samples were taken from several regions of India's Muslim communities, it was again found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated, with some having minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-genestudy-18">[18]</a> Research on the comparison of Y chromosomes of Indian Muslims with other Indian groups was published in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-genestudy-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kashif-ul-Huda-19">[19]</a> In this study 124 Sunnis and 154 Shias of Uttar Pradesh were randomly selected for their genetic evaluation. Other than Muslims, Hindu higher and middle caste group members were also selected for the genetic analysis. Out of 1021 samples in this study, only 17 samples showed E haplogroup and all of them were Shias. The very minor increased frequency however, does place these Shias, solely with regards to their haplogroups, closer to Iraqis, Turks and Palestinians.<a href="#cite_note-genestudy-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kashif-ul-Huda-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history_of_Islam_in_India">Early history of Islam in India</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/220px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/330px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/440px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption>Names, routes and locations of the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a> (1st century CE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG/250px-Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG/375px-Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG/500px-Cheraman_jumamasjid.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheraman Juma Masjid">Cheraman Perumal Juma Masjid</a> on the Malabar Coast, probably the first Mosque in India.</figcaption></figure> Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> since ancient times. Even in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic era</a>, Arab traders used to visit the <a href="/wiki/Konkan" title="Konkan">Konkan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> coast and <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>, which linked them with the ports of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam's first contact with India. Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their book <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_India,_as_Told_by_Its_Own_Historians" title="The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians">The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians</a>, that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. H. G. Rawlinson in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> claims that the first <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a> settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. This fact is corroborated by J. Sturrock in his Madras District Manuals<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> and by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> With the rise of Islam, Arabs emerged as a significant cultural force on the global stage. Through their extensive trade and commerce networks, Arab merchants and traders became key ambassadors of the faith, shared its teachings wherever they traveled.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> According to popular tradition, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was brought to <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> islands, situated just to the west of <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Ubaidullah" title="Sheikh Ubaidullah">Ubaidullah</a> in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of <a href="/wiki/Andrott" title="Andrott">Andrott</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> A few <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from <a href="/wiki/Kothamangalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kothamangalam">Kothamangalam</a> in the eastern part of <a href="/wiki/Ernakulam_district" title="Ernakulam district">Ernakulam district</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TheEncyclopediaofIslam2-34">[34]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Mappila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila">Kerala Muslim</a> tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Masjid_Zeenath_Baksh" title="Masjid Zeenath Baksh">Masjid Zeenath Baksh</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a> is one of the oldest mosques in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Legend_of_Cheraman_Perumals" class="mw-redirect" title="Legend of Cheraman Perumals">Legend of Cheraman Perumals</a>, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera dynasty</a>, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of the <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (c. 570–632).<a href="#cite_note-SimpsonKresse2008-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kupferschmidt1987-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Raṇṭattāṇi2007-38">[38]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Qissat_Shakarwati_Farmad" title="Qissat Shakarwati Farmad">Qissat Shakarwati Farmad</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Masjids</a> at <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madayi" title="Madayi">Madayi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barkur" title="Barkur">Barkur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod" title="Kasaragod">Kasaragod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Kannur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharmadam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmadam">Dharmadam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koyilandy" title="Koyilandy">Panthalayini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chaliyam" title="Chaliyam">Chaliyam</a>, were built during the era of <a href="/wiki/Malik_Dinar" title="Malik Dinar">Malik Dinar</a>, and they are among the oldest Masjids in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> It is believed that <a href="/wiki/Malik_Dinar" title="Malik Dinar">Malik Dinar</a> died at <a href="/wiki/Thalangara" title="Thalangara">Thalangara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kasaragod" title="Kasaragod">Kasaragod</a> town.<a href="#cite_note-ch-40">[40]</a> The first Indian <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Mosque" title="Cheraman Juma Mosque">Cheraman Juma Mosque</a>, is thought to have been built in 629 CE by <a href="/wiki/Malik_Deenar" class="mw-redirect" title="Malik Deenar">Malik Deenar</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> although some historians say the first mosque was in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> in between 610 and 623 CE.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Malabar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabar region">Malabar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mappila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila">Mappilas</a> may have been the first community to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and many other natives embraced Islam. According to legend, two travellers from India, Moulai <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_(Ismaili_Mustaali_Missionary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)">Abdullah</a> (formerly known as Baalam Nath) and Maulai Nuruddin (Rupnath), went to the court of <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_Billah" title="Al-Mustansir Billah">Mustansir</a> (427–487 AH)/(1036–1094 CE) and were so impressed that they converted to Islam and came back to preach in India in 467 AH/1073 CE. Moulai Ahmed was their companion. <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_(Ismaili_Mustaali_Missionary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah (Ismaili Mustaali Missionary)">Abadullah</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_Dai_of_Dawoodi_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra">Wali-ul-Hind</a> (saint of India). He came across a married couple named Kaka Akela and Kaki Akela who became his first converts in the <a href="/wiki/Taiyabi_Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiyabi Ismaili">Taiyabi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Bohra</a>) community.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab–Indian_interactions">Arab–Indian interactions</h3></div> Historical evidence shows that Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the early days of Islam and possibly before the arrival of Islam in Arab regions. Arab traders transmitted the <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">numeral system developed by Indians</a> to the Middle East and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century. <a href="/wiki/George_Saliba" title="George Saliba">George Saliba</a> in his book "Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance", writes that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the second <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Abbasid caliph al-Mansur</a> (r. 754–775), if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated."<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds; they were as ancient a phenomenon as the monsoon itself. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India.<a href="#cite_note-A_history_of_the_Sikhs-p20-46">[46]</a> The advent of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (569–632 CE) transformed the previously <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">idolatrous</a> and fragmented Arabs into a nation unified by faith and driven by a shared commitment to spreading the message of Islam. Arab merchant seamen, who had long brought goods like dates to South India, now introduced the new religion, which found a warm reception in the region. <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South Indian</a> communities welcomed the construction of mosques and facilitated cultural integration, including intermarriage between Arabs and local women. This led to the formation of a distinct Indian-Arabian Muslim community. By the early 9th century, Muslim missionaries in Malabar achieved a significant milestone when they inspired the conversion of the local king to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-A_history_of_the_Sikhs-p20-46">[46]</a> According to historian Derryl N. Maclean, early connections between Sindh (in present-day Pakistan) and the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> supporters of Ali can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi. A <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">companion of Muhammad</a>, Hakim traveled through Sind to <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a> in 649 CE, reporting on the region to the Caliph. A devoted supporter of Ali, Hakim died in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel" title="Battle of the Camel">Battle of the Camel</a> alongside Sindhi <a href="/wiki/Jats" title="Jats">Jats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali ibn Abu Talib</a> have survived, as reported in Chachnama.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[a]</a> During Ali's leadership, numerous Jats in Sind embraced Islam,<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> influenced by the efforts of figures like Harith ibn Murrah al-Abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, officers in Ali’s army. In 658 CE, they led campaigns against Sindhi <a href="/wiki/Banditry" title="Banditry">bandits</a>, pursuing them as far as Al-Qiqan (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Quetta" title="Quetta">Quetta</a>).<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Sayfi was later killed in 660 CE near Damascus as one of seven loyal companions of Ali who were beheaded alongside <a href="/wiki/Hujr_ibn_%27Adi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hujr ibn 'Adi">Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> in 660 CE, near Damascus. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_history_of_Islam_in_India">Political history of Islam in India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_kingdoms_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taj_mahal_(1870s).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg/220px-Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg/330px-Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg/440px-Taj_mahal_%281870s%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Agra" title="Agra">Agra</a>, India. It was built under <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> in the 17th century, and represents <a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png/220px-Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png/330px-Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png/440px-Sindian_Foot_Soldier_in_his_War_Dress.png 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>A Sindhi Muslim</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a> (672 CE), at the age of 17, was the first Muslim general to invade the Indian subcontinent, managing to reach <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>. In the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place between the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> and the Indian kingdoms; resulted in <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_campaigns_in_India" title="Umayyad campaigns in India">Umayyad campaigns in India</a> checked and contained to Sindh.<a href="#cite_note-Crawford-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[b]</a> Around the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic empire, the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> (971–1030 CE), was the second, much more ferocious invader, using <a href="/wiki/Courser_(horse)" title="Courser (horse)">swift-horse</a> cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains. Eventually, under the <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a>, the Muslim army broke into the North Indian Plains, which lead to the establishment of the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> in 1206 by the slaves of the Ghurid dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> The sultanate was to control much of <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a> and to make many forays into South India. However, internal squabbling resulted in the decline of the sultanate, and new Muslim sultanates such as the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a> in the east breaking off,<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> while in the Deccan the <a href="/wiki/Urdu-speaking_people" title="Urdu-speaking people">Urdu-speaking</a> colonists from Delhi, who carried the <a href="/wiki/Urdu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Urdu language">Urdu language</a> to the Deccan, founded the <a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmanid Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> In 1339, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mir" title="Shah Mir">Shah Mir</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-Kashmir or <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mir_dynasty" title="Shah Mir dynasty">Shah Mir dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-imp-gazet-history-60">[58]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, there was a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Culture">Indian civilization</a> with that of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic civilization</a>, and the integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>, which had a significant impact on <a href="/wiki/Indian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian culture">Indian culture</a> and society.<a href="#cite_note-asher-50-52-61">[59]</a> The time period of their rule included the earliest forms of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> increased growth rates in <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">India's population</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">economy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-maddison379-64">[62]</a> and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-brown2008-65">[63]</a> The Delhi Sultanate was also responsible for repelling the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>'s potentially devastating <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">invasions of India</a> in the 13th and 14th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-asher-50-51-66">[64]</a> The period coincided with a greater use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. From the 13th century onwards, India began widely adopting mechanical technologies from the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water-raising wheels</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulleys</a>, machines with <a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">cams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">cranks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pacey-67">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> technology,<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Codice_Casanatense_Malabarese_Muslims_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1694" data-file-height="1203" /></a><figcaption>Muslim family from <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a>, 1540</figcaption></figure> In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> The resulting <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200617-73">[71]</a> leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.<a href="#cite_note-Asher-Talbot-2008-p152-74">[72]</a> Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200617-73">[71]</a> The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture<a href="#cite_note-Asher-Talbot-2008-p158-75">[73]</a> and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein1998169-76">[74]</a> caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.<a href="#cite_note-Asher-Talbot-2008-p152-74">[72]</a> The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,<a href="#cite_note-Asher-Talbot-2008-p152-74">[72]</a> resulting in greater patronage of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">painting</a>, literary forms, textiles, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Asher-Talbot-2008-p186-77">[75]</a> The Mughal Empire was the <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_world#Proto-industrialization" title="Economic history of the world">world's largest economy</a> in the 17th century, larger than <a href="/wiki/Qing_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing China">Qing China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, with Mughal India producing about a quarter of the world's economic and industrial output.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-williamson-79">[77]</a> In the 18th century, Mughal power had become severely limited. By the mid-18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Marathas</a> had routed Mughal armies and invaded several Mughal provinces from the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> By this time, the dominant economic powers in the Indian subcontinent were <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Nawabs_of_Bengal" title="Nawabs of Bengal">Nawabs of Bengal</a> and the South Indian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a> under <a href="/wiki/Hyder_Ali" title="Hyder Ali">Hyder Ali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>, before the former was devastated by the <a href="/wiki/Maratha_invasions_of_Bengal" title="Maratha invasions of Bengal">Maratha invasions of Bengal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Chaudhuri253-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marshall73-82">[80]</a> leading to the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore">economy of the Kingdom of Mysore</a> overtaking Bengal.<a href="#cite_note-Parthasarathi45-83">[81]</a> The <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Bengal in 1757</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Mysore in the late 18th century</a>. The last Mughal emperor, <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahadur Shah II">Bahadur Shah II</a>, had authority over only the city of Old Delhi (<a href="/wiki/Shahjahanabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahjahanabad">Shahjahanabad</a>), before he was exiled to Burma by the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II with sons Mirza Jawan Bakht & Mirza Shah Abbas"><img alt="Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II with sons Mirza Jawan Bakht & Mirza Shah Abbas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg/132px-Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg/197px-Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg/263px-Last_Mughal_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_II_with_sons_Mirza_Jawan_Bakht_%26_Mirza_Shah_Abbas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II with sons Mirza Jawan Bakht & Mirza Shah Abbas</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Durbar Procession of Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II in British India"><img alt="Durbar Procession of Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II in British India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png/153px-Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png" decoding="async" width="153" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png/230px-Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png/306px-Akbar_Shah_II_procession_guards.png 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="870" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Durbar Procession of Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II in British India</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_in_the_Indian_independence_movement">Role in the Indian independence movement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div> The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in the history of India's struggle for independence. <a href="/wiki/Titumir" title="Titumir">Titumir</a> raised a revolt against the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Abul Kalam Azad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakim_Ajmal_Khan" title="Hakim Ajmal Khan">Hakim Ajmal Khan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rafi_Ahmed_Kidwai" title="Rafi Ahmed Kidwai">Rafi Ahmed Kidwai</a> are other Muslims who engaged in this endeavour.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Ashfaqulla_Khan" title="Ashfaqulla Khan">Ashfaqulla Khan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shahjahanpur" title="Shahjahanpur">Shahjahanpur</a> conspired to loot the British treasury at <a href="/wiki/Kakori" title="Kakori">Kakori</a>(<a href="/wiki/Lucknow" title="Lucknow">Lucknow</a>) (See <a href="/wiki/Kakori_conspiracy" title="Kakori conspiracy">Kakori conspiracy</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Bacha_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacha Khan">Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan</a> (popularly known as "Frontier Gandhi") was a noted nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail; <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hafiz_Mohamed_Barakatullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah">Barakatullah of Bhopal</a> was one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Ghadar_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghadar Party">Ghadar Party</a>, which created a network of anti-British organisations; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar Party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful <a href="/wiki/Ghadar_Mutiny" title="Ghadar Mutiny">Ghadar Mutiny</a> in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of <a href="/wiki/Faizabad" title="Faizabad">Faizabad</a> (UP) planned the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Mutiny</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of <a href="/wiki/Jaunpur,_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh">Jaunpur</a>, and was hanged in 1917; <a href="/wiki/Vakkom_Moulavi" title="Vakkom Moulavi">Vakkom Abdul Khadir</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> participated in the "<a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a>" struggle in 1942 and was hanged; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire from Bombay, provided <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> with Congress expenses and ultimately died for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, <a href="/wiki/Begum_Hazrat_Mahal" title="Begum Hazrat Mahal">Hazrat Mahal</a>, Asghari Begum, and Bi Amma contributed in the struggle for independence from the British.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi,_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Gandhi%2C_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg/170px-Gandhi%2C_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Gandhi%2C_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg/255px-Gandhi%2C_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Gandhi%2C_Patel_and_Maulana_Azad_Sept_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="303" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Maulana Azad</a> was a prominent leader of the Indian independence movement and a strong advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity. Shown here is Azad (left) with <a href="/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Sardar Patel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> in 1940.</figcaption></figure> Other famous Muslims who fought for independence against <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule</a> were <a href="/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Abul Kalam Azad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Hasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud al-Hasan">Mahmud al-Hasan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a>, who was implicated in the famous <a href="/wiki/Silk_Letter_Movement" title="Silk Letter Movement">Silk Letter Movement</a> to overthrow the British through an armed struggle, <a href="/wiki/Husain_Ahmad_Madani" class="mw-redirect" title="Husain Ahmad Madani">Husain Ahmad Madani</a>, former Shaikhul Hadith of <a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubaidullah_Sindhi" title="Ubaidullah Sindhi">Ubaidullah Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakim_Ajmal_Khan" title="Hakim Ajmal Khan">Hakim Ajmal Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasrat_Mohani" title="Hasrat Mohani">Hasrat Mohani</a>, Syed Mahmud, <a href="/wiki/Ahmadullah_Shah" title="Ahmadullah Shah">Ahmadullah Shah</a>, Professor <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hafiz_Mohamed_Barakatullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah">Maulavi Barkatullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maghfoor_Ahmad_Ajazi" title="Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi">Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakir Husain (politician)">Zakir Husain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saifuddin_Kitchlew" title="Saifuddin Kitchlew">Saifuddin Kitchlew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vakkom_Moulavi" title="Vakkom Moulavi">Vakkom Abdul Khadir</a>, Manzoor Abdul Wahab, <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahadur Shah II">Bahadur Shah Zafar</a>, Hakeem Nusrat Husain, <a href="/wiki/Bacha_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacha Khan">Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Samad_Khan_Achakzai" title="Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai">Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai</a>, Colonel Shahnawaz, <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_Ahmed_Ansari" title="Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari">Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rafi_Ahmed_Kidwai" title="Rafi Ahmed Kidwai">Rafi Ahmed Kidwai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fakhruddin_Ali_Ahmed" title="Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed">Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed</a>, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, V. M. Obaidullah, S.R. Rahim, <a href="/wiki/Badruddin_Tyabji" title="Badruddin Tyabji">Badruddin Tyabji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abid_Hasan" title="Abid Hasan">Abid Hasan</a> and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.<a href="#cite_note-zakaria-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ali-85">[83]</a> Until 1920, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>, later the founder of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> and was part of the independence struggle. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a>, poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu–Muslim unity and an undivided India, perhaps until 1930. <a href="/wiki/Huseyn_Shaheed_Suhrawardy" title="Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy">Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy</a> was also active in the Indian National Congress in Bengal, during his early political career. <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Jouhar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Ali Jouhar">Mohammad Ali Jouhar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaukat_Ali" title="Shaukat Ali">Shaukat Ali</a> struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for independence alongside <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> and Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Partition_of_India">Partition of India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: left; width: 33%;">I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, opposing the division of India on the basis of religion in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Prasoon2010-86">[84]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg/260px-1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg/390px-1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg/520px-1946_Map_of_British_India_with_areas_demanded_for_separate_Pakistan_by_Muslim_League.jpg 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>The Partition of British India was based on religion. The negotiations failed several times, with differing demands about boundaries, as shown in this map of 1946.