CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Physiology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"8e2b67ae-2039-4766-bb64-24694d197648","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Physiology","wgTitle":"Physiology","wgCurRevisionId":1265005451,"wgRevisionId":1265005451,"wgArticleId":23597,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Use American English from July 2023","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles with excerpts","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Physiology","Branches of biology"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Physiology", "wgRelevantArticleId":23597,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q521","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true, "wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin", "mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/1200px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="948"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/800px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="632"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/640px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="505"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Physiology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Physiology rootpage-Physiology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Physiology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Physiology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Physiology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Physiology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Foundations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subdisciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_level_of_organisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines_by_level_of_organisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Subdisciplines by level of organisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_level_of_organisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cell_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Cell physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_taxa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines_by_taxa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Subdisciplines by taxa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_taxa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plant_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Plant physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Animal physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Human physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_research_objective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines_by_research_objective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Subdisciplines by research objective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines_by_research_objective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparative_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Comparative physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_classical_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_classical_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The classical era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_classical_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Early modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Late modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_physiologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_physiologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable physiologists</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_physiologists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable physiologists subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_physiologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Women in physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physiology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">117 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologie" title="Fisiologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fisiologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologie" title="Physiologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Physiologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="शरीर क्रिया विज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="शरीर क्रिया विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%88%D8%B8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="علم وظائف الأعضاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم وظائف الأعضاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisioloch%C3%ADa" title="Fisiolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fisiolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="শৰীৰতত্ত্ব – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শৰীৰতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolox%C3%ADa" title="Fisioloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fisioloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologiya" title="Fiziologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fiziologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="فیزیولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فیزیولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="শারীরতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শারীরতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізіялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фізіялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізыялёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фізыялёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija" title="Fiziologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyziologie" title="Fyziologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fyziologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambamuta" title="Ruambamuta – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambamuta" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffisioleg" title="Ffisioleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffisioleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologi" title="Fysiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fysiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologie" title="Physiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Physiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCsioloogia" title="Füsioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Füsioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φυσιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolog%C3%ADa" title="Fisiología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fisiología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologio" title="Fiziologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fiziologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="فیزیولوژی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیولوژی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologie" title="Physiologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physiologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiology" title="Fysiology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fysiology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiseola%C3%ADocht" title="Fiseolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fiseolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyshoaylleeaght" title="Fyshoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fyshoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolox%C3%ADa" title="Fisioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fisioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="생리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ֆիզիոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆիզիոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="शरीरक्रिया विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शरीरक्रिया विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija" title="Fiziologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologio" title="Fiziologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fiziologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologia" title="Physiologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Physiologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADfe%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Lífeðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lífeðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פיזיולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fisiologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಶರೀರಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶರೀರಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფიზიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="فزیالوجی – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="فزیالوجی" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnasonieth" title="Gnasonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gnasonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziolojia" title="Fiziolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fiziolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyoloj%C3%AE" title="Fizyolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Fizyolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologia" title="Physiologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Physiologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziolo%C4%A3ija" title="Fizioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fizioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija" title="Fiziologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixiologia" title="Fixiologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Fixiologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologie" title="Fysiologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Fysiologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolojia" title="Fisiolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fisiolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lettan" title="Élettan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Élettan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физиологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физиологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="ഫിസിയോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫിസിയോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शरीरक्रियाशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शरीरक्रियाशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფიზიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="فيسيولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيسيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fisiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Fisiologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%95ng-l%C4%AB" title="Sĕng-lī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sĕng-lī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Физиологиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Физиологиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Физиологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Физиологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%80%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%99%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဇီဝကမ္မဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဇီဝကမ္မဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologie" title="Fysiologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fysiologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologi" title="Fysiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fysiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologi" title="Fysiologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fysiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Физиологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Физиологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiiziyoloojii(xinqaama)" title="Fiiziyoloojii(xinqaama) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Fiiziyoloojii(xinqaama)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologiya" title="Fiziologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fiziologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="فزیالوجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فزیالوجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="សរីរវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សរីរវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologie" title="Physiologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Physiologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizjologia" title="Fizjologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizjologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologia" title="Fisiologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fisiologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologie" title="Fiziologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fiziologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Physiology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologjia" title="Fiziologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fiziologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiolugg%C3%ACa" title="Fisioluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Fisioluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Physiology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="فزيالوجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فزيالوجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyziol%C3%B3gia" title="Fyziológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fyziológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija" title="Fiziologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C" title="فیزیۆلۆژی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فیزیۆلۆژی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физиологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Физиологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziologija" title="Fiziologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fiziologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Fisiologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologia" title="Fysiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fysiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysiologi" title="Fysiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fysiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisyolohiya" title="Pisyolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pisyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உடலியங்கியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உடலியங்கியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="สรีรวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สรีรวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физиология – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Физиология" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyoloji" title="Fizyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fizyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізіологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізіологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فعلیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فعلیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizio%C5%82oz%C3%ACa" title="Fiziołozìa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fiziołozìa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Sinh lý học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh lý học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziolodjeye" title="Fiziolodjeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Fiziolodjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisyolohiya" title="Pisyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pisyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פיזיאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פיזיאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q521#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Physiology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Physiology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Physiology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Physiology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Physiology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&oldid=1265005451" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Physiology&id=1265005451&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPhysiology"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPhysiology"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Physiology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physiology" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Physiology" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Physiology" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q521" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Science regarding functions in organisms or living systems</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Physiology_(journal)" title="Physiology (journal)"><i>Physiology</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/330px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/495px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg/660px-Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1631" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>Oil painting depicting <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a>, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple_horizontal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/150px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/225px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/DNA_simple_horizontal.svg/300px-DNA_simple_horizontal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;background-color:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black); color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;font-family:inherit;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li>Physiology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_biologists" title="List of biologists">list)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_awards" title="List of biology awards">List of biology awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">List of research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" title="List of unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Physiology</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:φύσις">φύσις</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>phúsis</i></span>)</i> 'nature, origin' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:-λογία">-λογία</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i><a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logía</a></i></span>)</i> 'study of')<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtDict-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">functions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(biology)" title="Mechanism (biology)">mechanisms</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">living system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prosser_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prosser-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">subdiscipline</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, physiology focuses on how <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">organ systems</a>, individual <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> carry out <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> functions in a living system.<sup id="cite_ref-Guyton_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guyton-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the classes of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, the field can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Clinical_physiology" title="Clinical physiology">medical physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology#Physiology" title="Zoology">animal physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">plant physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_physiology" title="Cell physiology">cell physiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">comparative physiology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guyton_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guyton-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Central to physiological functioning are <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> processes, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic</a> control mechanisms, and <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">communication</a> between cells.