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">partition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a> led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">dominions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Pakistan</a> (that later split into the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Pakistan">Islamic Republic of Pakistan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">People's Republic of Bangladesh</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">India</a> (later <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Republic of India</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Indian Independence Act 1947</a> had decided 15 August 1947, as the appointed date for the partition. However, Pakistan celebrates its day of creation on 14 August.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The partition of India was set forth in the Act and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and the end of the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>. It resulted in a struggle between the newly constituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5 million people with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between India and Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12 million).<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="India–Pakistan relations">their relationship</a> to this day.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Badshah_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badshah_Khan.jpg/170px-Badshah_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badshah_Khan.jpg/255px-Badshah_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Badshah_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a> in 1930. Also known as Frontier Gandhi, Khan led the non-violent opposition against the British Raj and strongly opposed the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a>.</figcaption></figure> The partition included the geographical <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">division of the Bengal province</a> into <a href="/wiki/East_Bengal" title="East Bengal">East Bengal</a>, which became part of Pakistan (from 1956, <a href="/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a>). <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a> became part of India, and a similar partition of the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India)" title="Punjab Province (British India)">Punjab province</a> became <a href="/wiki/West_Punjab" title="West Punjab">West Punjab</a> (later the <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_Pakistan" title="Punjab, Pakistan">Pakistani Punjab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamabad_Capital_Territory" title="Islamabad Capital Territory">Islamabad Capital Territory</a>) and <a href="/wiki/East_Punjab" title="East Punjab">East Punjab</a> (later the <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Indian Punjab</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>). The partition agreement also included the division of Indian government assets, including the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Service_(British_India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Civil Service (British India)">Indian Civil Service</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Navy_(1612%E2%80%931950)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Indian Navy (1612–1950)">Royal Indian Navy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Indian railways</a> and the central treasury, and other administrative services.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>, at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Viceroy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Lord Mountbatten</a> of Burma, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Pakistan)" title="Independence Day (Pakistan)">Pakistan's Independence Day</a> is celebrated on 14 August and <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(India)" title="Independence Day (India)">India's</a> on 15 August.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East).<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.<a href="#cite_note-Post-Imperial_World-p72-92">[90]</a> Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.<a href="#cite_note-Post-Imperial_World-p72-92">[90]</a> Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,<a href="#cite_note-Post-Imperial_World-p72-92">[90]</a> perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country#Countries" title="Islam by country">Islam by country § Countries</a></div> With around 204 million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is the <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">world's third-largest</a><a href="#cite_note-globenewswire-29Aug21-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> and the world's largest Muslim-minority population.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-globenewswire-29Aug21-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-pewforum-17Nov17-98">[96]</a> Indian Muslims have a fertility rate of 2.36, the highest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> In 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government of India</a> estimated the Muslim population at 19.75 to 20 crore, out of 138.8 to 140.0 crore total population, thus constituting around (14.22%–14.28%) of the nation's population.<a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-globenewswire-29Aug21-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Muslim Population</th> <th>Percentage of Total Muslim Population </th></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td> <td>231,070,000</td> <td>12.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td> <td>233,046,950</td> <td>11.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td>207,000,000</td> <td>10.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /> <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></td> <td>153,700,000</td> <td>9.20% </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></td> <td>110,263,500</td> <td>5.8% </td></tr></tbody></table> Muslims represent a majority of the local population in <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a> (96.2%) and <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a> (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states of <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Islam in Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_West_Bengal" title="Islam in West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bihari_Muslims" title="Bihari Muslims">Bihar</a>. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Muslims" title="Andhra Muslims">Andhra Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Assam" title="Islam in Assam">Assam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Muslims" title="Gujarati Muslims">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kerala" title="Islam in Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_Muslims" title="Marathi Muslims">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Muslims" title="Andhra Muslims">Telangana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Percentage_by_states">Percentage by states</h3></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png/398px-Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png" decoding="async" width="398" height="480" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png/598px-Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png/797px-Muslim_In_India_By_Percentage.png 2x" data-file-width="3818" data-file-height="4600" /></a><figcaption>Muslims as percentage of total population in different states of India (2011 Census).</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png/435px-District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png" decoding="async" width="435" height="480" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png/652px-District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png/869px-District_wise_Muslim_population_percentage_India_census_2011.png 2x" data-file-width="1574" data-file-height="1738" /></a><figcaption>Muslims as percentage of total population in different districts of India as per census 2011</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> As of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_India&action=edit">[update]</a>, Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian union territory of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a> and in a Union territory <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TheHindu-26Aug15-110">[108]</a> In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_growth_rate">Population growth rate</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261442011">.mw-parser-output .abbr-header{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-bottom:none;background-color:lavender}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-top:none;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border-top:1px #a2a9b1 solid!important}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:none}}</style><table class="table-pale" style="width:30em;border-top-width:0;border-spacing: 0;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 0.5em;"><caption class="caption-purple" style="padding:0.25em;font-weight:bold">Historical Muslim population growth in India</caption><tbody><tr valign="top"><td style="padding:0 0.5em"><table style="border-spacing:0;width:15em"><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population" class="abbr-header">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Percent change" class="abbr-header">±%</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1901 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">29,900,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">—    </td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1911 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">30,800,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.0%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1921 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">31,200,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+1.3%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1931 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">35,800,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+14.7%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"> 1941 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">42,400,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+18.4%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1951 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">35,400,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−16.5%</td></tr></tbody></table></td><td style="padding:0 0.5em;border-left:solid 1px #aaa"><table style="border-spacing:0;width:15em"><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population" class="abbr-header">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Percent change" class="abbr-header">±%</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1961 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">46,900,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+32.5%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1971 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">61,400,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+30.9%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1981 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">80,300,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+30.8%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"> 1991 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">106,700,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+32.9%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 2001 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">138,200,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+29.5%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 2011 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">172,200,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+24.6%</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);font-size:85%;text-align:left">Parts of Assam were not included in the 1981 census data due to violence in some districts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Jammu and Kashmir was not included in the 1991 census data due to militant activity in the state.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Source: <a href="#cite_note-indiaspend-27Aug15-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-TheHindu-26Aug15-110">[108]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_refugee_train,_Punjab,_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg/220px-A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg/330px-A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg/440px-A_refugee_train%2C_Punjab%2C_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>A train of Muslim refugees in India leaving for Pakistan</figcaption></figure> Region-wise distribution of Muslims leaving for Pakistan (<a href="/wiki/1951_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="1951 Census of India">1951 Census</a>) <a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> - <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Region </th> <th>Population </th> <th>Percentage </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/East_Punjab" title="East Punjab">East Punjab</a> </td> <td>5.3 million </td> <td>73.61% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, and other parts of India </td> <td>1.2 million </td> <td>16.67% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> </td> <td>0.7 million </td> <td>9.72% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Total </th> <th>7.2 million </th> <th>100% </th></tr></tbody></table> After India's Independence and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Pakistan (1947–present)">creation of Pakistan</a> in 1947, the Muslim population in India declined from 42,400,000 (13.3%) in 1941 to 35,400,000 (9.8%) in the <a href="/wiki/1951_census_of_India" title="1951 census of India">1951 census</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indiaspend-27Aug15-112">[110]</a> The Pakistan Census, 1951 identified the number of displaced persons in the country at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims refugees who had entered Pakistan from India.<a href="#cite_note-Springer_Science_&_Business_Media-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Around 35 million Muslims stayed back after Partition as <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> (then the <a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_India" title="List of prime ministers of India">Prime Minister</a> of India) have ensured the confidence that they would be treated fairly in this democratic nation.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Census_in_British_India" title="Census in British India">1941 Census</a>, there were 94.5 million Muslims living in the <a href="/wiki/Undivided_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Undivided India">Undivided India</a> (inc. <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>), comprising 24 percent of the population. Partition, in fact, has eventually drained India of 60% of its Muslim population respectively.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> Former Minister of Law and Justice of India, <a href="/wiki/Bhimrao_Ramji_Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar">Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar</a> during partition, have advocated for a full population exchange between the Muslim and Hindu minorities of India and Pakistan for maintenance of law, order and peace in both the newly formed nations by citing- "That the transfer of minorities is the only lasting remedy for communal peace is beyond doubt" in his own written book "Pakistan or partition of India" respectively.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> However, a complete population exchange did not occur and was made impossible due to the earlier signing of the <a href="/wiki/Liaquat%E2%80%93Nehru_Pact" title="Liaquat–Nehru Pact">Liaquat–Nehru Pact</a> in 1950, which sealed the borders of both nations completely. Ultimately, this led to the cessation of migration of refugees from both sides.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> As a result of this, a large number of <a href="/wiki/1951_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="1951 Census of India">Muslims in India</a>, a significant number of Hindus in <a href="/wiki/East_Pakistan" title="East Pakistan">East Pakistan</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>) and a minuscule number of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Sindh" title="Hinduism in Sindh">Hindus in the Sindh province</a> of <a href="/wiki/West_Pakistan" title="West Pakistan">West Pakistan</a> remained. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/East_Punjab" title="East Punjab">East Punjab</a> state of India and the <a href="/wiki/West_Punjab" title="West Punjab">West Punjab</a> province of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> saw a full population exchange between Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities during the time of <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Punjab" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of Punjab">Partition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illegal_immigrants">Illegal immigrants</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_refugees_in_India" title="Rohingya refugees in India">Rohingya refugees in India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladeshis_in_India" title="Bangladeshis in India">Bangladeshis in India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_India" title="Illegal immigration to India">Illegal immigration to India</a></div> India is the home of some 40,000 illegal <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rohingya Muslim">Rohingya Muslim</a> refugees, with approximately 18,000 registered with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR). But even people with refugee cards are being detained across India due to security concerns.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> A small number of <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> also reside in India, primarily in <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>. Around 1,000 illegal Uyghur refugees arrived in India in 1949 to escape the communist regime.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> On 17 November 2016, Union Minister of State for Home, <a href="/wiki/Kiren_Rijiju" title="Kiren Rijiju">Kiren Rijiju</a>, stated in the <a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a> that, according to available inputs, there are around 20 million (2 crore) illegal Bangladeshi migrants staying in India.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> Illegal immigrants in Assam are estimated to number between 16 lakh and 84 lakh, in a total population of 3.12 crore according to the <a href="/wiki/2011_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Census of India">2011 Census</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> A report published by DNA has revealed that the Bangladeshi-origin Muslim population has grown to 5–7% in bordering districts of <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">Bengal</a> simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> Muminul Aowal, an eminent Assamese Muslim Minority Development Board Chairman, has reported that Assam has about 1.3 crore Muslims of which around 90 lakh are of Bangladeshi origin.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> According to Chief Minister <a href="/wiki/Himanta_Biswa_Sarma" title="Himanta Biswa Sarma">Himanta Biswa Sarma</a>, among the 19 lakh individuals excluded from the Assam <a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens" title="National Register of Citizens">National Register of Citizens</a>, 7 lakh are Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> Dr. Kuntal Kanti Chattoraj, HOD of Geography at P.R.M.S. Mahavidyalaya, Bankura, estimates that around 6.28 million Bangladeshi Muslims have migrated to West Bengal over the decades.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projections">Projections</h3></div> Muslims in India have a much higher <a href="/wiki/Total_fertility_rate" title="Total fertility rate">total fertility rate</a> (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% by 2011.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sachar_Committee" title="Sachar Committee">Sachar Committee Report</a> shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> have projected that India will have 311 million Muslims by 2050, out of total 1.668 billion people, thus constituting 18.4% of the country's population.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> has projected India's population to rise to 170.53 crore by 2050, and then fall to 165.97 crore by 2100.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religiosity">Religiosity</h3></div> On 29 June 2021, Pew Research Center reports on Religiosity have been published, where they completed 29,999 face-to-face interviews with non-institutionalized adults ages 18 and older living in 26 states and three union territories across India. They interviewed 3,336 Muslims and found that 79% of those interviewed believed in the existence of God with absolute certainty, 12% believes in the existence of God with less certainty and 6% of the Indian Muslims have declared themselves as <a href="/wiki/Atheists" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheists">Atheists</a> by citing that they don't believe in any God. However 91% of Muslim interviewed have said religion plays a big part in their lives.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> CSDS study reports, have found that Indian Muslims have become ‘less religious’ since 2016. In that same year, the study founds that 97 per cent of Muslim respondents have said that they prayed regularly. However, in 2021, it was found that only 86 per cent of Muslim youth prayed regularly which is an absolute decline of 11 percentage points from the last five years respectively.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> Social and economic reasons behind population growth<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Census information for 2011: Hindu and Muslim compared.<a href="#cite_note-TheHindu-25Aug15-149">[147]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Composition </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindus</a> </th> <th>Muslims </th></tr> <tr> <td>% total of population 2011 </td> <td>79.8 </td> <td>14.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10-yr. Growth % (est. 2001–11) </td> <td>16.8 </td> <td>24.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sex ratio* </td> <td>939 </td> <td>951 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Literacy rate (avg. 64.8) </td> <td>63.6 </td> <td>57.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Work Participation Rate </td> <td>41 </td> <td>33 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Urban sex ratio </td> <td>894 </td> <td>907 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs.) </td> <td>913 </td> <td>943 </td></tr></tbody></table> According to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a> Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic factors, rather than religious determinism, play a more significant role in explaining the higher birthrates among Indian Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> Studies suggest that Muslims in India tend to have lower income levels and educational attainment compared to Hindus. However, B. K. Prasad, a noted Indian sociologist, highlights that due to the higher <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> among Indian Muslims, their infant mortality rate is about 12% lower than that of Hindus.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> However, some sociologists suggest that religious and cultural factors may also contribute to higher birthrates among Muslims in India. Surveys indicate that, on average, Muslim families are more traditional in their approach to <a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a>, and Muslim women tend to marry at a younger age compared to Hindu women, leading to a longer <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> A study conducted by K. C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a>, Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women.<a href="#cite_note-Christ-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India.<a href="#cite_note-Surya-157">[155]</a> The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims. According to a district wise fertility study by Saswata Ghosh, Muslim TFR (total fertility rate) is closer to that of the Hindu community in most southern states. Also TFR tends to be high for both communities in Northern states such as <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>. This study was based on the last census of the country from 2011.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Denominations">Denominations</h2></div> There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims: Sunni and Shia. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> branch of Islam,<a href="#cite_note-USSD-IRFR-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> while a minority (over 13%) belong to the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> branch.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-USSD-IRFR-10">[10]</a> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:Black; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:Red; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 137.63819204712px; border-left-color:Green"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:Green"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:Green"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> Relative size of Christian traditions in India, according to <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>'s analysis of <a href="/wiki/2011_Indian_census" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Indian census">2011 Indian census</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Sunni:- <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahl-e-Hadith" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahl-e-Hadith">Ahl-e-Hadith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> (90%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Shia:- <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismaili">Ismaili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khoja" title="Khoja">Khoja</a> (12%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmadiya">Ahmadiya</a> (1%)</div> </div> </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunni">Sunni</h3></div> The majority of Indian Sunnis follow the <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi movement</a> which was founded in 1904 by <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Raza_Khan_Barelvi" title="Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi">Ahmed Razi Khan</a> of Bareilly in defense of traditional Islam as understood and practised in South Asia and in reaction to the revivalist attempts of the Deobandi movement.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-roy-165">[163]</a> In the 19th century the <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a>, a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam was established in India. It is named after Deoband a small town northeast of Delhi, where the original madrasa or seminary of the movement was founded. From its early days this movement has been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> In the coastal Konkan region of Maharashtra, the local <a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani Muslims</a> follow the <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Islamic <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurisprudence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jnu_phd-169">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shia">Shia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in India">Shia Islam in India</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Muslims</a> are a large minority among <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-USSD-IRFR-10">[10]</a> However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources like <a href="/wiki/Times_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Times of India">Times of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daily_News_and_Analysis" title="Daily News and Analysis">Daily News and Analysis</a> reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000<a href="#cite_note-TOI-20061106-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-20061106b-172">[170]</a> to 50,000,000<a href="#cite_note-DNA-20061106-173">[171]</a> of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million with <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyids</a> comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IDSA-20081205-176">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trib-20090725-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-IE-20080421-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-20091110-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-20090201-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20040902-181">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bohra">Bohra</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG/220px-Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG/330px-Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG/440px-Moulai_Abadullah_khambhat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Mausoleum of 1 st Wali–ul–Hind:Moulai Abadullah, Khambat, Gujarat, era 1050–1100 CE.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg/220px-Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg/330px-Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg/440px-Mufaddal_Saifuddin_Houstan_Ashara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a>, 53rd Dai Syedna <a href="/wiki/Mufaddal_Saifuddin" title="Mufaddal Saifuddin">Mufaddal Saifuddin</a>, with Dawat office at Mumbai</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Bohra</a> Shia was established in Gujarat in the second half of the 11th century. This community's belief system originates in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> were persecuted due to their adherence to Fatimid Shia Islam – leading the shift of Dawoodi Bohra to India. After occultation of their 21st <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> Imam <a href="/wiki/At-Tayyib_Abu%27l-Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim">Tayyib</a>, they follow Dai as representative of Imam which are continued till date.