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Physiological state</i> is the condition of normal function. In contrast, <i><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathological</a> state</i> refers to <a href="/wiki/Abnormality_(behavior)" title="Abnormality (behavior)">abnormal conditions</a>, including human <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> is awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a> for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundations">Foundations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Foundations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a> is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, from the microscopic level of cells and tissues to the macroscopic level of organs and systems. Anatomical knowledge is important in physiology because the structure and function of an organism are often dictated by one another.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> is the study of the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. Knowledge of biochemistry provides the foundation for understanding cellular and molecular processes that are essential to the functioning of organisms.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a> is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and their interactions with their environment. It helps to explain how organisms sense and respond to different stimuli, such as light, sound, and temperature, and how they maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal environment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a> is the study of heredity and the variation of traits within and between populations. It provides insights into the genetic basis of physiological processes and the ways in which genes interact with the environment to influence an organism's phenotype.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a> is the study of the processes that have led to the diversity of life on Earth. It helps to explain the origin and adaptive significance of physiological processes and the ways in which organisms have evolved to cope with their environment.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology:<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>based on the <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> studied: <a href="/wiki/Human_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Human physiology">human physiology</a>, animal physiology, <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">plant physiology</a>, microbial physiology, viral physiology</li> <li>based on the <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">level of organization</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cell_physiology" title="Cell physiology">cell physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular physiology">molecular physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">systems</a> physiology, organismal physiology, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological physiology">ecological physiology</a>, integrative physiology</li> <li>based on the process that causes physiological variation: <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental</a> physiology, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental physiology">environmental physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li>based on the ultimate goals of the research: <a href="/wiki/Applied_physiology" title="Applied physiology">applied physiology</a> (e.g., medical physiology), <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">non-applied</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">comparative physiology</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdisciplines_by_level_of_organisation">Subdisciplines by level of organisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines by level of organisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cell_physiology">Cell physiology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cell physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cell_physiology" title="Cell physiology">Cell physiology</a></div><p>Although there are differences between <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a>, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">cell signaling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">cell metabolism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdisciplines_by_taxa">Subdisciplines by taxa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines by taxa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plant_physiology">Plant physiology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plant physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></div><p>Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">plant morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">plant ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. Fundamental processes of <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">plant physiology</a> include <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiration_in_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiration in plant">respiration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropism" title="Tropism">tropisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nastic_movements" title="Nastic movements">nastic movements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photoperiodism" title="Photoperiodism">photoperiodism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">photomorphogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">seed germination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dormancy" title="Dormancy">dormancy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a> function and <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Animal_physiology">Animal physiology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Animal physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biology#Animal_form_and_function" title="Biology">Biology § Animal form and function</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_physiology">Human physiology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Human physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_body#Physiology" title="Human body">Human body § Physiology</a></div><p>Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding human physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing. </p><p>It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a> alive and functioning,<sup id="cite_ref-Guyton_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guyton-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a> is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Change in <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(individual)" title="Behavior change (individual)">behavior</a> as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis2017_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zolDavis2017_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zolDavis2017-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animal experimentation</a>. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2013_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2013-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdisciplines_by_research_objective">Subdisciplines by research objective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines by research objective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparative_physiology">Comparative physiology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Comparative physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">Comparative physiology</a></div> <p>Involving <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">evolutionary physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental physiology">environmental physiology</a>, comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Garland_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garland-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_classical_era">The classical era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The classical era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of human physiology as a medical field originates in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greece</a>, at the time of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (late 5th century BC).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a>, which consisted of four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> would later expand. The critical thinking of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. Like <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galen (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 130</span>–200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were also tied to the humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fernel" title="Jean Fernel">Jean Fernel</a> (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galen, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Realdo_Colombo" title="Realdo Colombo">Realdo Colombo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amato_Lusitano" class="mw-redirect" title="Amato Lusitano">Amato Lusitano</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>, are credited as making important discoveries in the <a href="/wiki/Circulation_of_the_blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulation of the blood">circulation of the blood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Santorio_Santorio" title="Santorio Santorio">Santorio Santorio</a> in 1610s was the first to use a device to measure the <a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">pulse</a> rate (the <i>pulsilogium</i>), and a <a href="/wiki/Thermoscope" title="Thermoscope">thermoscope</a> to measure temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1791 <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> described the role of electricity in the nerves of dissected frogs. In 1811, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Julien_Jean_Legallois" title="César Julien Jean Legallois">César Julien Jean Legallois</a> studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in the <a href="/wiki/Medulla_oblongata" title="Medulla oblongata">medulla oblongata</a>. In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bell" title="Charles Bell">Charles Bell</a> finished work on what would later become known as the <a href="/wiki/Bell%E2%80%93Magendie_law" title="Bell–Magendie law">Bell–Magendie law</a>, which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. In 1824, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Magendie" title="François Magendie">François Magendie</a> described the sensory roots and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">equilibration</a> to complete the Bell–Magendie law. </p><p>In the 1820s, the French physiologist <a href="/wiki/Henri_Milne-Edwards" title="Henri Milne-Edwards">Henri Milne-Edwards</a> introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">systems</a> (called by him as <i>appareils</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-brain_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brain-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1858, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a> studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptics</a> in the operating room, and as a result, decreased the death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.<sup id="cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physiologyinfo.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/The_Physiological_Society" title="The Physiological Society">The Physiological Society</a> was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_American_Physiological_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Physiological Society">The American Physiological Society</a> (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1891, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a bell and visual stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physiologyinfo.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleiden" title="Matthias Jakob Schleiden">Matthias Schleiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a>'s (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Milieu_interieur" class="mw-redirect" title="Milieu interieur">milieu interieur</a></i> (internal environment),<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would later be taken up and championed as "<a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>" by American physiologist <a href="/wiki/Walter_B._Cannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter B. Cannon">Walter B. Cannon</a> in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology. </p><p>Nineteenth-century physiologists such as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foster_(physiologist)" title="Michael Foster (physiologist)">Michael Foster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Verworn" title="Max Verworn">Max Verworn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Binet" title="Alfred Binet">Alfred Binet</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Haeckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haeckel">Haeckel</a>'s ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of life based on the cell actions,<sup id="cite_ref-brain_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brain-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later renamed in the 20th century as <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modern_period">Late modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">comparative physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">ecophysiology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major figures in these fields include <a href="/wiki/Knut_Schmidt-Nielsen" title="Knut Schmidt-Nielsen">Knut Schmidt-Nielsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Bartholomew_(biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Bartholomew (biologist)">George Bartholomew</a>. Most recently, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">evolutionary physiology</a> has become a distinct subdiscipline.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a> won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated.<sup id="cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physiologyinfo.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a>, known today as the sliding filament theory.<sup id="cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physiologyinfo.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, there have been intense debates about the vitality of physiology as a discipline (Is it dead or alive?).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If physiology is perhaps less visible nowadays than during the golden age of the 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is in large part because the field has given birth to some of the most active domains of today's biological sciences, such as <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">endocrinology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, physiology is still often seen as an integrative discipline, which can put together into a coherent framework data coming from various different domains.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_physiologists">Notable physiologists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notable physiologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_physiologists" title="List of physiologists">List of physiologists</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_physiology">Women in physiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Women in physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The <a href="/wiki/American_Physiological_Society" title="American Physiological Society">American Physiological Society</a>, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected <a href="/wiki/Ida_Hyde" class="mw-redirect" title="Ida Hyde">Ida Hyde</a> as the first female member of the society.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_1981_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker_1981-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyde, a representative of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Women" title="American Association of University Women">American Association of University Women</a> and a global advocate for gender equality in education,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine. </p><p>Soon thereafter, in 1913, <a href="/wiki/J.S._Haldane" class="mw-redirect" title="J.S. Haldane">J.S. Haldane</a> proposed that women be allowed to formally join <a href="/wiki/The_Physiological_Society" title="The Physiological Society">The Physiological Society</a>, which had been founded in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted: <a href="/wiki/Florence_Buchanan" title="Florence Buchanan">Florence Buchanan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winifred_Cullis" title="Winifred Cullis">Winifred Cullis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Skelton" title="Ruth Skelton">Ruth Skelton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarah_C._M._Sowton" title="Sarah C. M. Sowton">Sarah C. M. Sowton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constance_Leetham" title="Constance Leetham">Constance Leetham Terry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enid_Tribe_Oppenheimer" title="Enid Tribe Oppenheimer">Enid M. Tribe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-physoc.org_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physoc.org-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The centenary of the election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women Physiologists: Centenary Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9933410-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9933410-0-7">978-0-9933410-0-7</a>) </p><p>Prominent women physiologists include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodil_Schmidt-Nielsen" title="Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen">Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen</a>, the first woman president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physiological_Society" title="American Physiological Society">American Physiological Society</a> in 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with her husband <a href="/wiki/Carl_Cori" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Cori">Carl Cori</a>, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>-containing form of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, as well as its function within <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> mechanisms for energy production. Moreover, they discovered the <a href="/wiki/Cori_cycle" title="Cori cycle">Cori cycle</a>, also known as the Lactic acid cycle,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation">lactic acid fermentation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Transposition_(horizontal_gene_transfer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposition (horizontal gene transfer)">genetic transposition</a>. McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an unshared Nobel Prize.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Elion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gertrude Elion">Gertrude Elion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/George_Hitchings" class="mw-redirect" title="George Hitchings">George Hitchings</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">Sir James Black</a>, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune disorders">autoimmune disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herpes" title="Herpes">viral herpes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nobelprize.org_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a>, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">odorant receptors</a> and the complex organization of the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory system</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a>, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Immunodeficiency_Virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Immunodeficiency Virus">Human Immunodeficiency Virus</a> (HIV), the cause of <a href="/wiki/Acquired_Immunodeficiency_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome">Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome</a> (AIDS).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a>, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of <a href="/wiki/Telomeres" class="mw-redirect" title="Telomeres">telomeres</a> and the enzyme called <a href="/wiki/Telomerase" title="Telomerase">telomerase</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physiology" title="Outline of physiology">Outline of physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitecture" title="Cytoarchitecture">Cytoarchitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_physiology" title="Defense physiology">Defense physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_physiology" title="Exercise physiology">Exercise physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_physiology" title="Insect physiology">Insect physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolome" title="Metabolome">Metabolome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiome" title="Physiome">Physiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Physiological_Society" title="American Physiological Society">American Physiological Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Physiological_Sciences" title="International Union of Physiological Sciences">International Union of Physiological Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Physiological_Society" title="The Physiological Society">The Physiological Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Society_of_Physiology" title="Brazilian Society of Physiology">Brazilian Society of Physiology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtDict-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtDict_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=physiology">"physiology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=physiology&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dphysiology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biology.cam.ac.uk/undergrads/nst/courses/physiology-of-organisms/what-is-physiology">"What is physiology?"