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Dā'ī Zoeb appointed Maulai Yaqoob (after the death of Maulai Abdullah), who was the second Walī al-Hind of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a> dawat. Moulai Yaqoob was the first person of Indian origin to receive this honour under the Dā'ī. He was the son of Moulai Bharmal, minister of <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Solanki King</a> <a href="/wiki/Jayasimha_Siddharaja" title="Jayasimha Siddharaja">Jayasimha Siddharaja</a> (Anhalwara, Patan). With Minister Moulai Tarmal, they had honoured the Fatimid dawat along with their fellow citizens on the call of Moulai Abdullah. <a href="/wiki/Syedi_Fakhruddin" title="Syedi Fakhruddin">Syedi Fakhruddin</a>, son of Moulai Tarmal, was sent to western <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, India, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Dai_of_Dawoodi_Bohra" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra">Moulai Nuruddin</a> went to the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> (death: Jumadi al-Ula 11 at Don Gaum, <a href="/wiki/Aurangabad,_Maharashtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurangabad, Maharashtra">Aurangabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, India).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One Dai succeeded another until the 23rd Dai in Yemen. In India also Wali-ul-Hind were appointed by them one after another until Wali-ul-Hind Moulai Qasim Khan bin Hasan (11th and last Wali-ul-Hind, d. 950 AH, <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad" title="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Due to persecution by the local <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaydi Shi'a</a> ruler in Yemen, the 24th Dai, <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Najmuddin_ibn_Sulaiman" class="mw-redirect" title="Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman">Yusuf Najmuddin ibn Sulaiman</a> (d. 1567 CE), moved the whole administration of the Dawat (mission) to India. The 25th Dai <a href="/wiki/Jalal_Shamshuddin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalal Shamshuddin">Jalal Shamshuddin</a> (d. 1567 CE) was first dai to die in India. His mausoleum is in Ahmedabad, India. The Dawat subsequently moved from Ahmedabad to Jamnagar<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> Mandvi, Burhanpur, <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> and finally to Mumbai and continues there to the present day, currently headed by 53rd Dai.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Asaf_Ali_Asghar_Fyzee" title="Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee">Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee</a> was a Bohra and 20th century Islamic scholar from India who promoted modernization and liberalization of Islam through his writings. He argued that with changing time modern reforms in Islam are necessary without compromising on basic "spirit of Islam".<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Daftary2014-185">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Khojas">Khojas</h4></div> The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, most Khojas live in the states of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a>. Many Khojas have also migrated and settled over the centuries in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. The Khoja were by then adherents of <a href="/wiki/Nizari" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizari">Nizari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Ismailism</a> branch of Shi'ism. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_case" title="Aga Khan case">Aga Khan case</a>, a significant minority separated and adopted <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a>, while the majority remained <a href="/wiki/Nizari" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizari">Nizārī Ismā'īlī</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sufis">Sufis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sufism_in_India" title="Sufism in India">Sufism in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TombSalimChisti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/TombSalimChisti.jpg/220px-TombSalimChisti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/TombSalimChisti.jpg/330px-TombSalimChisti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/TombSalimChisti.jpg/440px-TombSalimChisti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of Sufi saint Shaikh <a href="/wiki/Salim_Chisti" class="mw-redirect" title="Salim Chisti">Salim Chisti</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fatehpur_Sikri" title="Fatehpur Sikri">Fatehpur Sikri</a>, Uttar Pradesh</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufis</a> (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a>. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. <a href="/wiki/Erwadi" title="Erwadi">Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moinuddin_Chishti" class="mw-redirect" title="Moinuddin Chishti">Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qutbuddin_Bakhtiar_Kaki" title="Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki">Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nizamuddin_Auliya" title="Nizamuddin Auliya">Nizamuddin Auliya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jalal" title="Shah Jalal">Shah Jalal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amir_Khusrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir Khusrow">Amir Khusrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Sabir_Kaliyari" title="Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari">Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari</a>, Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Jahangir_Semnani" title="Ashraf Jahangir Semnani">Ashraf Jahangir Semnani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waris_Ali_Shah" title="Waris Ali Shah">Waris Ali Shah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ata_Hussain_Fani_Chishti" title="Ata Hussain Fani Chishti">Ata Hussain Fani Chishti</a> trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">untouchable</a> communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a>, a prominent member of the <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-ErnstLawrence2016-187">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg/220px-Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg/330px-Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg/440px-Hadhrat_Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya movement</figcaption></figure> The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qadian" title="Qadian">Qadian</a>. He claimed to be the promised messiah and <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">mahdi</a> awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> Ahmadis claim the Ahmadiyya movement to embody the latter day revival of Islam and the movement has also been seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian and <a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a> missionary activity that was widespread in 19th century India. After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, his <a href="/wiki/Khalifatul_Masih" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalifatul Masih">successors</a> directed the Ahmadiyya Community from Qadian which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the creation of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. The movement has grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme and has expanded to over 200 countries as of 2014 but has received a largely negative response from mainstream Muslims who see it as heretical, due mainly to Ghulam Ahmad's claim to be a prophet within Islam.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Ahmaddiya have been identified as sects of Islam in <a href="/wiki/2011_Census_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Census of India">2011 Census of India</a> apart from Sunnis, Shias, Bohras and Agakhanis.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> India has a significant Ahmadiyya population.<a href="#cite_note-Number_of_Ahmadis_in_India-194">[192]</a> Most of them live in Rajasthan, <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>, Haryana, Bihar, Delhi, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, and a few in <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a> in the area of Qadian. In India, Ahmadis are considered to be Muslims by the Government of India (unlike in neighbouring Pakistan). This recognition is supported by a court verdict (Shihabuddin Koya vs. Ahammed Koya, A.I.R. 1971 Ker 206).<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoque-196">[194]</a> There is no legislation that declares Ahmadis non-Muslims or limits their activities,<a href="#cite_note-hoque-196">[194]</a> but they are not allowed to sit on the <a href="/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board" title="All India Muslim Personal Law Board">All India Muslim Personal Law Board</a>, a body of religious leaders India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Naqvi,_Jawed-197">[195]</a> Ahmadiyya are estimated to be from 60,000 to 1 million in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quranists">Quranists</h3></div> Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority of <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranists</a>, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahle Hadith</a> movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists include <a href="/wiki/Chiragh_Ali" title="Chiragh Ali">Chiragh Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aslam_Jairajpuri" title="Aslam Jairajpuri">Aslam Jairajpuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Kamal-ud-Din" title="Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din">Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din</a>, and Abdullah Chakralawi.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_traditions_in_India">Islamic traditions in India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam in South Asia</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG/200px-Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG/300px-Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG/400px-Dargah_Shareef_of_Khwaza_Moinuddin_Chishti.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>An outside view of the Maqbara</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complementary with the legalistic path of the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (<a href="/wiki/Murid" title="Murid">murids</a>) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of <a href="/wiki/Moinuddin_Chishti" class="mw-redirect" title="Moinuddin Chishti">Moinuddin Chishti</a> (1142–1236), who settled in <a href="/wiki/Ajmer" title="Ajmer">Ajmer</a> and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His <a href="/wiki/Chishti_Order" title="Chishti Order">Chishti Order</a> went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in <a href="/wiki/Regional_language" title="Regional language">regional languages</a> that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intra-Muslim_relations">Intra-Muslim relations</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shia–Sunni_relations">Shia–Sunni relations</h4></div> The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_administration">Religious administration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_India" title="Grand Mufti of India">Grand Mufti of India</a></div> The religious administration of each <a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">state</a> is headed by the Mufti of the State under the supervision of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_India" title="Grand Mufti of India">Grand Mufti of India</a>, the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader of <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_institutes">Muslim institutes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_universities_and_colleges_in_India" title="List of Islamic universities and colleges in India">List of Islamic universities and colleges in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoria_gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Victoria_gate.jpg/220px-Victoria_gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Victoria_gate.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aligarh_Muslim_University" title="Aligarh Muslim University">Aligarh Muslim University</a> </figcaption></figure> There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_universities_and_institutes">Modern universities and institutes</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ameen_Educational_Society" title="Al-Ameen Educational Society">Al-Ameen Educational Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliah_University" title="Aliah University">Aliah University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aligarh_Muslim_University" title="Aligarh Muslim University">Aligarh Muslim University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markazu_Saqafathi_Sunniyya" title="Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya">Jamia Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27din" title="Ma'din">Ma'dinu Ssaquafathil Islamiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B.S._Abdur_Rahman_Crescent_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology" title="B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology">B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darul_Huda_Islamic_University" title="Darul Huda Islamic University">Darul Huda Islamic University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Nadwatul_Ulama" title="Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama">Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farook_College" title="Farook College">Farook College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Kozhikode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina_Academy_of_Medieval_Medicine_and_Sciences" title="Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences">Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_University" title="Integral University">Integral University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Mohamed_College" title="Jamal Mohamed College">Jamal Mohamed College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiruchirappalli" title="Tiruchirappalli">Tiruchirappalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Hamdard" title="Jamia Hamdard">Hamdard University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Millia_Islamia" title="Jamia Millia Islamia">Jamia Millia Islamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karim_City_College,_Jamshedpur" title="Karim City College, Jamshedpur">Karim City College, Jamshedpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M.S.S._Wakf_Board_College" title="M.S.S. Wakf Board College">M.S.S. Wakf Board College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a> (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeenathul_Uloom_Arabic_College" title="Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College">Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulikkal" title="Pulikkal">Pulikkal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malappuram_district" title="Malappuram district">Malappuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Azad_National_Urdu_University" title="Maulana Azad National Urdu University">Maulana Azad National Urdu University</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Mazharul_Haque_Arabic_and_Persian_University" title="Maulana Mazharul Haque Arabic and Persian University">Maulana Mazharul Haque Arabic and Persian University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patna,_Bihar" class="mw-redirect" title="Patna, Bihar">Patna, Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Azad_College_of_Arts_and_Science" title="Maulana Azad College of Arts and Science">Maulana Azad College of Arts and Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurangabad" title="Aurangabad">Aurangabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Educational_Association_of_Southern_India" title="Muslim Educational Association of Southern India">Muslim Educational Association of Southern India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Educational_Society" title="Muslim Educational Society">Muslim Educational Society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nellai_College_of_Engineering" title="Nellai College of Engineering">Nellai College of Engineering</a>, Tirunelveli</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmania_University" title="Osmania University">Osmania University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocker_Sahib_Memorial_Orphanage_College" title="Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College">Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tirurangadi" title="Tirurangadi">Tirurangadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangal_Kunju_Musaliar_College_of_Engineering" title="Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering">Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_Islamic_universities">Traditional Islamic universities</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aljamea-tus-Saifiyah" title="Aljamea-tus-Saifiyah">Aljamea-tus-Saifiyah</a>, Bohra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jamiatul_Ashrafia" title="Al Jamiatul Ashrafia">Al Jamiatul Ashrafia</a>, Barelvi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Darussalam" title="Jamia Darussalam">Jamia Darussalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oomerabad" title="Oomerabad">Oomerabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jame-atul-Islamia" title="Al-Jame-atul-Islamia">Al-Jame-atul-Islamia</a>, Uttar Pradesh</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamia_Nizamia" title="Jamia Nizamia">Jamia Nizamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manzar-e-Islam" title="Manzar-e-Islam">Manzar-e-Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bareilly" title="Bareilly">Bareilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markazu_Saqafathi_Sunniyya" title="Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya">Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya</a>, Kerala</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raza_Academy" title="Raza Academy">Raza Academy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership_and_organisations">Leadership and organisations</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protest_in_U.P_against_Caricature_of_Prophet_of_Islam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/81/Protest_in_U.P_against_Caricature_of_Prophet_of_Islam.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/All_India_Ulema_and_Mashaikh_Board" title="All India Ulema and Mashaikh Board">AIUMB </a> protest against caricature of Muhammad in the city of <a href="/wiki/Sambhal" title="Sambhal">Sambhal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Ajmer_Sharif_Dargah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajmer Sharif Dargah">Ajmer Sharif Dargah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dargah-e-Ala_Hazrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat">Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bareilly" title="Bareilly">Bareilly</a> Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a></li> <li>Indian <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Muslims</a> form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25 and 31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005 to 2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157 million. Sources like <a href="/wiki/The_Times_of_India" title="The Times of India">The Times of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daily_News_and_Analysis" title="Daily News and Analysis">DNA</a> reported Indian <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> population during that period between 40,000,000<a href="#cite_note-TOI-20061106-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-20061106b-172">[170]</a> to 50,000,000<a href="#cite_note-DNA-20061106-173">[171]</a> of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.</li> <li>The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the <a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a>, an influential religious seminary in the district of <a href="/wiki/Saharanpur" title="Saharanpur">Saharanpur</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind">Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind</a>, founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami_Hind" title="Jamaat-e-Islami Hind">Jamaat-e-Islami Hind</a>, founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caste_system_among_Indian_Muslims">Caste system among Indian Muslims</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_among_South_Asian_Muslims" title="Caste system among South Asian Muslims">Caste system among South Asian Muslims</a></div> Although Islam requires <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a> and is against discrimination based on caste, creed or <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>,<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> the caste system among have developed among some Indian Muslims that deals with units of social stratification.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism.<a href="#cite_note-Sikand-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stratification">Stratification</h4></div> In parts of South Asia, Muslims are categorized into groups like Ashrafs and Ajlafs.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> Ashrafs often claim foreign ancestry and are divided into various occupational castes.<a href="#cite_note-pratap_caste-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-zarina_social_strat-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> Historian Ziauddin Barani emphasized caste distinctions, advocating higher status for the "sons of Muhammad" (Sayyids)<a href="#cite_note-Das-213">[211]</a> and proposing that state laws (zawabi) enforce these divisions, even over Sharia in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-Das-213">[211]</a> He attributed "ignoble" professions to the Ajlaf and sought religious endorsement for this hierarchy. Barani also developed a caste-based framework for appointing and promoting imperial officers (wazirs).<a href="#cite_note-Das-213">[211]</a> Beyond the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, the Arzal caste represents groups associated with professions deemed menial,<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> such as waste disposal.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> Anti-caste activist <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Babasaheb Ambedkar</a> likened the Arzal to untouchables.<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar-Chapter10-216">[214]</a> The term "Arzal," meaning "degraded," encompasses subdivisions like the Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, and Mehtar, reflecting the persistence of caste-based stratification in parts of the Muslim community.<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar-Chapter10-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> South Asian Muslims have also been known to organize their society through qaums or communal groups.<a href="#cite_note-barth_leach_aspects-218">[216]</a> Studies of Bengali Muslims in India reveal that notions of purity and impurity continue to influence inter-group relationships, with <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> often tied to perceived cleanliness rather than economic conditions.<a href="#cite_note-zarina_social_strat-24">[24]</a> Among Indian Muslims, there are also distinctions like the Muslim Rajputs, as well as upper and middle-caste communities such as <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Syed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaikhs_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikhs in South Asia">Shaikh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaikhzada" title="Shaikhzada">Shaikhzada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khanzada_Rajputs" title="Khanzada Rajputs">Khanzada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rohilla" title="Rohilla">Pathan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal tribe">Mughal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malik_clan_(Bihar)" title="Malik clan (Bihar)">Malik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rediff_burial-219">[217]</a> Genetic data has also supported this stratification.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> Genetic studies of South Asian Muslims have supported the existence of these stratifications, showing that their genetic makeup closely resembles that of local non-Muslims, with small but notable influences from Iran and Central Asia rather than the Arabian <a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-genestudy-18">[18]</a> Some scholars argue that caste discrimination among Muslims is less severe than in Hindu society,[22][215] but Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar disagreed, claiming that social injustices within Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society."[209] He criticized the Ashraf community for their hostility towards the Ajlaf and Arzal groups and condemned the Muslim community for failing to implement needed reforms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interaction_and_mobility">Interaction and mobility</h4></div> Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.<a href="#cite_note-Muslim_Communities-221">[219]</a> They have good interactions with the other communities. They participate in marriages and funerals and other religious and social events in other communities. Some of them also had inter-caste marriages since centuries but mostly they preferred to marry in the same caste with a significant number of marriages being <a href="/wiki/Consanguineous" class="mw-redirect" title="Consanguineous">consanguineous</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a> state of India, cases had been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.<a href="#cite_note-rediff_burial-219">[217]</a> Some scholars argue that caste discrimination among Muslims is less severe than in Hindu society,<a href="#cite_note-Sikand-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Muslim_Communities-221">[219]</a>] but Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar disagreed, claiming that social injustices within Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society."<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar-Chapter10-216">[214]</a> He criticized the Ashraf community for their hostility towards the Ajlaf and Arzal groups.<a href="#cite_note-Ambedkar-Chapter10-216">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Segregation">Segregation</h3></div> Segregation of Indian Muslims from other communities began in the mid-1970s when the first <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">communal riots</a> occurred. This was heightened after the <a href="/wiki/1989_Bhagalpur_violence" title="1989 Bhagalpur violence">1989 Bhagalpur violence</a> in Bihar and became a trend after the <a href="/wiki/Demolition_of_the_Babri_Masjid" title="Demolition of the Babri Masjid">demolition of the Babri Masjid</a> in 1992. Soon several major cities developed <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into.<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the <a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">2002 Gujarat riots</a>, several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a> and many cities of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In places like <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Juhapura" title="Juhapura">Juhapura</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad_district" title="Ahmedabad district">Ahmadabad</a> has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> An increase in <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a> living has also shown a strengthening of <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotyping</a> due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism in India</a> is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consanguineous_marriages">Consanguineous marriages</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/National_Family_Health_Survey" title="National Family Health Survey">NFHS</a> (National Family Health Survey) on 1992-93 showed that 22 per cent of marriages in India were consanguineous, with the highest per cent recorded in <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>, a Muslim majority state. Post partition percentage of <a href="/wiki/Consanguineous_marriages" class="mw-redirect" title="Consanguineous marriages">consanguineous</a> marriages in Delhi Sunni Muslims has risen to 37.84 per cent. As per Nasir, such unions are perceived to be exploitative as they perpetuate the existing power structures within the family.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Islam_in_India" title="Special:EditPage/Islam in India">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">Mughal painting</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Taj Mahal in Agra is one of India's most iconic monuments."><img alt="The Taj Mahal in Agra is one of India's most iconic monuments." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg/120px-Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg/180px-Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg/240px-Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2040" data-file-height="1681" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Agra" title="Agra">Agra</a> is one of India's most iconic monuments.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A rebuilt structure of the old Cheraman Juma Mosque, Kerala, which is often considered as the first Masjid of India"><img alt="A rebuilt structure of the old Cheraman Juma Mosque, Kerala, which is often considered as the first Masjid of India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg/120px-Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg/180px-Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg/240px-Cheraman_juma_masjid_Old.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1082" data-file-height="744" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A rebuilt structure of the old <a href="/wiki/Cheraman_Juma_Mosque" title="Cheraman Juma Mosque">Cheraman Juma Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, which is often considered as the first <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Masjid</a> of India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Asafi Imambargah, also known as Bara Imambara at Lucknow"><img alt="Asafi Imambargah, also known as Bara Imambara at Lucknow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg/120px-Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg/180px-Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg/240px-Bara_Imambara_Lucknow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5039" data-file-height="1594" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Asafi Imambargah, also known as <a href="/wiki/Bara_Imambara" title="Bara Imambara">Bara Imambara</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lucknow" title="Lucknow">Lucknow</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Humayun,_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Humayun's Tomb in Delhi"><img alt="The Humayun's Tomb in Delhi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg/120px-Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg/180px-Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg/240px-Tomb_of_Humayun%2C_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5294" data-file-height="1788" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Humayun%27s_Tomb" title="Humayun's Tomb">Humayun's Tomb</a> in <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GolGumbaz2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia."><img alt="Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/120px-GolGumbaz2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/180px-GolGumbaz2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GolGumbaz2.jpg/240px-GolGumbaz2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gol_Gumbaz" title="Gol Gumbaz">Gol Gumbaz</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bijapur,_Karnataka" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur, Karnataka">Bijapur</a>, Karnataka, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bahauddin_Makbara,_Junagadh.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bahauddin Makbara, mausoleum of the Wazir of Junagadh, Gujarat"><img alt="Bahauddin Makbara, mausoleum of the Wazir of Junagadh, Gujarat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg/120px-Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg/180px-Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg/240px-Bahauddin_Makbara%2C_Junagadh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3534" data-file-height="2616" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bahauddin Makbara, mausoleum of the <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Wazir</a> of <a href="/wiki/Junagadh" title="Junagadh">Junagadh</a>, Gujarat</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mecca_Masjid,_Hyderabad,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="400-year-old Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad. (Photo: 1885)"><img alt="400-year-old Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad. (Photo: 1885)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg/120px-Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg/180px-Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg/240px-Mecca_Masjid%2C_Hyderabad%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2985" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">400-year-old <a href="/wiki/Makkah_Masjid,_Hyderabad" title="Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad">Makkah Masjid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a>. (Photo: 1885)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_,_lucknow.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Asafi Mosque within the Asafi Imambargah Complex at Lucknow"><img alt="The Asafi Mosque within the Asafi Imambargah Complex at Lucknow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG/120px-The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG/180px-The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG/240px-The_mosque_within_the_bara_imambara_%2C_lucknow.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Asafi Mosque within the <a href="/wiki/Bara_Imambara" title="Bara Imambara">Asafi Imambargah</a> Complex at Lucknow</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow"><img alt="The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG/120px-The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG/180px-The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG/240px-The_Rumi_Darwaza.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gole_gummaj.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh"><img alt="Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gole_gummaj.jpg/120px-Gole_gummaj.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gole_gummaj.jpg/180px-Gole_gummaj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gole_gummaj.jpg/240px-Gole_gummaj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gole-Gumma, Mousoleum of Nawab Wahab Khan, <a href="/wiki/Kurnool" title="Kurnool">Kurnool</a>, Andhra Pradesh</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Charminar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Charminar, the most famous of the monuments of Hyderabad"><img alt="Charminar, the most famous of the monuments of Hyderabad" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Charminar.jpg/90px-Charminar.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Charminar.jpg/135px-Charminar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Charminar.jpg/180px-Charminar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1984" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Charminar" title="Charminar">Charminar</a>, the most famous of the monuments of <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad" title="Hyderabad">Hyderabad</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Fort, Delhi"><img alt="Red Fort, Delhi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG/120px-RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG/180px-RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG/240px-RedFort_LahoreGate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Red_Fort" title="Red Fort">Red Fort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jama_Masjid,_Delhi,_morning_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jama Masjid, Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India"><img alt="Jama Masjid, Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg/120px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg/180px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg/240px-Jama_Masjid%2C_Delhi%2C_morning_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jama_Masjid" class="mw-redirect" title="Jama Masjid">Jama Masjid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, one of the largest mosques in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sir Syed Mosque, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh"><img alt="Sir Syed Mosque, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg/120px-AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg/180px-AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg/240px-AMU_Masjid_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Syed_Mosque" title="Sir Syed Mosque">Sir Syed Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aligarh_Muslim_University" title="Aligarh Muslim University">Aligarh Muslim University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aligarh" title="Aligarh">Aligarh</a></div> </li> </ul> <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture of India</a> took new shape with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent">Islamic rule in India</a> towards the end of the 12th century CE. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles. <a href="/wiki/Qutb_complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb complex">Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque</a> built in 1193 CE was the first mosque to be built in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>; its adjoining "Tower of Victory", the <a href="/wiki/Qutb_Minar" title="Qutb Minar">Qutb Minar</a> also started around 1192 CE, which marked the victory of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_of_Ghor" title="Muhammad of Ghor">Muhammad of Ghor</a> and his general <a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_Aibak" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb al-Din Aibak">Qutb al-Din Aibak</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>, Afghanistan, over local <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajput</a> kings, is now a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> in <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order, i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate, i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilisations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a> was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a> in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mosques">Mosques</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_India" title="List of mosques in India">List of mosques in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg/250px-Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg/375px-Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg/500px-Charminar-Pride_of_Hyderabad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3344" data-file-height="4176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charminar" title="Charminar">Char Minar</a> at Old City in <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyderabad, India">Hyderabad</a>.</figcaption></figure> There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a> indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the minbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tombs_and_mausoleum">Tombs and mausoleum</h4></div> The tomb or <a href="/wiki/Maqbara" title="Maqbara">maqbara</a> could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (<a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a>). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the <a href="/wiki/Maqbara" title="Maqbara">maqbara</a>, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a <a href="/wiki/Dargah" title="Dargah">dargah</a>. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Styles_of_Islamic_architecture_in_India">Styles of Islamic architecture in India</h4></div> Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191–1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad" title="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaunpur,_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh">Jaunpur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a> style (1526–1707 CE).<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law,_politics,_and_government">Law, politics, and government</h2></div> Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a> properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law,<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments.<a href="#cite_note-Emory-19491126-235">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a> has ruled that <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."<a href="#cite_note-MPL-238">[236]</a> It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a>, wills and inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-Emory-19491126-235">[233]</a> The courts generally apply the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> Sunni law for Sunnis; Shia Muslims are independent of Sunni law for those areas where <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> law differs substantially from Sunni practice.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Indian constitution</a> provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion. Article 44 of the constitution recommends a <a href="/wiki/Uniform_civil_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform civil code">uniform civil code</a>. However, attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under a common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. The <a href="/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board" title="All India Muslim Personal Law Board">All India Muslim Personal Law Board</a> was established for the protection and continued applicability of "Muslim Personal Law", i.e. Shariat Application Act in India. The <a href="/wiki/Sachar_Committee" title="Sachar Committee">Sachar Committee</a> was asked to report about the condition of Muslims in India in 2005. Almost all the <a href="/wiki/Sachar_Committee" title="Sachar Committee">recommendations of the Sachar Committee</a> have been implemented.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> The following laws/acts of Indian legislation are applicable to Muslims in India (except in the state of Goa) regarding matters of marriage, succession, inheritance, child adoption etc. <ol><li>Muslim Personal Law Sharia Application Act, 1937</li> <li>The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Muslim_Women_(Protection_of_Rights_on_Divorce)_Act_1986" class="mw-redirect" title="The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986">Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986</a></li></ol> Note: the above laws are not applicable in the state of Goa. The <a href="/wiki/Goa_civil_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Goa civil code">Goa civil code</a>, also called the Goa Family Law, is the set of civil laws that governs the residents of the Indian state of Goa. In India, as a whole, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. Goa is an exception to that rule, in that a single secular code/law governs all Goans, irrespective of religion, ethnicity or linguistic affiliation. The above laws are also not applicable to Muslims throughout India who had civil marriages under the <a href="/wiki/Special_Marriage_Act,_1954" title="Special Marriage Act, 1954">Special Marriage Act, 1954</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Muslim_Mahila_Andolan" title="Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan">Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan</a> is an Indian Muslim women's organisation in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. It released a draft on 23 June 2014, 'Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act', recommending that <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a> be made illegal in the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Muslim Personal Law</a> of India.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_(Amendment)_Act,_2019" title="Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019">Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019</a> was proposed for the changes in the citizenship and immigration norms of the country by relaxing the requirements for Indian citizenship. The applicability of the amendments are debated in news as it is on religious lines (excluding Muslims).<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> India's Constitution and Parliament have protected the rights of Muslims but, according to some sources,<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> there has been a growth in a 'climate of fear' and 'targeting of dissenters' under the <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Modi_ministry" title="First Modi ministry">Modi ministry</a>, affecting the feelings of security and tolerance amongst Indian Muslims. However, these allegations are not universally supported.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_Muslim_political_parties">Active Muslim political parties</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Majlis-e-Ittehadul_Muslimeen" title="All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen">All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen</a> (AIMIM), led by <a href="/wiki/Asaduddin_Owaisi" title="Asaduddin Owaisi">Asaduddin Owaisi</a>; active in states of <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Union_Muslim_League" title="Indian Union Muslim League">Indian Union Muslim League</a> (IUML), led by <a href="/wiki/E._Ahamed" title="E. Ahamed">E. Ahamed</a> active in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_United_Democratic_Front" title="All India United Democratic Front">All India United Democratic Front</a> (AIUDF), led by <a href="/wiki/Badruddin_Ajmal" title="Badruddin Ajmal">Badruddin Ajmal</a> active in <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a> state<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_People%27s_Conference" title="Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference">Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference</a> (JKPC), founded by Abdul Ghani Lone and Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> Led by Sajjad Lone.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> It is active in <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_%26_Kashmir_National_Conference" title="Jammu & Kashmir National Conference">National Conference</a> (NC) main party of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_People%27s_Democratic_Party" title="Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party">People's Democratic Party</a> (PDP) main party of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_Apni_Party" title="Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party">Apni Party</a> (JKAP) a newly formed party of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Party_of_India" title="Peace Party of India">Peace Party of India</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ayub" title="Mohamed Ayub">Mohamed Ayub</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslims_in_government">Muslims in government</h3></div> India has seen three Muslim presidents and many <a href="/wiki/Chief_Minister_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Minister (India)">chief ministers</a> of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the centre and at the state level. Out of the 12 <a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">Presidents of the Republic of India</a>, three were Muslims – <a href="/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakir Husain (politician)">Zakir Husain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fakhruddin_Ali_Ahmed" title="Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed">Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed</a> and <a href="/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam" title="A. P. J. Abdul Kalam">A. P. J. Abdul Kalam</a>. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullah" title="Mohammad Hidayatullah">Mohammad Hidayatullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Mushabber_Ahmadi" title="Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi">Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Hameedullah_Beg" title="Mirza Hameedullah Beg">Mirza Hameedullah Beg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altamas_Kabir" title="Altamas Kabir">Altamas Kabir</a> held the office of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice of India</a> on various occasions since independence. <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullah" title="Mohammad Hidayatullah">Mohammad Hidayatullah</a> also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President of India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of India">Vice-President of India</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-M._Hidayatullah-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-EBC_article_on_J._Hidayatullah-256">[254]</a> The former <a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of India">Vice-President of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansari" title="Mohammad Hamid Ansari">Mohammad Hamid Ansari</a>, former Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Salman_Khurshid" title="Salman Khurshid">Salman Khurshid</a> and former Director (Head) of the <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syed_Asif_Ibrahim" title="Syed Asif Ibrahim">Syed Asif Ibrahim</a> are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. <a href="/wiki/S._Y._Quraishi" title="S. Y. Quraishi">S. Y. Quraishi</a> served as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Chief Election Commissioner of India">Chief Election Commissioner of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-yahind.com-257">[255]</a> He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include <a href="/wiki/Abid_Hussain" title="Abid Hussain">Abid Hussain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Yavar_Jung" title="Ali Yavar Jung">Ali Yavar Jung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asaf_Ali" title="Asaf Ali">Asaf Ali</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zafar_Saifullah" title="Zafar Saifullah">Zafar Saifullah</a> was <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a> of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<a href="#cite_note-the_first_50_years-p252-258">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/Salman_Haidar" title="Salman Haidar">Salman Haidar</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_(India)" title="Foreign Secretary (India)">Foreign Secretary</a> from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-apcd.anu.edu.au-259">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-260">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tayyab_Husain" title="Tayyab Husain">Tayyab Husain</a> was the only politician in Indian history to serve as a Cabinet Minister in the government of three different states at different times. (<a href="/wiki/Undivided_Punjab" class="mw-redirect" title="Undivided Punjab">Undivided Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:0-261">[259]</a> Influential Muslim politicians in India include <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Abdullah" title="Sheikh Abdullah">Sheikh Abdullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farooq_Abdullah" title="Farooq Abdullah">Farooq Abdullah</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Omar_Abdullah" title="Omar Abdullah">Omar Abdullah</a> (former Chief Minister of <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mufti_Mohammad_Sayeed" title="Mufti Mohammad Sayeed">Mufti Mohammad Sayeed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehbooba_Mufti" title="Mehbooba Mufti">Mehbooba Mufti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaudhary_Rahim_Khan" title="Chaudhary Rahim Khan">Chaudhary Rahim Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikander_Bakht" title="Sikander Bakht">Sikander Bakht</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._R._Antulay" title="A. R. Antulay">A. R. Antulay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Patel" title="Ahmed Patel">Ahmed Patel</a>, <a href="/wiki/C._H._Mohammed_Koya" title="C. H. Mohammed Koya">C. H. Mohammed Koya</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._B._A._Ghani_Khan_Choudhury" title="A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury">A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_Abbas_Naqvi" title="Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi">Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salman_Khurshid" title="Salman Khurshid">Salman Khurshid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saifuddin_Soz" title="Saifuddin Soz">Saifuddin Soz</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._Ahamed" title="E. Ahamed">E. Ahamed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghulam_Nabi_Azad" title="Ghulam Nabi Azad">Ghulam Nabi Azad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syed_Shahnawaz_Hussain" title="Syed Shahnawaz Hussain">Syed Shahnawaz Hussain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asaduddin_Owaisi" title="Asaduddin Owaisi">Asaduddin Owaisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azam_Khan_(politician)" title="Azam Khan (politician)">Azam Khan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Badruddin_Ajmal" title="Badruddin Ajmal">Badruddin Ajmal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Najma_Heptulla" title="Najma Heptulla">Najma Heptulla</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haj_subsidy">Haj subsidy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haj_subsidy" title="Haj subsidy">Haj subsidy</a></div> The government of India subsidized the cost of the airfare for Indian <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> pilgrims until it was totally phased out in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> The decision to end the subsidy was in order to comply with a <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court of India</a> decision of 2011. Starting in 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person was decreased year on year and ended completely by 2018.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahmood_Madani" title="Mahmood Madani">Maulana Mahmood A. Madani</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a> and general secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind">Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind</a>, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a>, since the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_and_controversy">Conflict and controversy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conversion_controversy">Conversion controversy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Religious violence in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/220px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/330px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/440px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> Temple at <a href="/wiki/Martand" class="mw-redirect" title="Martand">Martand</a>, which was destroyed due to the iconoclastic policies of <a href="/wiki/Sikandar_Butshikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikandar Butshikan">Sikandar Butshikan</a>, photo taken by John Burke in 1868.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Somnath_temple_ruins_(1869).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Somnath temple in ruins, 1869" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/150px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/225px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/300px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="640" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Somnath temple in ruins, 1869</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Somnath-current.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Front view of the present Somnath Temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/150px-Somnath-current.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/225px-Somnath-current.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/300px-Somnath-current.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="534" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Front view of the present Somnath Temple</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Somnath_temple" title="Somnath temple">Somnath temple</a> was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> and repeatedly rebuilt after being demolished by successive Muslim rulers, including the Mughals under <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>.</div></div></div></div> Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:<a href="#cite_note-der_Veer-267">[265]</a> <ol><li>The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Iranian Plateau</a> or Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton-268">[266]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] However this claim is disputed by modern genetic studies on haplotype findings of Y-chromosomal ancestry amongst various Muslim communities in India.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a></li> <li>Conversions of convenience: administrators and clerks converted to preserve their employment by governments; slaves obtained protection, and sometimes even power, through conversion; sub-castes converted to gain a Muslim ruler's protection; in many service industries (e.g. butchery) conversion was socially convenient; non-Muslim men converted to marry Muslim women.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a></li> <li>Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes<a href="#cite_note-der_Veer-267">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eaton-268">[266]</a></li> <li>Conversion was a result of the actions of <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> saints and involved a genuine change of heart.<a href="#cite_note-der_Veer-267">[265]</a></li> <li>Conversion came from <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a> and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Hindu caste strictures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton-268">[266]</a></li> <li>A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart.<a href="#cite_note-der_Veer-267">[265]</a></li> <li>As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim civilisation and global polity</a> at large.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton-268">[266]</a></li></ol> Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism as the native religion that resisted it has been a point of contention, contributing to the failure of efforts to Islamize the Indian subcontinent and playing a significant role in the politics of <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communalism_(South_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (South Asia)">communalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-der_Veer-267">[265]</a> The impact and consequences of the Muslim conquest of South Asia remain subjects of scrutiny and diverse viewpoints. <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> characterizes the Muslim conquest of India as a particularly tumultuous chapter in history. He suggests that it was marked by significant violence and upheaval, which he attributes in part to factors such as internal divisions, the influence of religions like <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jadunath_Sarkar" title="Jadunath Sarkar">Jadunath Sarkar</a> argues that some Muslim invaders waged a systematic jihad against Hindus, using various methods to force conversions.