</a>. <i>biology.cam.ac.uk</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">University of Cambridge</a>, Faculty of Biology. 16 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biology.cam.ac.uk&rft.atitle=What+is+physiology%3F&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.cam.ac.uk%2Fundergrads%2Fnst%2Fcourses%2Fphysiology-of-organisms%2Fwhat-is-physiology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prosser-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prosser_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProsser1991" class="citation book cs1">Prosser, C. Ladd (1991). <i>Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology</i> (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>-Liss. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-85767-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-85767-9"><bdi>978-0-471-85767-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Animal+Physiology%2C+Environmental+and+Metabolic+Animal+Physiology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley-Liss&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-471-85767-9&rft.aulast=Prosser&rft.aufirst=C.+Ladd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guyton-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guyton_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guyton_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guyton_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuytonHall2011" class="citation book cs1">Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2011). <i>Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology</i> (12th ed.). Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/Saunders_(imprint)" title="Saunders (imprint)">Saunders</a>/<a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8"><bdi>978-1-4160-4574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guyton+and+Hall+Textbook+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Saunders%2FElsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8&rft.aulast=Guyton&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Hall%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWidmaierRaffStrang2016" class="citation book cs1">Widmaier, Eric P.; Raff, Hershel; Strang, Kevin T. (2016). <i>Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill Education">McGraw-Hill Education</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">14–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-259-29409-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-259-29409-9"><bdi>978-1-259-29409-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vander%27s+Human+Physiology+Mechanisms+of+Body+Function&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-259-29409-9&rft.aulast=Widmaier&rft.aufirst=Eric+P.&rft.au=Raff%2C+Hershel&rft.au=Strang%2C+Kevin+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology">"Plant physiology"</a>. Basic Biology. 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plant+physiology&rft.pub=Basic+Biology&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbasicbiology.net%2Fplants%2Fphysiology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPereda2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pereda, AE (April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4091911">"Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews. Neuroscience</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3708">10.1038/nrn3708</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4091911">4091911</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24619342">24619342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Electrical+synapses+and+their+functional+interactions+with+chemical+synapses&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2014-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4091911%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24619342&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3708&rft.aulast=Pereda&rft.aufirst=AE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4091911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/topics/mental_disorders/en/">"Mental disorders"</a>. <i>World Health Organization</i>. WHO<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Mental+disorders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Ftopics%2Fmental_disorders%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis2017-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis2017_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171124164653/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf">"Eszopiclone"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. F.A. Davis. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eszopiclone&rft.pub=F.A.+Davis&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavisplus.fadavis.com%2F3976%2Fmeddeck%2Fpdf%2Feszopiclone.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zolDavis2017-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zolDavis2017_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105509/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf">"Zolpidem"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. F.A. Davis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 22, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zolpidem&rft.pub=F.A.+Davis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavisplus.fadavis.com%2F3976%2Fmeddeck%2Fpdf%2Fzolpidem.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2013-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NIH2013_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergmande_BruinHerrlerVerheijen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bergman, Esther M; de Bruin, Anique BH; Herrler, Andreas; Verheijen, Inge WH; Scherpbier, Albert JJA; van der Vleuten, Cees PM (19 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4225514">"Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study"</a>. <i>BMC Medical Education</i>. <b>13</b>: 152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1472-6920-13-152">10.1186/1472-6920-13-152</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4225514">4225514</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24252155">24252155</a>. <q>Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Education&rft.atitle=Students%27+perceptions+of+anatomy+across+the+undergraduate+problem-based+learning+medical+curriculum%3A+a+phenomenographical+study&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=152&rft.date=2013-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4225514%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24252155&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1472-6920-13-152&rft.aulast=Bergman&rft.aufirst=Esther+M&rft.au=de+Bruin%2C+Anique+BH&rft.au=Herrler%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Verheijen%2C+Inge+WH&rft.au=Scherpbier%2C+Albert+JJA&rft.au=van+der+Vleuten%2C+Cees+PM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4225514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garland-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garland_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlandP._A._Carter1994" class="citation journal cs1">Garland, T. Jr.; P. A. Carter (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf">"Evolutionary physiology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Physiology</i>. <b>56</b>: <span class="nowrap">579–</span>621. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ph.56.030194.003051">10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8010752">8010752</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Physiology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+physiology&rft.volume=56&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E579-%3C%2Fspan%3E621&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ph.56.030194.003051&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8010752&rft.aulast=Garland&rft.aufirst=T.+Jr.&rft.au=P.+A.+Carter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.ucr.edu%2Fpeople%2Ffaculty%2FGarland%2FGarlCa94.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ph-Py/Physiology.html">"Physiology"</a>. <i>Science Clarified</i>. Advameg, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Clarified&rft.atitle=Physiology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceclarified.com%2FPh-Py%2FPhysiology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helaine Selin, <i>Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i> (2003), p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurmaChakravorty" class="citation book cs1">Burma, D. P.; Chakravorty, Maharani. <i>From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry</i>. Pearson Education. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Physiology+and+Chemistry+to+Biochemistry&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.aulast=Burma&rft.aufirst=D.+P.&rft.au=Chakravorty%2C+Maharani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neurophysio.html">"Early Medicine and Physiology"</a>. <i>ship.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ship.edu&rft.atitle=Early+Medicine+and+Physiology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebspace.ship.edu%2Fcgboer%2Fneurophysio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica.com-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum">"Galen of Pergamum"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 6 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galen+of+Pergamum&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F223895%2FGalen-of-Pergamum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFellPearson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Fell, C.; Pearson, F. (November 2007). "Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy". <i>Thoracic Surgery Clinics</i>. <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">443–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.thorsurg.2006.12.001">10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18271159">18271159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thoracic+Surgery+Clinics&rft.atitle=Historical+Perspectives+of+Thoracic+Anatomy&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E443-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2007-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.thorsurg.2006.12.