<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> Hindu converts to Islam faced discrimination within the Muslim social hierarchy, as outlined in Ziauddin al-Barani’s Fatawa-i Jahandari,<a href="#cite_note-Sikand-22">[22]</a> where they were placed in the Ajlaf caste and treated as inferior to the Ashraf castes.<a href="#cite_note-one-273">[271]</a> Other perspectives suggest that the Muslim conquests led to persecution of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, with instances of massacres, temple destructions, and forced conversions.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Sir Thomas Arnold</a> and <a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">De Lacy O'Leary</a>, criticized the view that Islam was spread by force and sword as 'absurd.'<a href="#cite_note-Munir-276">[274]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Ira Lapidus</a>, while instances of forced conversion in Muslim regions did occur, they were relatively infrequent. Muslim conquerors generally sought to exert control rather than enforce conversion, with the majority of conversions to Islam being voluntary in nature.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Munir-276">[274]</a> Other critics of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> who travelled through <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India – II) however points to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Tughluq" title="Muhammad bin Tughluq">Muhammad bin Tughluq</a> as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> Although, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a> were generally known for their religious tolerance,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-279">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-280">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-a1-281">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> and actively patronized the arts and literature as well as cultural and religious exchange, blending Hindu and Islamic traditions,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-279">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-280">[278]</a> numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors like <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> who was noted for his policies of religious intolerance non-Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-283">[web 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[281]</a> Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors,<a href="#cite_note-Frontline-Jan2001-285">[282]</a> but notes this was not unusual in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval India</a> where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.<a href="#cite_note-Eaton-dec-286">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eaton-sep-287">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eaton-2004-288">[285]</a> He also notes there were many instances of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, which often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources, and that attacks on temples had significantly declined under the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Frontline-Jan2001-285">[282]</a> <a href="/wiki/K._S._Lal" title="K. S. Lal">K. S. Lal</a>, in his book <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_Muslim_Population_in_Medieval_India" title="Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India">Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India</a>, claimed that between 1000 and 1500 the Indian population decreased by 30 million,<a href="#cite_note-289">[286]</a> but stated his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality.<a href="#cite_note-290">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elst-291">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miller-292">[289]</a> His work has come under <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_Muslim_Population_in_Medieval_India#Criticism" title="Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India">criticism</a> by historians such as <a href="/wiki/Simon_Digby_(oriental_scholar)" title="Simon Digby (oriental scholar)">Simon Digby</a> (<a href="/wiki/SOAS,_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="SOAS, University of London">SOAS, University of London</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Irfan_Habib" title="Irfan Habib">Irfan Habib</a> for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times.<a href="#cite_note-Digby1975-293">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-Habib-294">[291]</a> Different population estimates by economics historians <a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Angus Maddison</a> and Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.<a href="#cite_note-295">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[293]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Indian population</a> estimates from other economic historians including <a href="/wiki/Colin_Clark_(economist)" title="Colin Clark (economist)">Colin Clark</a>, John D. Durand and <a href="/wiki/Colin_McEvedy" title="Colin McEvedy">Colin McEvedy</a> also show there was a population increase in India between 1000 and 1500.<a href="#cite_note-maddison-297">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-maddison236-298">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_non-Muslim_communities">Relations with non-Muslim communities</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muslim–Hindu_conflict">Muslim–Hindu conflict</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#During_Islamic_rule_of_the_Indian_sub-continent" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Religious violence in India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Muslims_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Violence against Muslims in India">Violence against Muslims in India</a></div> <dl><dt>Before 1947</dt></dl> The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>'s invasion of <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> in 711. The persecution of Hindus during the Islamic expansion in India during the medieval period was characterised by destruction of temples, often illustrated by historians by the repeated destruction of the Hindu Temple at <a href="/wiki/Somnath" class="mw-redirect" title="Somnath">Somnath</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[297]</a> and the anti-Hindu practices of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-301">[298]</a> Although there were instances of conflict between the two groups, a number of Hindus worshipped and continue to worship at the tombs of Muslim Sufi Saints.<a href="#cite_note-302">[299]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.<a href="#cite_note-khan68-69-303">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[301]</a> <dl><dt>From 1947 to 1998</dt></dl> The aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> in 1947 saw large scale <a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">sectarian strife</a> and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These include the <a href="/wiki/1969_Gujarat_riots" title="1969 Gujarat riots">1969 Gujarat riots</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1970_Bhiwandi_riots" title="1970 Bhiwandi riots">1970 Bhiwandi riots</a>, the 1983 <a href="/wiki/Nellie_massacre" title="Nellie massacre">Nellie massacre</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1989_Bhagalpur_violence" title="1989 Bhagalpur violence">1989 Bhagalpur violence</a>. These conflicts stem in part from the ideologies of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a>. Since independence, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> has always maintained a <a href="/wiki/Indian_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian constitution">constitutional</a> commitment to <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period was compromised greatly by the razing of the <a href="/wiki/Babri_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Babri Mosque">Babri Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ayodhya" title="Ayodhya">Ayodhya</a>. The demolition took place in 1992 and was perpetrated by the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> and organisations like <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bajrang_Dal" title="Bajrang Dal">Bajrang Dal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishva_Hindu_Parishad" title="Vishva Hindu Parishad">Vishva Hindu Parishad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shiv_Sena_(1966%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiv Sena (1966–2022)">Shiv Sena</a>. This was followed by <a href="/wiki/Tit_for_tat" title="Tit for tat">tit for tat</a> violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country, giving rise to the <a href="/wiki/Bombay_riots" title="Bombay riots">Bombay riots</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1993_Bombay_bombings" title="1993 Bombay bombings">1993 Bombay bombings</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/1998_Prankote_massacre" title="1998 Prankote massacre">1998 Prankote massacre</a>, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.<a href="#cite_note-305">[302]</a> <dl><dt>Kashmir (1990s)</dt></dl> During the eruption of militancy in the 1990s, following persecution and threats by radical Islamists and militants, the native <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_Pandit" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri Pandit">Kashmiri Hindus</a> were forced into an exodus from <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, a Muslim-majority region in Northern India.<a href="#cite_note-306">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[304]</a> Mosques issued warnings, telling them to leave Kashmir, convert to Islam or be killed.<a href="#cite_note-308">[305]</a> Approximately 300,000–350,000 pandits left the valley during the mid-80s and the 90s.<a href="#cite_note-309">[306]</a> Many of them have been living in abject conditions in refugee camps of <a href="/wiki/Jammu" title="Jammu">Jammu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rediff1-310">[307]</a> <dl><dt>Gujarat (2002)</dt></dl> One of the most violent events in recent times took place during the <a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">Gujarat riots</a> in 2002, where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most allegedly Muslim. Some sources claim there were approximately 2,000 Muslim deaths.<a href="#cite_note-India's_Great_Divide-311">[308]</a> There were also allegations made of state involvement.<a href="#cite_note-India's_Great_Divide-311">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[309]</a> The riots were in retaliation to the <a href="/wiki/Godhra_train_burning" title="Godhra train burning">Godhra train burning</a> in which 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed site of the <a href="/wiki/Babri_Masjid" title="Babri Masjid">Babri Masjid</a>, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. Gujarat police claimed that the incident was a planned act carried out by extremist Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims. The Bannerjee commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident.<a href="#cite_note-313">[310]</a> In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.<a href="#cite_note-314">[311]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg/220px-Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg/330px-Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg/440px-Ahmedabad_riots1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1184" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The skyline of <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad" title="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a> filled with smoke as buildings and shops are set on fire by <a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="2002 Gujarat violence">rioting mobs</a>. The riots, which took place following the <a href="/wiki/Godhra_train_burning" title="Godhra train burning">Godhra train burning</a> incident, killed more than 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus, including those killed in the Godhra train fire. These figures were reported to the Rajya Sabha by the Union Minister of State for Home Affairs Sriprakash Jaiswal in May 2005.<a href="#cite_note-315">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[314]</a></figcaption></figure> In 2004, several Indian school textbooks were scrapped by the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Educational_Research_and_Training" title="National Council of Educational Research and Training">National Council of Educational Research and Training</a> (NCERT) after they were found to be loaded with anti-Muslim prejudice. The NCERT argued that the books were "written by scholars hand-picked by the previous Hindu nationalist administration". According to <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, the textbooks depicted India's past Muslim rulers "as barbarous invaders and the medieval period as a Dark Age of Islamic colonial rule which snuffed out the glories of the Hindu empire that preceded it".<a href="#cite_note-Guardian26Jun04-318">[315]</a> In one textbook, it was purported that the <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qutb_Minar" title="Qutb Minar">Qutb Minar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Fort" title="Red Fort">Red Fort</a> – all examples of Islamic architecture – "were designed and commissioned by Hindus".<a href="#cite_note-Guardian26Jun04-318">[315]</a> <dl><dt>West Bengal (2010)</dt></dl> In the <a href="/wiki/2010_Deganga_riots" title="2010 Deganga riots">2010 Deganga riots</a>, rioting began on 6 September 2010, when an <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> mob resorted to arson and violence on the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> neighborhoods of <a href="/wiki/Deganga_(community_development_block)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deganga (community development block)">Deganga</a>, Kartikpur and Beliaghata under the <a href="/wiki/Deganga_(community_development_block)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deganga (community development block)">Deganga</a> police station area. The violence began late in the evening and continued throughout the night into the next morning. The <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal_Police" title="West Bengal Police">district police</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rapid_Action_Force" title="Rapid Action Force">Rapid Action Force</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force</a> all failed to stop the <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">mob violence</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a> was finally deployed.<a href="#cite_note-toi1-319">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-toi2-320">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-express1-321">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-hindu1-322">[319]</a> <dl><dt>Assam (2012)</dt></dl> At least 77 people died<a href="#cite_note-323">[320]</a> and 400,000 people were displaced in the <a href="/wiki/2012_Assam_violence" title="2012 Assam violence">2012 Assam violence</a> between indigenous <a href="/wiki/Bodo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodo people">Bodos</a> and East Bengal rooted Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-324">[321]</a> <dl><dt>Delhi (2020)</dt></dl> The <a href="/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots" title="2020 Delhi riots">2020 Delhi riots</a>, which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,<a href="#cite_note-325">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[323]</a> were triggered by protests against a <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_(Amendment)_Act,_2019" title="Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019">citizenship law</a> seen by many critics as <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">anti-Muslim</a> and part of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu nationalist">Hindu nationalist</a> agenda.<a href="#cite_note-327">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[325]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muslim–Sikh_conflict">Muslim–Sikh conflict</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Islam and Sikhism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chhota_Ghallughara" title="Chhota Ghallughara">Chhota Ghallughara</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 when <a href="/wiki/Guru_Arjan" title="Guru Arjan">Guru Arjan</a>, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son took his spot as <a href="/wiki/Guru_Hargobind" title="Guru Hargobind">Guru Hargobind</a>, who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in present <a href="/wiki/Sri_Hargobindpur" title="Sri Hargobindpur">Sri Hargobindpur</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gurdaspur" title="Gurdaspur">Gurdaspur</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[326]</a> Later in the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Tegh_Bahadur" title="Guru Tegh Bahadur">Tegh Bahadur</a> became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executed by the Mughal Emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation of <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_Pandit" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri Pandit">Kashmiri Pandits</a> came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-330">[327]</a> At this point, <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> had instituted forceful conversions on the basis of charging citizens with crimes then sparing them from punishments (up to death) if they converted. This led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions in <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>'s empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After this Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise, who was Bahadur Shah Zafar. For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were in <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>'s time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen by <a href="/wiki/Dulla_Bhatti" title="Dulla Bhatti">Dulla Bhatti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mian_Mir" title="Mian Mir">Mian Mir</a>, Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah, <a href="/wiki/Bulleh_Shah" title="Bulleh Shah">Bulleh Shah</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1699, the <a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh" title="Guru Gobind Singh">Guru Gobind Singh</a>, the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Jahandar_Shah" title="Jahandar Shah">Jahandar Shah</a> after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-331">[328]</a> The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of the <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a>, resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a> of 1849.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Massive population exchanges took place during the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.<a href="#cite_note-332">[329]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JamalabadFortPassage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/220px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/330px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/440px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="3296" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Jamalabad" title="Jamalabad">Jamalabad fort</a> route. Mangalorean Catholics had travelled through this route on their way to <a href="/wiki/Srirangapatna" title="Srirangapatna">Srirangapatna</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_Muslim_News_Agencies">Indian Muslim News Agencies</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Milli_Gazette" title="The Milli Gazette">The Milli Gazette</a>: A prominent English-language newspaper in India that focuses on issues related to the Muslim community and provides news, analysis, and views from an Islamic perspective.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Muslim_Personal_Law_Board" title="All India Muslim Personal Law Board">All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB)</a>: While primarily a body representing the interests of Muslims in India, the AIMPLB is also involved in publishing statements, reports, and newsletters on issues affecting the Muslim community in the country.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind">Jaamiat-e-Ulama-i-Hind (Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind)</a>: One of the oldest and most respected Muslim organizations in India, Jamiat also disseminates news and information on various social, educational, and religious matters through its publications and media outlets.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Mirror" title="Muslim Mirror">Muslim Mirror</a>: A digital media platform focusing on news, opinion, and analysis related to the Muslim community in India and across the globe.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=India_Islamic_Cultural_Centre_(IICC)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="India Islamic Cultural Centre (IICC) (page does not exist)">India Islamic Cultural Centre (IICC)</a>: This center in New Delhi is not primarily a news agency, but it publishes materials, reports, and information related to the Indian Muslim community’s cultural, educational, and social concerns.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prominent_Muslims_in_India">Prominent Muslims in India</h2></div> India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world. Out of the 12 <a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">Presidents of the Republic of India</a>, three were Muslims – <a href="/wiki/Zakir_Husain_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakir Husain (politician)">Zakir Husain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fakhruddin_Ali_Ahmed" title="Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed">Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed</a> and <a href="/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam" title="A. P. J. Abdul Kalam">A. P. J. Abdul Kalam</a>. Additionally, 4 Muslims: <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullah" title="Mohammad Hidayatullah">Mohammad Hidayatullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Mushabber_Ahmadi" title="Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi">Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Hameedullah_Beg" title="Mirza Hameedullah Beg">Mirza Hameedullah Beg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altamas_Kabir" title="Altamas Kabir">Altamas Kabir</a> held the office of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice of India</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hidayatullah" title="Mohammad Hidayatullah">Mohammad Hidayatullah</a> also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President of India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of India">Vice-President of India</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-M._Hidayatullah-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-EBC_article_on_J._Hidayatullah-256">[254]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tayyab_Husain" title="Tayyab Husain">Tayyab Husain</a> serves as a Cabinet Minister in the government of three different states (<a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>) at different times and became the only politician in Indian history to do so.<a href="#cite_note-:0-261">[259]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dr._Zakir_Hussain" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. Zakir Hussain">Dr. Zakir Hussain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maulana_Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Maulana Abul Kalam Azad">Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dr._APJ_Abdul_Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam">Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ustad_Bismillah_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ustad Bismillah Khan">Ustad Bismillah Khan</a> are prominent Muslims of India who have been awarded <a href="/wiki/Bharat_Ratna" title="Bharat Ratna">Bharat Ratna</a>, highest civilian award of India.<a href="#cite_note-333">[330]</a> The former <a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of India">Vice-President of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hamid_Ansari" title="Mohammad Hamid Ansari">Mohammad Hamid Ansari</a>, former Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Salman_Khurshid" title="Salman Khurshid">Salman Khurshid</a> are Muslims. Dr. <a href="/wiki/S._Y._Quraishi" title="S. Y. Quraishi">S. Y. Quraishi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Nasim_Ahmad_Zaidi" title="Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi">Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi</a> both served as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Election_Commissioner_of_India" title="Chief Election Commissioner of India">Chief Election Commissioner of India</a> .<a href="#cite_note-yahind.com-257">[255]</a> Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats include <a href="/wiki/Abid_Hussain" title="Abid Hussain">Abid Hussain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Yavar_Jung" title="Ali Yavar Jung">Ali Yavar Jung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asaf_Ali" title="Asaf Ali">Asaf Ali</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zafar_Saifullah" title="Zafar Saifullah">Zafar Saifullah</a> was <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a> of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994.<a href="#cite_note-the_first_50_years-p252-258">[256]</a> Salman Haidar was <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Secretary_(India)" title="Foreign Secretary (India)">Indian Foreign Secretary</a> from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-apcd.anu.edu.au-259">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-260">[258]</a> Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Police_Service" title="Indian Police Service">Indian Police Service</a>, with several attaining the rank of <a href="/wiki/Director_general_of_police" title="Director general of police">Director general of police</a> and serving as commanders of both state and <a href="/wiki/Central_Armed_Police_Forces" title="Central Armed Police Forces">Central Armed Police Forces</a>. In 2013, IPS officer <a href="/wiki/Syed_Asif_Ibrahim" title="Syed Asif Ibrahim">Syed Asif Ibrahim</a> became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers of <a href="/wiki/List_of_state_and_union_territory_capitals_in_India" title="List of state and union territory capitals in India">Indian states</a> (other than <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)">Jammu and Kashmir</a>): <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Barkatullah_Khan" title="Barkatullah Khan">Barkatullah Khan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>: 1971–73)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghafoor_(politician,_born_1918)" title="Abdul Ghafoor (politician, born 1918)">Abdul Ghafoor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>: 1973–75)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._H._Mohammed_Koya" title="C. H. Mohammed Koya">C. H. Mohammed Koya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>: 1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwara_Taimur" title="Anwara Taimur">Anwara Taimur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>: 1980–81)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._R._Antulay" title="A. R. Antulay">A. R. Antulay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>: 1980–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Alimuddin" title="Mohammed Alimuddin">Mohammed Alimuddin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a>: 1973–74)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._O._H._Farook" title="M. O. H. Farook">M. O. H. Farook</a> was a three-time CM of the Union Territory of <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry" title="Pondicherry">Pondicherry</a>.</li></ol> Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include <a href="/wiki/Dilip_Kumar" title="Dilip Kumar">Yusuf Khan</a> (stage name Dilip Kumar),<a href="#cite_note-334">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shah_Rukh_Khan" title="Shah Rukh Khan">Shah Rukh Khan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-335">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/Salman_Khan" title="Salman Khan">Salman Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aamir_Khan" title="Aamir Khan">Aamir Khan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-336">[333]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saif_Ali_Khan" title="Saif Ali Khan">Saif Ali Khan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-sak-337">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[335]</a> <a href="/wiki/Madhubala" title="Madhubala">Madhubala</a>,<a href="#cite_note-339">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nawazuddin_Siddiqui" title="Nawazuddin Siddiqui">Nawazuddin Siddiqui</a>,<a href="#cite_note-340">[337]</a> <a href="/wiki/Naseeruddin_Shah" title="Naseeruddin Shah">Naseeruddin Shah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Walker_(actor)" title="Johnny Walker (actor)">Johnny Walker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shabana_Azmi" title="Shabana Azmi">Shabana Azmi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-341">[338]</a> <a href="/wiki/Waheeda_Rehman" title="Waheeda Rehman">Waheeda Rehman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Waheeda_Rehman_honoured_with_Dadasaheb_Phalke_Award_for_contributions_to_Indian_cinema,_expemplifying_‘strength_of_Bharatiya_Nari’-342">[339]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mumtaz_(Indian_actress)" title="Mumtaz (Indian actress)">Mumtaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amjad_Khan_(actor)" title="Amjad Khan (actor)">Amjad Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajit_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajit Khan">Ajit Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kader_Khan" title="Kader Khan">Kader Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feroz_Khan_(actor)" title="Feroz Khan (actor)">Feroz Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjay_Khan" title="Sanjay Khan">Sanjay Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meena_Kumari" title="Meena Kumari">Meena Kumari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prem_Nazir" title="Prem Nazir">Prem Nazir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mammootty" title="Mammootty">Mammootty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dulquer_Salmaan" title="Dulquer Salmaan">Dulquer Salmaan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asif_Ali_(actor)" title="Asif Ali (actor)">Asif Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nargis" title="Nargis">Nargis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrfan_Khan" title="Irrfan Khan">Irrfan Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farida_Jalal" title="Farida Jalal">Farida Jalal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arshad_Warsi" title="Arshad Warsi">Arshad Warsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehmood_(actor)" title="Mehmood (actor)">Mehmood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Fazal" title="Ali Fazal">Ali Fazal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farhan_Akhtar" title="Farhan Akhtar">Farhan Akhtar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeenat_Aman" title="Zeenat Aman">Zeenat Aman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raza_Murad" title="Raza Murad">Raza Murad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farooq_Sheikh" title="Farooq Sheikh">Farooq Sheikh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tabu_(actress)" title="Tabu (actress)">Tabu</a>. Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include <a href="/wiki/Mehboob_Khan" title="Mehboob Khan">Mehboob Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Ahmad_Abbas" title="Khwaja Ahmad Abbas">Khwaja Ahmad Abbas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasir_Hussain" title="Nasir Hussain">Nasir Hussain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamal_Amrohi" title="Kamal Amrohi">Kamal Amrohi</a>, <a href="/wiki/K._Asif" title="K. Asif">K. Asif</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_(director)" title="Sultan Ahmed (director)">Sultan Ahmed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anees_Bazmee" title="Anees Bazmee">Anees Bazmee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mansoor_Khan" title="Mansoor Khan">Mansoor Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabir_Khan_(director)" title="Kabir Khan (director)">Kabir Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Abbas_Zafar" title="Ali Abbas Zafar">Ali Abbas Zafar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbas%E2%80%93Mustan" title="Abbas–Mustan">Abbas–Mustan</a> duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. <a href="/wiki/M._F._Husain" title="M. F. Husain">M. F. Husain</a> is one of India's best known contemporary artists. <a href="/wiki/Academy_Awards" title="Academy Awards">Academy Awards</a> winners <a href="/wiki/Resul_Pookutty" title="Resul Pookutty">Resul Pookutty</a> and <a href="/wiki/A._R._Rahman" title="A. R. Rahman">A. R. Rahman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naushad" title="Naushad">Naushad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salim%E2%80%93Sulaiman" title="Salim–Sulaiman">Salim–Sulaiman</a> and Nadeem Akhtar of the <a href="/wiki/Nadeem%E2%80%93Shravan" title="Nadeem–Shravan">Nadeem–Shravan</a> duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. <a href="/wiki/Abrar_Alvi" title="Abrar Alvi">Abrar Alvi</a> penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include <a href="/wiki/Shakeel_Badayuni" title="Shakeel Badayuni">Shakeel Badayuni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sahir_Ludhianvi" title="Sahir Ludhianvi">Sahir Ludhianvi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majrooh_Sultanpuri" title="Majrooh Sultanpuri">Majrooh Sultanpuri</a>. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Rafi" title="Mohammed Rafi">Mohammed Rafi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anu_Malik" title="Anu Malik">Anu Malik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Aziz" title="Mohammed Aziz">Mohammed Aziz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucky_Ali" title="Lucky Ali">Lucky Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Javed_Ali" title="Javed Ali">Javed Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armaan_Malik" title="Armaan Malik">Armaan Malik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adnan_Sami" title="Adnan Sami">Adnan Sami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talat_Mahmood" title="Talat Mahmood">Talat Mahmood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shamshad_Begum" title="Shamshad Begum">Shamshad Begum</a>. Another famous personality is the <a href="/wiki/Padma_Vibhushan" title="Padma Vibhushan">Padma Vibhushan</a> awardee <a href="/wiki/Tabla" title="Tabla">tabla</a> maestro <a href="/wiki/Zakir_Hussain_(musician)" title="Zakir Hussain (musician)">Zakir Hussian</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sania_Mirza" title="Sania Mirza">Sania Mirza</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Hyderabad,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyderabad, India">Hyderabad</a>, is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. Prominent Muslim names in Indian <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a> (the most popular sport of India) include <a href="/wiki/Iftikhar_Ali_Khan_Pataudi" title="Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi">Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mansoor_Ali_Khan_Pataudi" title="Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi">Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Azharuddin" title="Mohammad Azharuddin">Mohammad Azharuddin</a>, who captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other famous Muslim cricketers in India are <a href="/wiki/Mushtaq_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushtaq Ali">Mushtaq Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syed_Kirmani" title="Syed Kirmani">Syed Kirmani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arshad_Ayub" title="Arshad Ayub">Arshad Ayub</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Kaif" title="Mohammad Kaif">Mohammad Kaif</a>, <a href="/wiki/Munaf_Patel" title="Munaf Patel">Munaf Patel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaheer_Khan" title="Zaheer Khan">Zaheer Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irfan_Pathan" title="Irfan Pathan">Irfan Pathan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Pathan" title="Yusuf Pathan">Yusuf Pathan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Shami" title="Mohammed Shami">Mohammed Shami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Siraj" title="Mohammed Siraj">Mohammed Siraj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wasim_Jaffer" title="Wasim Jaffer">Wasim Jaffer</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/150px-Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/225px-Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/300px-Azim_H._Premji_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3316" data-file-height="4621" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Azim_Premji" title="Azim Premji">Azim Premji</a>, CEO of India's 3rd largest IT company <a href="/wiki/Wipro_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Wipro Technologies">Wipro Technologies</a> and the 5th richest man in India with an estimated fortune of US$17.1 billion<a href="#cite_note-343">[340]</a></figcaption></figure> India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such as <a href="/wiki/Wipro" title="Wipro">Wipro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wockhardt" title="Wockhardt">Wockhardt</a>, Himalaya Health Care, <a href="/wiki/Hamdard_(Wakf)_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories">Hamdard Laboratories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cipla" title="Cipla">Cipla</a> and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named by <a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a> magazine, <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Hamied" title="Yusuf Hamied">Yusuf Hamied</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azim_Premji" title="Azim Premji">Azim Premji</a>, are from India. Though Muslims are under-represented in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Indian Armed Forces</a>, as compared to <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikhs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-344">[341]</a> several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal <a href="/wiki/I._H._Latif" class="mw-redirect" title="I. H. Latif">I. H. Latif</a> was Deputy <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Air_Staff_(India)" title="Chief of the Air Staff (India)">Chief of the Air Staff (India)</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1971" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1971">Indo-Pakistani War of 1971</a> and later served as <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Air_Staff_(India)" title="Chief of the Air Staff (India)">Chief of the Air staff</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Indian Air Force</a> from 1973 to 1976.<a href="#cite_note-345">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[343]</a> Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank of <a href="/wiki/Air_marshal" title="Air marshal">air marshal</a> and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979 to 1980.<a href="#cite_note-347">[344]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_(soldier)" title="Abdul Hamid (soldier)">Abdul Hamid</a> was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the <a href="/wiki/Param_Vir_Chakra" title="Param Vir Chakra">Param Vir Chakra</a>, for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Asal_Uttar" title="Battle of Asal Uttar">Battle of Asal Uttar</a> in 1965.<a href="#cite_note-348">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-349">[346]</a> Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded <a href="/wiki/Maha_Vir_Chakra" title="Maha Vir Chakra">Maha Vir Chakra</a> for their actions during the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1947">Indo-Pakistani War of 1947</a>.<a href="#cite_note-350">[347]</a> High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include: <ul><li>Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93),<a href="#cite_note-351">[348]</a></li> <li>Lieutenant General Sami Khan (Commandant of the National Defence Academy: 1985–86, GoC-in-C, Central Command: 1988–89)</li> <li>Lieutenant General Pattiarimmal Mohamed Hariz (GOC-in-C, Southern Command: 2016–17),<a href="#cite_note-352">[349]</a></li> <li>Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi (Deputy Chief of Air Staff: 1997–99, Senior Air Staff Officer, Training Command 1999–2001)<a href="#cite_note-Bharat_Rakshak_Service_Record-353">[350]</a></li> <li>Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ata_Hasnain" title="Syed Ata Hasnain">Syed Ata Hasnain</a> (GOC XV Corps: 2010–2012, Military Secretary: 2012–13)</li> <li>Major General <a href="/wiki/Afsir_Karim" title="Afsir Karim">Afsir Karim</a></li> <li>Major General SM Hasnain</li> <li>Major General Mohammed Amin Naik.<a href="#cite_note-354">[351]</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam" title="A. P. J. Abdul Kalam">Abdul Kalam</a>, one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Guided_Missile_Development_Programme" title="Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme">Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme</a> (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th <a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President of India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-355">[352]</a> His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the Missile Man of India<a href="#cite_note-356">[353]</a> and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as People's President. <a href="/wiki/Syed_Zahoor_Qasim" title="Syed Zahoor Qasim">Syed Zahoor Qasim</a>, former Director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Oceanography,_India" title="National Institute of Oceanography, India">National Institute of Oceanography</a>, led India's first scientific expedition to <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and played a crucial role in the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Dakshin_Gangotri" title="Dakshin Gangotri">Dakshin Gangotri</a>. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of <a href="/wiki/Jamia_Millia_Islamia" title="Jamia Millia Islamia">Jamia Millia Islamia</a>, Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India.<a href="#cite_note-357">[354]</a> Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of <a href="/wiki/Deccan_College_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Deccan College of Medical Sciences">Deccan College of Medical Sciences</a> and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.<a href="#cite_note-358">[355]</a> In the field of <a href="/wiki/Yunani_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Yunani medicine">Yunani medicine</a>, one can name <a href="/wiki/Hakim_Ajmal_Khan" title="Hakim Ajmal Khan">Hakim Ajmal Khan</a>, Hakim Abdul Hameed and <a href="/wiki/Hakim_Syed_Zillur_Rahman" title="Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman">Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman</a>. <a href="/wiki/Salim_Ali" title="Salim Ali">Salim Ali</a>, was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India". In the list of most influential Muslims list by <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>, there were 21 Indians (in 2017) like <a href="/wiki/Mahmood_Madani" title="Mahmood Madani">Maulana Mahmood Madani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akhtar_Raza_Khan" title="Akhtar Raza Khan">Akhtar Raza Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakir_Abdul_Karim_Naik" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakir Abdul Karim Naik">Zakir Abdul Karim Naik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wahiduddin_Khan" title="Wahiduddin Khan">Wahiduddin Khan</a>, Abul Qasim Nomani Syed Muhammad <a href="/wiki/Ameen_Mian_Qaudri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ameen Mian Qaudri">Ameen Mian Qaudri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aamir_Khan" title="Aamir Khan">Aamir Khan</a> and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar. <a href="/wiki/Mahmood_Madani" title="Mahmood Madani">Mahmood Madani</a>, leader of <a href="/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Hind" title="Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind">Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind</a> and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-359">[356]</a> Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list. In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead a <a href="/wiki/Jumu%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumu'ah">Jumu'ah</a> prayer service in India.<a href="#cite_note-360">[357]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/27px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/54px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Muslim_unity" title="Hindu–Muslim unity">Hindu–Muslim unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_in_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of scientists in medieval Islamic world">List of scientists in medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Muslim Nobel laureates">List of Muslim Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_educational_institutions" title="List of Islamic educational institutions">List of Islamic educational institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihari_Muslims" title="Bihari Muslims">Bihari Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Muslims" title="Gujarati Muslims">Gujarati Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccani Muslims">Deccani Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabadi_Muslims" title="Hyderabadi Muslims">Hyderabadi Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Tamil Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappila_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila Muslims">Mappila Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meithei_Pangals" class="mw-redirect" title="Meithei Pangals">Meithei Pangals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hindu–Islamic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia" title="Muslim nationalism in South Asia">Muslim nationalism in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Kashmiri_Shias" title="Persecution of Kashmiri Shias">Persecution of Kashmiri Shias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NCERT_textbook_controversies" title="NCERT textbook controversies">NCERT textbook controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi's poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <div lang="ar" dir="rtl">ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدةان الرزيه فقد العلم والحكموأن أشرف من اودي الزمان بهأهل العفاف و أهل الجود والكريم <a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></div> "Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> "India" in this page refers to the territory of present-day <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. </li> </ol></div></div><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121212204236/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html">"Aurangzeb: Religious Policies"</a>. Manas Group, UCLA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html">the original</a> on 12 December 2012. 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Retrieved 28 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=faqs.org&rft.atitle=Muslims+of+India+%E2%80%93+World+Directory+of+Minorities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faqs.org%2Fminorities%2FSouth-Asia%2FMuslims-of-India.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pewforum-17Nov17-98"><a href="#cite_ref-pewforum-17Nov17_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/chart/interactive-data-table-world-muslim-population-by-country/">"World Muslim Population by Country"</a>. 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Retrieved 4 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.indiaonlinepages.com&rft.atitle=Muslim+Population+in+India+-+Muslims+in+Indian+States&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiaonlinepages.com%2Fpopulation%2Fmuslim-population-in-india.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://go.id/agamadanstatistik/umat">"Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut"</a> [Population by Region and Religion]. Sensus Penduduk 2018. Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik. 15 May 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2020. <q>Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sensus+Penduduk+2018&rft.atitle=Penduduk+Menurut+Wilayah+dan+Agama+yang+Dianut&rft.date=2018-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.id%2Fagamadanstatistik%2Fumat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03),Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836 </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/">"The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency"</a>. www.cia.gov. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139048828">10.1017/CBO9781139048828</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521514309" title="Special:BookSources/9780521514309"><bdi>9780521514309</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220503164345/https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/a-history-of-islamic-societies/22183D81CFE5E37E5DBED1A0F5AB0FB9#overview">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139048828&rft.isbn=9780521514309&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fhighereducation%2Fbooks%2Fa-history-of-islamic-societies%2F22183D81CFE5E37E5DBED1A0F5AB0FB9%23overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121209030754/http://india_resource.tripod.com/islam.html">"Islam and the sub-continent – appraising its impact"</a>. 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Reorient. 5 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13169%2Freorient.5.2.0137">10.13169/reorient.5.2.0137</a>. Retrieved 2 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reorient&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+History+and+Historiography+of+Mughal+Pluralism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2020-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13169%2Freorient.5.2.0137&rft.aulast=Kinra&rft.aufirst=Rajeev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceopen.com%2Fhosted-document%3Fdoi%3D10.13169%2Freorient.5.2.0137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-280">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_280-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_280-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/99054ac16e7f4bff45b43e5af41a383a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=646551">"MUGHALS AND THE RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS"</a>. Proquest. September 2012. 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Journal of Indian Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religious+Policy+of+Emperor+Shahjahan+%281627-1658AD%29&rft.pub=Journal+of+Indian+Studies&rft.aulast=Akhtar&rft.aufirst=Awais&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpu.edu.pk%2Fimages%2Fjournal%2FindianStudies%2FPDF%2F1_v4_2_18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiordan2019" class="citation book cs1">Giordan, Giuseppe (15 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isuiDwAAQBAJ">Annual Review of the Sociology of Religion. Volume 10 (2019)</a>. Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh. p. 278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40126-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40126-6"><bdi>978-90-04-40126-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Review+of+the+Sociology+of+Religion.+Volume+10+%282019%29&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=Verlag+Ferdinand+Sch%C3%B6ningh&rft.date=2019-07-15&rft.isbn=978-90-04-40126-6&rft.aulast=Giordan&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DisuiDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1991" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Margaret Prosser (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&pg=PA362">Ornament in Indian Architecture</a>. University of Delaware Press. p. 362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874133998" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874133998"><bdi>978-0874133998</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ornament+in+Indian+Architecture&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=University+of+Delaware+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0874133998&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Prosser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvyXxEX5PQH8C%26pg%3DPA362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frontline-Jan2001-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frontline-Jan2001_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frontline-Jan2001_285-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2001" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Eaton" title="Richard M. Eaton">Eaton, Richard M.</a> (5 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040012/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf">"Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Part II"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Frontline_(magazine)" title="Frontline (magazine)">Frontline</a>. pp. 70–77. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Temple+Desecration+and+Indo-Muslim+States%2C+Part+II&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2001-01-05&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2Ffline%2Ffl1726%2F17260700.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf">via: ftp.columbia.edu</a> (PDF)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=via%3A+ftp.columbia.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fmealac%2Fpritchett%2F00islamlinks%2Ftxt_eaton_temples2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton-dec-286"><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton-dec_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2000" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, Richard M. (9 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131211181300/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1725/17250620.htm">"Temple desecration in pre-modern India, Part I"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frontline_(magazine)" title="Frontline (magazine)">Frontline</a>. 17 (25). <a href="/wiki/The_Hindu_Group" title="The Hindu Group">The Hindu Group</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1725/17250620.htm">the original</a> on 11 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Temple+desecration+in+pre-modern+India%2C+Part+I&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=25&rft.date=2000-12-09&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.frontline.in%2Fstatic%2Fhtml%2Ffl1725%2F17250620.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton-sep-287"><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton-sep_287-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2000" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, Richard M. (September 2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Islamic_Studies" title="Journal of Islamic Studies">Journal of Islamic Studies</a>. 11 (3): 283–319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F11.3.283">10.1093/jis/11.3.283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Temple+Desecration+and+Indo-Muslim+States&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E283-%3C%2Fspan%3E319&rft.date=2000-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2F11.3.283&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton-2004-288"><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton-2004_288-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2004" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard M. (2004). Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India. Gurgaon: Hope India Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8178710273" title="Special:BookSources/978-8178710273"><bdi>978-8178710273</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Temple+desecration+and+Muslim+states+in+medieval+India&rft.place=Gurgaon&rft.pub=Hope+India+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-8178710273&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLal1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/K.S._Lal" class="mw-redirect" title="K.S. Lal">Lal, Kishori Saran</a> (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HmBuAAAAMAAJ">Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India</a>, Aditya Prakashan, p. 343, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-72-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-72-2"><bdi>978-81-86471-72-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Practice+of+Muslim+State+in+India&rft.pages=343&rft.pub=Aditya+Prakashan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-86471-72-2&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Kishori+Saran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHmBuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988">: "I have arrived at the conclusion that the population of India in A.D. 1000 was about 200 million and in the year 1500 it was 170 million." </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLal1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/K.S._Lal" class="mw-redirect" title="K.S. Lal">Lal, Kishori Saran</a> (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S7U8AQAAIAAJ">Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India</a>, Research Publications, p. 89, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-72-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-86471-72-2"><bdi>978-81-86471-72-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Practice+of+Muslim+State+in+India&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Research+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-86471-72-2&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Kishori+Saran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS7U8AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elst-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Elst_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElst1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Koenraad_Elst" title="Koenraad Elst">Elst, Koenraad</a> (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C">"The Ayodhya Debate"</a>, in Gilbert Pollet (ed.), Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact : Proceedings of the 8th International Rāmāyaạ Conference, Leuven, 6–8 July 1991, Peeters Publishers, p. 33, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-701-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-701-5"><bdi>978-90-6831-701-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ayodhya+Debate&rft.btitle=Indian+Epic+Values%3A+R%C4%81m%C4%81ya%E1%B9%87a+and+Its+Impact+%3A+Proceedings+of+the+8th+International+R%C4%81m%C4%81ya%E1%BA%A1+Conference%2C+Leuven%2C+6%E2%80%938+July+1991&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-6831-701-5&rft.aulast=Elst&rft.aufirst=Koenraad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEVnK3q48dL0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-292"><a href="#cite_ref-Miller_292-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sam_Miller_(journalist)" title="Sam Miller (journalist)">Miller, Sam</a> (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9FnOAgAAQBAJ">"A Third Intermission"</a>, A Strange Kind of Paradise: India Through Foreign Eyes, Random House, p. 80, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-14-4819-220-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-14-4819-220-5"><bdi>978-14-4819-220-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Third+Intermission&rft.btitle=A+Strange+Kind+of+Paradise%3A+India+Through+Foreign+Eyes&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-14-4819-220-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9FnOAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Digby1975-293"><a href="#cite_ref-Digby1975_293-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDigby1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Digby_(oriental_scholar)" title="Simon Digby (oriental scholar)">Digby, Simon</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3802960&fulltextType=BR&fileId=S0041977X0004739X">"Reviews: K. 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Retrieved 6 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maha+Vir+Chakra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bharat-rakshak.com%2FHEROISM%2FMVC.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muslimmirror.com/eng/lieutenant-general-p-m-hariz-took-over-as-commander-in-chief-of-the-southern-command/">"Lieutenant General P. M. Hariz took over as Commander-In-Chief of the Southern Command"</a>. Muslim Mirror. India. 29 September 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muslim+Mirror&rft.atitle=Lieutenant+General+P.+M.+Hariz+took+over+as+Commander-In-Chief+of+the+Southern+Command&rft.date=2016-09-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuslimmirror.com%2Feng%2Flieutenant-general-p-m-hariz-took-over-as-commander-in-chief-of-the-southern-command%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnil_Bhat2006" class="citation web cs1">Anil Bhat (14 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/87825/">"Brave Indians, also Muslim"</a>. The Indian Express. India. Retrieved 14 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Brave+Indians%2C+also+Muslim&rft.date=2006-02-14&rft.au=Anil+Bhat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indianexpress.com%2FoldStory%2F87825%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bharat_Rakshak_Service_Record-353"><a href="#cite_ref-Bharat_Rakshak_Service_Record_353-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/7193">"Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi"</a>. Bharat Rakshak. Retrieved 17 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Air+Marshal+Syed+Shahid+Hussein+Naqvi&rft.pub=Bharat+Rakshak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bharat-rakshak.com%2FIAF%2FDatabase%2F7193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhat2008" class="citation news cs1">Bhat, Rajesh (13 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028182723/http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml">"A high-profile 'Naik' of Indian Army"</a>. Merinews. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merinews.com/article/a-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army/132377.shtml">the original</a> on 28 October 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Merinews&rft.atitle=A+high-profile+%27Naik%27+of+Indian+Army&rft.date=2008-04-13&rft.aulast=Bhat&rft.aufirst=Rajesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merinews.com%2Farticle%2Fa-high-profile-naik-of-indian-army%2F132377.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070309080244/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm">"Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam"</a>, Vigyan Prasar Science Portal, 9 March 2007, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/Abdulkalam/Abdulkalam.htm">the original</a> on 9 March 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vigyan+Prasar+Science+Portal&rft.atitle=Avul+Pakir+Jainulabdeen+Abdul+Kalam&rft.date=2007-03-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vigyanprasar.gov.in%2Fscientists%2FAbdulkalam%2FAbdulkalam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> R. K. Pruthi.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee3PR5HFBCAC&dq=%22Abdul+Kalam%22+%22missile+man%22&pg=PA61">President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.</a> Anmol Publications, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-261-1344-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-261-1344-6">978-81-261-1344-6</a>; Ch. 4. Missile Man of Idia. pp. 61–76 </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100916052340/http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm">"Interview: Dr SZ Qasim"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.nic.in/techfocus/doc3/int.htm">the original</a> on 16 September 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview%3A+Dr+SZ+Qasim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.nic.in%2Ftechfocus%2Fdoc3%2Fint.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2009" class="citation web cs1">Sharma, Neena (27 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090228/dplus.htm#3">"Hope hangs on stem cell therapy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Tribune_(Chandigarh)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tribune (Chandigarh)">The Tribune (Chandigarh)</a>. Retrieved 6 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Tribune+%28Chandigarh%29&rft.atitle=Hope+hangs+on+stem+cell+therapy&rft.date=2009-02-27&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Neena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tribuneindia.com%2F2009%2F20090228%2Fdplus.htm%233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhaskar_Roy,_TNN2009" class="citation news cs1">Bhaskar Roy, TNN (12 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kalam-Shah-Rukh-in-most-influential-Muslims-list/articleshow/5328554.cms">"Kalam, Shah Rukh in most influential Muslims list"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times_of_India" title="The Times of India">The Times of India</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512000003/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-12/india/28109876_1_islamic-terror-muslims-maulana-mahmood-madani">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=Kalam%2C+Shah+Rukh+in+most+influential+Muslims+list&rft.date=2009-12-12&rft.au=Bhaskar+Roy%2C+TNN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesofindia.indiatimes.com%2Findia%2FKalam-Shah-Rukh-in-most-influential-Muslims-list%2Farticleshow%2F5328554.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/woman-imam-leads-friday-prayer-service-in-kerala-claims-to-be-first-in-india/story-teJA1BKyUyqaNOIV6kNB5O.html">"Woman Imam leads Friday prayer service in Kerala, claims to be first in India"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Times" title="Hindustan Times">Hindustan Times</a>. Press Trust of India. 27 January 2018. <q>Breaking gender stereotypes, a 34-year-old woman has led Jumu'ah, a Friday prayer service of Muslims, in Malappuram in Kerala, claimed to be the first in the history of the country. Jamitha, the general secretary of Quran Sunnat Society, took the role of the 'imam' of the prayers held at the office of the Society in the Muslim-dominated district on Friday.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hindustan+Times&rft.atitle=Woman+Imam+leads+Friday+prayer+service+in+Kerala%2C+claims+to+be+first+in+India&rft.date=2018-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindustantimes.com%2Findia-news%2Fwoman-imam-leads-friday-prayer-service-in-kerala-claims-to-be-first-in-india%2Fstory-teJA1BKyUyqaNOIV6kNB5O.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asghar_Ali_Engineer" title="Asghar Ali Engineer">Asghar Ali Engineer</a>, Islam in India: The Impact of Civilizations. Shipra Publications, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7541-115-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7541-115-5">81-7541-115-5</a>.</li> <li>Mohamed Taher. Muslims in India: Recent Contributions to Literature on Religion, Philosophy, History, & Social Aspects. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7041-620-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7041-620-5">81-7041-620-5</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KRVd8384LyMC&q=Muslims+in+India">Excerpts</a></li> <li>Mohammad Mujeeb. Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Thurston_Titus" title="Murray Thurston Titus">Murray Thurston Titus</a>, Indian Islam: A Religious History of Islam in India. Milford, Oxford university press, 1930. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7069-096-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-7069-096-X">81-7069-096-X</a></li> <li>Yogindar Sikand. Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-faith Relations. Routledge, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-31486-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-31486-0">0-415-31486-0</a>.</li> <li>Elliot and Dowson: <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_India_as_told_by_its_own_Historians" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of India as told by its own Historians">The History of India as told by its own Historians</a>, New Delhi reprint, 1990.</li> <li>Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_India,_as_Told_by_Its_Own_Historians._The_Muhammadan_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period">The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period</a>; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0">The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877</a> – This online Copy has been posted by: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp">The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1960" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra</a>; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1960). <a href="/wiki/The_History_and_Culture_of_the_Indian_People" title="The History and Culture of the Indian People">The History and Culture of the Indian People</a>. Vol. VI: The Delhi Sultanate. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Culture+of+the+Indian+People&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra</a>; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1973). <a href="/wiki/The_History_and_Culture_of_the_Indian_People" title="The History and Culture of the Indian People">The History and Culture of the Indian People</a>. Vol. VII: The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Culture+of+the+Indian+People&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMistry2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mistry, Malika B. (December 2005). "Muslims in India: A demographic and socio-economic profile". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 25 (3): 399–422. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13602000500408468">10.1080/13602000500408468</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143931874">143931874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft.atitle=Muslims+in+India%3A+A+demographic+and+socio-economic+profile&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E399-%3C%2Fspan%3E422&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13602000500408468&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143931874%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mistry&rft.aufirst=Malika+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li>M K A Siddiqui (ed.), Marginal Muslim Communities in India, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110408200244/http://www.iosworld.org/life_on_the_margins.htm">review</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNizami1957" class="citation journal cs1">Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad (1957). "Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India". <a href="/wiki/Studia_Islamica" title="Studia Islamica">Studia Islamica</a>. 8 (8). Maisonneuve &#38: 51–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595247">10.2307/1595247</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595247">1595247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=Some+Aspects+of+Kh%C4%81nqah+Life+in+Medieval+India&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595247&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nizami&rft.aufirst=Khaliq+Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+in+India" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWink2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wink, André (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C">Indo-Islamic society: 14th – 15th centuries</a>. Vol. 3 of Al-Hind Series. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004135618" title="Special:BookSources/9004135618"><bdi>9004135618</bdi></a>. 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The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877</a> – This online Copy has been posted by: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp">The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List</a></li> <li><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Afghanistan" title="Islam in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Armenia" title="Islam in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Azerbaijan" title="Islam in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bahrain" title="Islam in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bangladesh" title="Islam in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Brunei" title="Islam in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cambodia" title="Islam in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Cyprus" title="Islam in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Islam in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Islam in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Israel" title="Islam in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Japan" title="Islam in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Jordan" title="Islam in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kazakhstan" title="Islam in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kuwait" title="Islam in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Islam in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Laos" title="Islam in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Lebanon" title="Islam in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Malaysia" title="Islam in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Mongolia" title="Islam in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Myanmar" title="Islam in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Nepal" title="Islam in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Oman" title="Islam in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Pakistan" title="Islam in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Philippines" title="Islam in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Qatar" title="Islam in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Islam in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Singapore" title="Islam in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Islam in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Tajikistan" title="Islam in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Thailand" title="Islam in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste (East Timor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey" title="Islam in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkmenistan" title="Islam in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Islam in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Uzbekistan" title="Islam in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Vietnam" title="Islam in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Yemen" title="Islam in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Abkhazia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" 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Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Macau" title="Islam in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_Muslim" title="Template:Indian Muslim"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_Muslim" title="Template talk:Indian Muslim"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_Muslim" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian Muslim"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_Muslim_communities211" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Muslim</a> communities</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Majority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvi" title="Alvi">Alvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs_in_India" title="Arabs in India">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arain_(Delhi)" title="Arain (Delhi)">Arain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghons" title="Arghons">Arghon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awan_(tribe)" title="Awan (tribe)">Awan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghban" title="Baghban">Baghban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balti_people" title="Balti people">Balti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behna" title="Behna">Behna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beary" title="Beary">Beary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhatiara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhatiara (page does not exist)">Bhatiara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishti" title="Bhishti">Bhishti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisati" title="Bisati">Bisati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhipa">Chhipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaush_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaush (India)">Chaush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccani Muslims">Deccani Muslims</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hyderabadi_Muslims" title="Hyderabadi Muslims">Hyderabadi</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Dardic peoples">Dard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Dhobi" title="Muslim Dhobi">Dhobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosi_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghosi tribe">Ghosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjar" title="Gurjar">Gurjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Biradari" title="Iraqi Biradari">Iraqi Biradari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jat_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jat people">Jat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanzada_Rajputs" title="Khanzada Rajputs">Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiris" title="Kashmiris">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunjra" title="Kunjra">Kunjra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malkana" title="Malkana">Malkana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manihar" title="Manihar">Manihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila">Mappila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowther" title="Rowther">Rowther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meo_(ethnic_group)" title="Meo (ethnic group)">Meo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathans_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathans in India">Pathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purigpa" title="Purigpa">Purigpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qassab" title="Qassab">Qassab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Rajputs" title="Muslim Rajputs">Muslim Rajputs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauda_Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauda Brahmins">Garha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Rangrez" title="Muslim Rangrez">Rangrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikhs_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikhs in South Asia">Shaikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajjam" title="Hajjam">Salmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddi" title="Siddi">Siddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Teli" title="Muslim Teli">Teli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu-speaking_people" title="Urdu-speaking people">Urdu-speaking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_people" title="Assamese people">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslims" title="Bengali Muslims">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadvi_Bhil" title="Tadvi Bhil">Bhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra_Muslims" title="Dogra Muslims">Dogra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Raj_Gond" title="Muslim Raj Gond">Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Muslims" title="Gujarati Muslims">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawayath" title="Nawayath">Nawayath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_Muslims" title="Marathi Muslims">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_Muslims" title="Marwari Muslims">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslims_of_Manipur" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslims of Manipur">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_Muslims" title="Odia Muslims">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Muslims" title="Punjabi Muslims">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andhra_Muslims" title="Andhra Muslims">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labbay" title="Labbay">Labbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goan_Muslims" title="Goan Muslims">Goan Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alavi_Bohras" title="Alavi Bohras">Alavi Bohras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MANIYAR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MANIYAR (page does not exist)">MANIYAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bihari_Muslims" title="Bihari Muslims">Bihari</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdal_(caste)" title="Abdal (caste)">Abdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisati" title="Bisati">Bisati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamail" title="Chamail">Chamail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churihar" title="Churihar">Churihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chik_(community)" title="Chik (community)">Chik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Gaddi" title="Muslim Gaddi">Gaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darzi" title="Darzi">Idrisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanzada_Rajputs" title="Khanzada Rajputs">Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulhaiya" title="Kulhaiya">Kulhaiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lal_Begi" title="Lal Begi">Lal Begi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malkana" title="Malkana">Malkana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_clan_(Bihar)" title="Malik clan (Bihar)">Malik of Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirasi" title="Mirasi">Mirasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirshikar" title="Mirshikar">Mirshikar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muker_tribe" title="Muker tribe">Muker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Chhipi" title="Muslim Chhipi">Muslim Chhipi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turuk_Pasi" title="Turuk Pasi">Pasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_(Muslim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat (Muslim)">Nat</a></li> <li>Pathans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayeen" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayeen">Rayeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_(caste)" title="Sai (caste)">Sai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapera_(Muslim)" title="Sapera (Muslim)">Sapera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_(Mallick)_from_Bihar" class="mw-redirect" title="Syed (Mallick) from Bihar">Syed (Mallick)</a></li> <li>Shaikh of Bihar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shershahabadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shershahabadia">Shershahabadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thakurai" title="Thakurai">Thakurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Teli" title="Muslim Teli">Teli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdal_(caste)" title="Abdal (caste)">Abdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alavi_Bohras" title="Alavi Bohras">Alavi Bohras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_(Gujarat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab (Gujarat)">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attarwala" title="Attarwala">Attarwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bafan" title="Bafan">Bafan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjara_(Muslim)" title="Banjara (Muslim)">Banjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behlim" title="Behlim">Behlim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhadala" title="Bhadala">Bhadala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharbhunja_(Muslim)" title="Bharbhunja (Muslim)">Bharbhunja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishti" title="Bhishti">Bhishti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhipa">Chhipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunara" title="Chunara">Chunara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chundrigar" title="Chundrigar">Chundrigar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Dhobi" title="Muslim Dhobi">Dhobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhuldhoya" title="Dhuldhoya">Dhuldhoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doodwala" title="Doodwala">Doodwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faqir_(clan)" title="Faqir (clan)">Faqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galiara" title="Galiara">Galiara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanchi_(Muslim)" title="Ghanchi (Muslim)">Ghanchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanchi-Pinjara" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghanchi-Pinjara">Ghanchi-Pinjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaypotra" title="Halaypotra">Halaypotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hingorja_(community)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hingorja (community)">Hingorja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hingora" title="Hingora">Hingora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junejo" class="mw-redirect" title="Junejo">Juneja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadia_(Muslim)" title="Kadia (Muslim)">Kadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagzi" title="Kagzi">Kagzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ker_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ker clan">Ker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalifa_(caste)" title="Khalifa (caste)">Khalifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaskheli" title="Khaskheli">Khaskheli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja" title="Khoja">Khoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiyar" title="Machiyar">Machiyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makrani_caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Makrani caste">Makrani</a></li> <li>Maliks of Gujarat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandali_caste" title="Mandali caste">Mandali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Makwana" title="Muslim Makwana">Makwana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manka_caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Manka caste">Manka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansoori" title="Mansoori">Mansoori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memon_people" title="Memon people">Memon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Qureshi" title="Meta Qureshi">Meta Qureshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyana_(community)" title="Miyana (community)">Miyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molesalam_Rajput" class="mw-redirect" title="Molesalam Rajput">Molesalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momna" title="Momna">Momna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_(caste)" title="Multani (caste)">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_Lohar" title="Multani Lohar">Multani Lohar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutwa" title="Mutwa">Mutwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagori_(caste)" title="Nagori (caste)">Nagori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_tribe" title="Node tribe">Node</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panar" title="Panar">Panar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Parmar_(Gujarat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Parmar (Gujarat)">Parmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patani_Bohras" class="mw-redirect" title="Patani Bohras"> Patani Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patni_Jamat" title="Patni Jamat">Patni Jamat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathans_of_Gujarat" title="Pathans of Gujarat">Pathans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaat_(Muslim)" title="Salaat (Muslim)">Salaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samma_(tribe)" title="Samma (tribe)">Samma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandhai_Muslims" title="Sandhai Muslims">Sandhai Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanghar_caste" title="Sanghar caste">Sanghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Shaikh" title="Gujarati Shaikh">Shaikhs of Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikhda" title="Shaikhda">Shaikhda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_of_Gujarat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid of Gujarat">Sayyid of Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddi" title="Siddi">Siddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipahi_(caste)" title="Sipahi (caste)">Sipahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soomro" title="Soomro">Soomra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulaymani" title="Sulaymani">Sulaymani Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Bohra" title="Sunni Bohra">Sunni Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_(caste)" title="Tai (caste)">Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turk_Jamat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turk Jamat (page does not exist)">Turk Jamat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vora_Patel" title="Vora Patel">Vora Patel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyapari_(caste)" title="Vyapari (caste)">Vyapari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghban" title="Baghban">Baghban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beary" title="Beary">Beary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaush_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaush (India)">Chaush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhaparband_(Muslim)" title="Chhaparband (Muslim)">Chhaparband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kodava_Maaple" title="Kodava Maaple">Kodava Maaple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawayath" title="Nawayath">Nawayath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinjara" title="Pinjara">Pinjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddi" title="Siddi">Siddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Asad_ibn_Khuzaymah" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah">Assadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mappila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mappila">Mappilas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pusalan" title="Pusalan">Pusalans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossan" title="Ossan">Ossans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thangal">Tangals (the Sayyids)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawayath" title="Nawayath">Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labbay" title="Labbay">Labbais</a></li> <li>Nahas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marakkar" title="Marakkar">Marakkars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyi_family" title="Keyi family">Keyis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koya_(Malabar)" title="Koya (Malabar)">Koyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nainars" title="Nainars">Nainars</a></li> <li>Dakhnis or Pathans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowther" title="Rowther">Ravuthars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Bohras (Daudi Bohras)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhipa">Chhipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjara_(Muslim)" title="Banjara (Muslim)">Banjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Dhobi" title="Muslim Dhobi">Dhobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Chhipi" title="Muslim Chhipi">Muslim Chhipi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathans_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Pathans of Madhya Pradesh">Pathans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikhs_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikhs in South Asia">Shaikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attar_(caste)" title="Attar (caste)">Attar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghban" title="Baghban">Baghban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishti" title="Bhishti">Bhishti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaush_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaush (India)">Chaush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhipa">Chhipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhaparband_(Muslim)" title="Chhaparband (Muslim)">Chhaparband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhawad" title="Dhawad">Dhawad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faqir_(clan)" title="Faqir (clan)">Faqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garodi" title="Garodi">Garodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gavandi" title="Gavandi">Gavandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kachar" title="Kachar">Kachar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagzi" title="Kagzi">Kagzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_Muslims" title="Konkani Muslims">Konkani Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Momin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Raj_Gond" title="Muslim Raj Gond">Muslim Raj Gond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qassab" title="Qassab">Qassab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saiqalgar" title="Saiqalgar">Saiqalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadvi_Bhil" title="Tadvi Bhil">Tadvi Bhil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Momin_Ansari" title="Momin Ansari">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anderkoti" title="Anderkoti">Anderkoti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhipa" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhipa">Chhipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah_caste" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheetah caste">Cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadwa" title="Chadwa">Chadwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li> <li>Deshwali</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Gaddi" title="Muslim Gaddi">Gaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosi_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghosi tribe">Ghosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hela_Mehtar" title="Hela Mehtar">Hela Mehtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiranbaz" title="Hiranbaz">Hiranbaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandera" title="Kandera">Kandera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khadem_(caste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Khadem (caste)">Khadem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanzada_Rajputs" title="Khanzada Rajputs">Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langha_(tribe)" title="Langha (tribe)">Langha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganiar" title="Manganiar">Manganiar</a></li> <li>Merat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meo_(ethnic_group)" title="Meo (ethnic group)">Meo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinjara" title="Pinjara">Pinjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaimkhani" title="Qaimkhani">Kayamkhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Rangrez" title="Muslim Rangrez">Rangrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rath_tribe" title="Rath tribe">Rath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikh_of_Rajasthan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh of Rajasthan">Shaikhs of Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silawat" title="Silawat">Silawat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi-Sipahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sindhi-Sipahi">Sindhi-Sipahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singiwala" title="Singiwala">Singiwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorgar" title="Sorgar">Sorgar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rowther" title="Rowther">Rowther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayalar_(Muslim)" title="Kayalar (Muslim)">Kayalar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labbay" title="Labbay">Labbay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marakkar" title="Marakkar">Marakkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccani Muslims">Deccani Muslims</a> (Pathans)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawayath" title="Nawayath">Nawayath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvi" title="Alvi">Alvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansari_(surname)" title="Ansari (surname)">Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atishbaz" title="Atishbaz">Atishbaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachgoti_Khanzada" title="Bachgoti Khanzada">Bachgoti Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghban" title="Baghban">Baghban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluch_(Uttar_Pradesh)" title="Baluch (Uttar Pradesh)">Baluch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Bandhmati" title="Muslim Bandhmati">Bandhmati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjara_(Muslim)" title="Banjara (Muslim)">Banjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Barhai" title="Muslim Barhai">Barhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behlim" title="Behlim">Behlim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Israil" title="Banu Israil">Banu Israil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behna" title="Behna">Behna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhand" title="Bhand">Bhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharbhunja_(Muslim)" title="Bharbhunja (Muslim)">Bharbhunja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhale_Sultan_Khanzada" title="Bhale Sultan Khanzada">Bhale Sultan Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhatti_Khanzada" title="Bhatti Khanzada">Bhatti Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bhatiara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bhatiara (page does not exist)">Bhatiara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishti" title="Bhishti">Bhishti</a></li> <li>Muslim Bhumihar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisati" title="Bisati">Bisati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chik_(community)" title="Chik (community)">Chik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccani Muslims">Dakhini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dafali" title="Dafali">Dafali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Dhagi" title="Muslim Dhagi">Dhagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharhi" title="Dharhi">Dharhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Dhobi" title="Muslim Dhobi">Dhobi Musalmaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogar" title="Dogar">Dogar</a></li> <li>Fareedi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jogi_Faqir" title="Jogi Faqir">Faqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Gaddi" title="Muslim Gaddi">Gaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautam_Khanzada" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautam Khanzada">Gautam Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosi_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghosi tribe">Ghosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goriya" title="Goriya">Goriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Gujjar_(Uttar_Pradesh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Gujjar (Uttar Pradesh)">Gujjar Musalmaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halalkhor" title="Halalkhor">Halalkhor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Halwai" title="Muslim Halwai">Halwai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darzi" title="Darzi">Idrisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Biradari" title="Iraqi Biradari">Iraqi Biradari</a></li> <li>Jhojha</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabaria" title="Kabaria">Kabaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakori_Shaikh" title="Kakori Shaikh">Kakorvi Shaikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamangars" title="Kamangars">Kamangars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamboj" title="Kamboj">Kamboh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasgar" title="Kasgar">Kasgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Kayasths" title="Muslim Kayasths">Kayastha Musalman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanzada_Rajputs" title="Khanzada Rajputs">Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khokhar_Khanzada" title="Khokhar Khanzada">Khokhar Khanzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khumra_(Islam)" title="Khumra (Islam)">Khumra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingharia" title="Kingharia">Kingharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunjra" title="Kunjra">Kunjra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lal_Begi" title="Lal Begi">Lal Begi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalkhani" title="Lalkhani">Lalkhani Rajput</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madari" title="Madari">Madari</a></li> <li>Mandarkia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malkana" title="Malkana">Malkana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manihar" title="Manihar">Manihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meo_(ethnic_group)" title="Meo (ethnic group)">Meo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milki" title="Milki">Milki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirasi" title="Mirasi">Mirasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujavir" title="Mujavir">Mujavir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muker_tribe" title="Muker tribe">Muker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Chhipi" title="Muslim Chhipi">Muslim Chhipi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muley_Jats" class="mw-redirect" title="Muley Jats">Muley Jats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagar_Muslims" title="Nagar Muslims">Nagar Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nalband_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nalband (tribe) (page does not exist)">Nalband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanbai" title="Nanbai">Nanbai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqqal" title="Naqqal">Naqqal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchpiria" title="Panchpiria">Panchpiria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pankhiya" title="Pankhiya">Pankhiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathans_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Pathans of Uttar Pradesh">Pathans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putliwale" title="Putliwale">Putliwale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalandar_(caste)" title="Qalandar (caste)">Qalandar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qassab" title="Qassab">Qassab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Saudagaran-e-Delhi" title="Punjabi Saudagaran-e-Delhi">Qaum-e-Punjabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qidwai" title="Qidwai">Qidwai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Raibhat" title="Muslim Raibhat">Rai Bhatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_(caste)" title="Raj (caste)">Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauda_Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauda Brahmins">Garha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranghar" title="Ranghar"> Rajput Musalmaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramaiya" title="Ramaiya">Ramaiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Rangrez" title="Muslim Rangrez">Rangrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayeen" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayeen">Rayeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohilla" title="Rohilla">Rohilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadaat_Amroha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadaat Amroha">Sadaat Amroha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadaat-e-Bara" title="Sadaat-e-Bara">Sadaat-e-Bara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadaat-e-Bilgram" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadaat-e-Bilgram">Sadaat-e-Bilgram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_(caste)" title="Sai (caste)">Sai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajjam" title="Hajjam">Salmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_of_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid of Uttar Pradesh">Sayyid of Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikh_of_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaikh of Uttar Pradesh">Shaikh of Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27fri" title="Ja'fri">Shaikh Ja'fri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaikhzada" title="Shaikhzada">Shaikhzada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddiqui" title="Siddiqui">Siddiqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Teli" title="Muslim Teli">Teli Musalmaan</a></li> <li>Turk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyagi_(Muslim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyagi (Muslim)">Tyagi Musalmaan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdal_(caste)" title="Abdal (caste)">Abdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_Bohra" title="Dawoodi Bohra">Dawoodi Bohra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedia_(Muslim_clan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bedia (Muslim clan)">Bedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faqir_(clan)" title="Faqir (clan)">Faqir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosi_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghosi tribe">Ghosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Biradari" title="Iraqi Biradari">Iraqi Biradari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Kahar" title="Muslim Kahar">Kahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kan_(tribe)" title="Kan (tribe)">Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kela_(tribe)" title="Kela (tribe)">Kela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khotta_people" title="Khotta people">Khotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodha_Muslims" title="Lodha Muslims">Lodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mal_Muslim" title="Mal Muslim">Malla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashya_Shaikh" title="Nashya Shaikh">Nashya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patua" title="Patua">Patua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapuria" title="Sapuria">Sapuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shershahabadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shershahabadia">Shershahabadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Saudagaran-e-Delhi" title="Punjabi Saudagaran-e-Delhi">Shamsi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion_in_India_topics117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_India_topics" title="Template:Religion in India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_India_topics" title="Template talk:Religion in India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion_in_India_topics117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Religion in India</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_India" title="Hinduism in India">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Punjab" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Punjab">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_South_India" title="Hinduism in South India">South India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_India" title="Jainism in India">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_India" title="Sikhism in India">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in India">Sunni Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in India">Shia Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism_in_India" title="Sufism in India">Sufism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_India" title="Catholic Church in India">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_India" title="Protestantism in India">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_India" title="Baháʼí Faith in India">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmadiyya in India">Ahmadiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other paths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_India" title="Zoroastrianism in India">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">Tribalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_India" title="Irreligion in India">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li>Meena ethnic</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India" title="Freedom of religion in India">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_harmony_in_India" title="Religious harmony in India">Religious harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_thinkers_of_India" title="Religious thinkers of India">Religious thinkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Minority_Affairs" title="Ministry of Minority Affairs">Ministry of Minority Affairs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_India&oldid=1275841444">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_India&oldid=1275841444</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-ptn9n","wgBackendResponseTime":167,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.179","walltime":"3.568","ppvisitednodes":{"value":41809,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":848706,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":81305,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":51,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1283686,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2998.604 1 -total"," 49.17% 1474.297 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.60% 407.842 98 Template:Cite_web"," 12.57% 376.931 104 Template:Cite_news"," 11.66% 349.527 78 Template:Cite_book"," 7.48% 224.342 35 Template:Fix"," 6.08% 182.363 1 Template:Navboxes"," 5.51% 165.327 3 Template:Navbox"," 5.49% 164.638 1 Template:Asia_in_topic"," 4.57% 136.915 21 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[\"CITEREFBhaskar_Roy,_TNN2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhat2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhatty1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiswas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBose2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunsha2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurton-Page2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._ErnstB._Lawrence2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawford2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDandekar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniyal2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDatar2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesai1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesai2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevichand2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDigby1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurant\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEamon_Murphy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_SimpsonKai_Kresse2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEli_Franco,_Karin_Preisendanz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElst1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngineer1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarhad_Daftary2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarouqui2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFazal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGahlot1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiordan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGitte_Dyrhagen_and_Mazharul_Islam2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuilmoto2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGumaste2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutalaCarvalho-SilvaJinYngvadottir2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabib1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabib2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaq2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoque,_Ridwanul2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHusain_Raṇṭattāṇi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyam2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsraeli2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJahanbegloo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJairath2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffery,_Roger_and_Patricia_Jeffery1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey_G._Williamson,_David_Clingingsmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJha2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJournal_of_Human_Genetics2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKala2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlekar1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKashif-ul-Huda2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKashyap2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeith_BrownSarah_Ogilvie2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinra2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirti_N._Chaudhuri2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudden2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._J._Gohari2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadan1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadison2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahapatra2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdarPusalkerMajumdar1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMampatta2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehta2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerchant2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalf2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMir2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMistry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMonash_Arts_Online_Presence_Team\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunazir2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunir2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMustafa2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN._C._AsthanaAnjali_Nirmal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNair,_V._Balakrishnan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNandy2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaqvi,_Jawed2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarain_Singh2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasiri2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNizami1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOommen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._J._Marshall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPacey1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFParashar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParthasarathi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Kurtz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPechilisRaj2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilip2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPioneer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasad2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProf._Prasoon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPubby2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPunwani2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuri,_Fundamentalism_in_Kashmir,_Fragmentation_in_Jammu1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuri2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRama1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamesh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRampal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanjan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawlinson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Maxwell_Eaton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRukminiSingh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachar_Committee_Report\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSailendra_Nath_Sen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkar1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeervai2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSfeir2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShackleMandair,_Arvind-Pal_Singh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShakeel_Ahmad2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShukla2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh_Sikand\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoofi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSymonds1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalbotSingh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalwar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Indian_Express2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTikoo2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUri_M._Kupferschmidt1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerma2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerma2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWajihuddin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWidmalm,_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Democracy_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWink2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolpert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZakaria2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFadmin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Veer1994\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 6,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Asia in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Bare URL inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 24,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 78,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 104,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 98,\n [\"Cn\"] = 10,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Country study\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 5,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 5,\n [\"Historical populations\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 3,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 13,\n [\"Increase\"] = 1,\n [\"Indian Muslim\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox religious group\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam by country\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam in India\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Pie chart\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religion in India topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Rquote\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","26.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","16.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","12.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","8.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","4.0"],["(for generator)","60","3.0"],["ORIGIN \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:808\u003E","40","2.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","2.0"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","40","2.0"],["[others]","420","21.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-fstld","timestamp":"20250216130629","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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