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18271159&rft.aulast=Fell&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Pearson%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApplebaum2000" class="citation book cs1">Applebaum, Wilbur (2000). <i>Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton</i>. Routledge. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000esrc.book.....A">2000esrc.book.....A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Scientific+Revolution%3A+From+Copernicus+to+Newton&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000esrc.book.....A&rft.aulast=Applebaum&rft.aufirst=Wilbur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRampling2016" class="citation journal cs1">Rampling, M. W. (2016). "The history of the theory of the circulation of the blood". <i>Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation</i>. <b>64</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">541–</span>549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3233%2FCH-168031">10.3233/CH-168031</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1875-8622">1875-8622</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27791994">27791994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3304540">3304540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Hemorheology+and+Microcirculation&rft.atitle=The+history+of+the+theory+of+the+circulation+of+the+blood&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E541-%3C%2Fspan%3E549&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=1875-8622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3304540%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27791994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3233%2FCH-168031&rft.aulast=Rampling&rft.aufirst=M.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/treasures/santorio-santorio-1561-1636/">"Santorio Santorio (1561-1636): Medicina statica"</a>. <i>Vaulted Treasures</i>. University of Virginia, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vaulted+Treasures&rft.atitle=Santorio+Santorio+%281561-1636%29%3A+Medicina+statica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexhibits.hsl.virginia.edu%2Ftreasures%2Fsantorio-santorio-1561-1636%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brain-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brain_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brain_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrain2015" class="citation book cs1">Brain, Robert Michael (2015-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l8IECgAAQBAJ"><i>The Pulse of Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siècle Europe</i></a>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80578-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80578-8"><bdi>978-0-295-80578-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pulse+of+Modernism%3A+Physiological+Aesthetics+in+Fin-de-Si%C3%A8cle+Europe&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2015-05-01&rft.isbn=978-0-295-80578-8&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Robert+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl8IECgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physiologyinfo.org-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-physiologyinfo.org_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150918173051/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/mm/Timeline-of-Physiology/Milestones-in-Physiology.pdf">"Milestones in Physiology (1822-2013)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Physiology Info</i>. 1 October 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physiologyinfo.org/mm/Timeline-of-Physiology/Milestones-in-Physiology.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Sep 18, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-07-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physiology+Info&rft.atitle=Milestones+in+Physiology+%281822-2013%29&rft.date=2013-10-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physiologyinfo.org%2Fmm%2FTimeline-of-Physiology%2FMilestones-in-Physiology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170214024209/http://www.physoc.org/society-history">"The Society's history"</a>. <i>Physiological Society</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physoc.org/society-history">the original</a> on 2017-02-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physiological+Society&rft.atitle=The+Society%27s+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physoc.org%2Fsociety-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232208/http://www.the-aps.org/fm/About-Us.html">"American Physiological Society > About"</a>. <i>the-aps.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-aps.org/fm/About-Us.html">the original</a> on 2018-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the-aps.org&rft.atitle=American+Physiological+Society+%3E+About&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-aps.org%2Ffm%2FAbout-Us.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248791">"Introduction to physiology: History, biological systems, and branches"</a>. <i>www.medicalnewstoday.com</i>. 2017-10-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.medicalnewstoday.com&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+physiology%3A+History%2C+biological+systems%2C+and+branches&rft.date=2017-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F248791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard1865" class="citation book cs1">Bernard, Claude (1865). <i>An Introduction to the Study of Ex- perimental Medicine</i>. New York: Dover Publications (published 1957).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Ex-+perimental+Medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Bernard&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard1878" class="citation book cs1">Bernard, Claude (1878). <i>Lectures on the Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants</i>. Springfield: Thomas (published 1974).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Phenomena+of+Life+Common+to+Animals+and+Plants&rft.place=Springfield&rft.pub=Thomas&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Bernard&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown_Theodore_M.Fee_Elizabeth2002" class="citation journal cs1">Brown Theodore M.; Fee Elizabeth (October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447286">"Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions"</a>. <i>American Journal of Public Health</i>. <b>92</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1594–</span>1595. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.92.10.1594">10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447286">1447286</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Walter+Bradford+Cannon%3A+Pioneer+Physiologist+of+Human+Emotions&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1594-%3C%2Fspan%3E1595&rft.date=2002-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1447286%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2Fajph.92.10.1594&rft.au=Brown+Theodore+M.&rft.au=Fee+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1447286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1">Heilbron, John L. (2003-03-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abqjP-_KfzkC"><i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 649. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974376-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974376-6"><bdi>978-0-19-974376-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.pages=649&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003-03-27&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974376-6&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DabqjP-_KfzkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederBennettWWHuey1987" class="citation book cs1">Feder, ME; Bennett, AF; WW, Burggren; Huey, RB (1987). <i>New directions in ecological physiology</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34938-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34938-3"><bdi>978-0-521-34938-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+directions+in+ecological+physiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34938-3&rft.aulast=Feder&rft.aufirst=ME&rft.au=Bennett%2C+AF&rft.au=WW%2C+Burggren&rft.au=Huey%2C+RB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlandCarter1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Garland,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Garland, Jr.">Garland, Theodore Jr.</a>; Carter, P. A. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf">"Evolutionary physiology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Physiology</i>. <b>56</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">579–</span>621. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ph.56.030194.003051">10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8010752">8010752</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Physiology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+physiology&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E579-%3C%2Fspan%3E621&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ph.56.030194.003051&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8010752&rft.aulast=Garland&rft.aufirst=Theodore+Jr.&rft.au=Carter%2C+P.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.ucr.edu%2Fpeople%2Ffaculty%2FGarland%2FGarlCa94.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinterPinter1993" class="citation journal cs1">Pinter, G. G.; Pinter, V. (1993). "Is Physiology a Dying Discipline?". <i>Physiology</i>. <b>8</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">94–</span>95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiologyonline.1993.8.2.94">10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.2.94</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology&rft.atitle=Is+Physiology+a+Dying+Discipline%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiologyonline.1993.8.2.94&rft.aulast=Pinter&rft.aufirst=G.+G.&rft.au=Pinter%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemoinePradeu2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lemoine, Maël; Pradeu, Thomas (2018-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01817082/file/Lemoine-Pradeu_Vitality%20of%20physiology_Online%20version.pdf">"Dissecting the Meanings of "Physiology" to Assess the Vitality of the Discipline"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Physiology</i>. <b>33</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">236–</span>245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiol.00015.2018">10.1152/physiol.00015.2018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-9221">1548-9221</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29873600">29873600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology&rft.atitle=Dissecting+the+Meanings+of+%22Physiology%22+to+Assess+the+Vitality+of+the+Discipline&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E236-%3C%2Fspan%3E245&rft.date=2018-07-01&rft.issn=1548-9221&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29873600&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiol.00015.2018&rft.aulast=Lemoine&rft.aufirst=Ma%C3%ABl&rft.au=Pradeu%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01817082%2Ffile%2FLemoine-Pradeu_Vitality%2520of%2520physiology_Online%2520version.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKremer2009" class="citation book cs1">Kremer, Richard L. (2009). "Physiology". In Bowler & Pickstone (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of the Modern Biological and Earth Science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">342–</span>366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521572019.019">10.1017/CHOL9780521572019.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139056007" title="Special:BookSources/9781139056007"><bdi>9781139056007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Physiology&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Modern+Biological+and+Earth+Science&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E342-%3C%2Fspan%3E366&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521572019.019&rft.isbn=9781139056007&rft.aulast=Kremer&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble2013" class="citation journal cs1">Noble, Denis (2013). "More on Physiology Without Borders". <i>Physiology</i>. <b>28</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">2–</span>3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiol.00044.2012">10.1152/physiol.00044.2012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1548-9213">1548-9213</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23280350">23280350</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22271159">22271159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology&rft.atitle=More+on+Physiology+Without+Borders&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=1548-9213&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22271159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23280350&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiol.00044.2012&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeillBenos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Neill, Jimmy D.; Benos, Dale J. (1993). "Relationship of Molecular Biology to Integrative Physiology". <i>Physiology</i>. <b>8</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">233–</span>235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysiologyonline.1993.8.5.233">10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.5.233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physiology&rft.atitle=Relationship+of+Molecular+Biology+to+Integrative+Physiology&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E235&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fphysiologyonline.1993.8.5.233&rft.aulast=Neill&rft.aufirst=Jimmy+D.&rft.au=Benos%2C+Dale+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble2002" class="citation journal cs1">Noble, Denis (2002-03-01). "Modeling the Heart--from Genes to Cells to the Whole Organ". <i>Science</i>. <b>295</b> (5560): <span class="nowrap">1678–</span>1682. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...295.1678N">2002Sci...295.1678N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1069881">10.1126/science.1069881</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11872832">11872832</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6756983">6756983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Modeling+the+Heart--from+Genes+to+Cells+to+the+Whole+Organ&rft.volume=295&rft.issue=5560&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1678-%3C%2Fspan%3E1682&rft.date=2002-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6756983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...295.1678N&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1069881&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11872832&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170107170806/http://www.the-aps.org/fm/founders.html">"American Physiological Society > Founders"</a>. <i>the-aps.org</i>. The American Physiological Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-aps.org/fm/founders.html">the original</a> on 2017-01-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the-aps.org&rft.atitle=American+Physiological+Society+%3E+Founders&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-aps.org%2Ffm%2Ffounders.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tucker_1981-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_1981_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1981" class="citation journal cs1">Tucker, GS (December 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170122195940/http://www.the-aps.org/mm/Publications/Journals/Physiologist/1980-1989/1981/December.pdf">"Ida Henrietta Hyde: the first woman member of the society"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Physiologist</i>. <b>24</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7043502">7043502</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-aps.org/mm/Publications/Journals/Physiologist/1980-1989/1981/December.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Physiologist&rft.atitle=Ida+Henrietta+Hyde%3A+the+first+woman+member+of+the+society&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=1981-12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7043502&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=GS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-aps.org%2Fmm%2FPublications%2FJournals%2FPhysiologist%2F1980-1989%2F1981%2FDecember.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButin1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Butin, Jan (31 December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/hydeida-henrietta">"Ida Henrietta Hyde"</a>. <i>Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia</i>. Jewish Women's Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ida+Henrietta+Hyde&rft.btitle=Jewish+Women%3A+A+Comprehensive+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Jewish+Women%27s+Archive&rft.date=1999-12-31&rft.aulast=Butin&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fhydeida-henrietta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106185703/http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology">"Women in Physiology"</a>. <i>Physiological Society</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology">the original</a> on 2018-11-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physiological+Society&rft.atitle=Women+in+Physiology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physoc.org%2Fwomen-physiology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physoc.org-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physoc.org_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106185703/http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology">"Women in Physiology"</a>. <i>physoc.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology">the original</a> on 2018-11-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=physoc.org&rft.atitle=Women+in+Physiology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physoc.org%2Fwomen-physiology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pathwaystoscience.org/programhub.aspx?sort=OPP-AmerPhysioSocity-BodilMSchmidt">"Bodil M. Schmidt-Nielsen Distinguished Mentor and Scientist Award"</a>. <i>www.pathwaystoscience.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pathwaystoscience.org&rft.atitle=Bodil+M.+Schmidt-Nielsen+Distinguished+Mentor+and+Scientist+Award&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathwaystoscience.org%2Fprogramhub.aspx%3Fsort%3DOPP-AmerPhysioSocity-BodilMSchmidt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1363456/Carl-Cori-and-Gerty-Cori">"Carl Cori and Gerty Cori"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 23 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Cori+and+Gerty+Cori&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-02-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F1363456%2FCarl-Cori-and-Gerty-Cori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Cori+cycle">"Cori cycle"</a>. <i>TheFreeDictionary.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheFreeDictionary.com&rft.atitle=Cori+cycle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2FCori%2Bcycle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/medicine/">"Facts on the Nobel Prizes in Physiology and Medicine"</a>. <i>nobelprize.org</i>. Nobel Media AB<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Facts+on+the+Nobel+Prizes+in+Physiology+and+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Ffacts%2Fmedicine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/184676/Gertrude-B-Elion">"Gertrude B. Elion"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 29 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gertrude+B.+Elion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-02-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F184676%2FGertrude-B-Elion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobelprize.org-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nobelprize.org_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004"</a>. <i>nobelprize.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F2004%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1473980/Francoise-Barre-Sinoussi">"Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 26 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Francoise+Barre-Sinoussi+-+biography+-+French+virologist&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-07-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F1473980%2FFrancoise-Barre-Sinoussi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1567675/Elizabeth-H-Blackburn">"Elizabeth H. Blackburn"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elizabeth+H.+Blackburn&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-05-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F1567675%2FElizabeth-H-Blackburn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carol-W-Greider">"Carol W. Greider | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Carol+W.+Greider+%26%23124%3B+Biography%2C+Nobel+Prize%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FCarol-W-Greider&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Human physiology</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2011" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John (2011). <i>Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology</i> (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-4574-8"><bdi>978-1-4160-4574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guyton+and+Hall+textbook+of+medical+physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa.&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Saunders%2FElsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysiology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T. <i>Vander's Human Physiology</i>. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009.</li> <li>Marieb, E.N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012.</li></ul> <p><b>Animal physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. <i>Animal Physiology</i>, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012.</li> <li>Moyes, C.D., <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Schulte" title="Patricia Schulte">Schulte, P.M.</a> <i>Principles of Animal Physiology</i>, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.</li> <li>Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. <i>Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation</i>, 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Schmidt-Nielsen" title="Knut Schmidt-Nielsen">Schmidt-Nielsen, K.</a> <i>Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment</i>. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Withers, P.C. <i>Comparative animal physiology</i>. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.</li></ul> <p><b>Plant physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>Larcher, W. <i>Physiological plant ecology</i> (4th ed.). Springer, 2001.</li> <li>Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. <i>Plant physiology</i>. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992</li> <li>Taiz, L., Zieger, E. <i>Plant Physiology</i> (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.</li></ul> <p><b>Fungal physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>Griffin, D.H. <i>Fungal Physiology</i>, Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.</li></ul> <p><b>Protistan physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: <i>Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics</i>. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.</li> <li>Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). <i>Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa</i>. Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed.</li> <li>Laybourn-Parry J. <i>A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984.</li></ul> <p><b>Algal physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. <i>Seaweed ecology and physiology</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). <i>Algal Physiology and Biochemistry</i>. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974.</li></ul> <p><b>Bacterial physiology</b> </p> <ul><li>El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). <i>Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach</i>. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008.</li> <li>Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. <i>Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism</i>. Cambridge, 2008.</li> <li>Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. <i>Microbial Physiology</i>, 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/physiology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:physiology"><i>physiology</i></a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikisource logo"><img alt="Wikisource logo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/16px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/32px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> Works on the topic <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Physiology" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Physiology">Physiology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physiology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physiology">Physiology</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202075617/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/">physiologyINFO.org</a> – public information site sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/American_Physiological_Society" title="American Physiological Society">American Physiological Society</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology59" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology59" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_types52" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physiology_types" title="Template:Physiology types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physiology_types" title="Template talk:Physiology types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physiology types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_types52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physiology</a> types</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Human physiology">Human physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_physiology" title="Insect physiology">Insect physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_dinosaurs" title="Physiology of dinosaurs">Physiology of dinosaurs</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/140px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/210px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg/280px-Laelaps-Charles_Knight-1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2405" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant perception (physiology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_plant_disorder" title="Physiological plant disorder">Physiological plant disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_physiology" title="Cell physiology">Cell physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">Comparative physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular physiology">Molecular physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine170" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine170" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1915</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1918</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1921</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1925</span></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (<i>posthumously</i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q521#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2089" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q521#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2089" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q521#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4045981-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Physiology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85101679">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Physiologie humaine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120659591">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Physiologie humaine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120659591">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="生理学"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570362">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="fyziologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114603&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000071264&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Physiology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007546010505171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644535">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiology&oldid=1265005451">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiology&oldid=1265005451</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Physiology" title="Category:Physiology">Physiology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_biology" title="Category:Branches of biology">Branches of biology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_July_2023" title="Category:Use American English from July 2023">Use American English from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 December 2024, at 16:01<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physiology</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>117 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-775xd","wgBackendResponseTime":138,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.951","walltime":"1.191","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5414,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":196662,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5311,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":241849,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1022.138 1 -total"," 30.90% 315.863 1 Template:Reflist"," 16.63% 169.953 1 Template:TopicTOC-Biology"," 16.37% 167.335 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 12.34% 126.110 1 Template:Etymology"," 11.51% 117.651 21 Template:Cite_web"," 9.16% 93.664 2 Template:Wikt-lang"," 8.94% 91.390 13 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.04% 61.688 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.49% 56.094 1 Template:OEtymD"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.590","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17676373,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-lrl22","timestamp":"20250216122848","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Physiology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physiology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q521","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q521","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-07-26T09:53:54Z","dateModified":"2024-12-24T16:01:31Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/22\/Claude_Bernard_and_his_pupils._Oil_painting_after_L%C3%A9on-Augus_Wellcome_V0017769.jpg","headline":"science regarding function of organisms or living systems"}</script> </body> </html>