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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sequence analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sequence_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-DNA_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>DNA sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequence_assembly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequence_assembly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sequence assembly</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequence_assembly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_annotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_annotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Genome annotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_annotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gene_function_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_function_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Gene function prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_function_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_evolutionary_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_evolutionary_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Computational evolutionary biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_evolutionary_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Comparative genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pan_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pan_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Pan genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pan_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics_of_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_of_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Genetics of disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_of_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Analysis of mutations in cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_and_protein_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gene and protein expression</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gene and protein expression subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gene_and_protein_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_gene_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_gene_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Analysis of gene expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_gene_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_protein_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_protein_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Analysis of protein expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_protein_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Analysis of regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_cellular_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_cellular_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Analysis of cellular organization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analysis_of_cellular_organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Analysis of cellular organization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_cellular_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microscopy_and_image_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopy_and_image_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Microscopy and image analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopy_and_image_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protein_localization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protein_localization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Protein localization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protein_localization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_organization_of_chromatin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_organization_of_chromatin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Nuclear organization of chromatin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_organization_of_chromatin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_bioinformatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_bioinformatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Structural bioinformatics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structural_bioinformatics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structural bioinformatics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structural_bioinformatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amino_acid_sequence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amino_acid_sequence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Amino acid sequence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amino_acid_sequence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Homology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Network_and_systems_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Network_and_systems_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Network and systems biology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Network_and_systems_biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Network and systems biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Network_and_systems_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Molecular_interaction_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_interaction_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Molecular interaction networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_interaction_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_informatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_informatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Biodiversity informatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_informatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Others-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Others subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Literature analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-throughput_image_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-throughput_image_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>High-throughput image analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-throughput_image_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-throughput_single_cell_data_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-throughput_single_cell_data_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>High-throughput single cell data analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-throughput_single_cell_data_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontologies_and_data_integration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontologies_and_data_integration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Ontologies and data integration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontologies_and_data_integration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Databases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software_and_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_and_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Software and tools</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Software_and_tools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Software and tools subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Software_and_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Open-source_bioinformatics_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open-source_bioinformatics_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Open-source bioinformatics software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open-source_bioinformatics_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_services_in_bioinformatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_services_in_bioinformatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Web services in bioinformatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_services_in_bioinformatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2.1</span> <span>Bioinformatics workflow management systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BioCompute_and_BioCompute_Objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BioCompute_and_BioCompute_Objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>BioCompute and BioCompute Objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BioCompute_and_BioCompute_Objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_platforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_platforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Education platforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_platforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Conferences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioinformatics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">78 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="معلوماتية حيوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معلوماتية حيوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জৈব তথ্যবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জৈব তথ্যবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-bu%CC%8Dt_chu-s%C3%ACn-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-bu̍t chu-sìn-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-bu̍t chu-sìn-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Біяінфарматыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біяінфарматыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоинформатика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биоинформатика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinform%C3%A0tica" title="Bioinformàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bioinformàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatik" title="Bioinformatik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bioinformatik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatik" title="Bioinformatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bioinformatik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformaatika" title="Bioinformaatika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bioinformaatika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Βιοπληροφορική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιοπληροφορική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinform%C3%A1tica" title="Bioinformática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bioinformática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biokomputiko" title="Biokomputiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biokomputiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="بیوانفورماتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیوانفورماتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-informatique" title="Bio-informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bio-informatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinform%C3%A1tica" title="Bioinformática – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioinformática" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Bioinformatics" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4%ED%95%99" title="생물정보학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물정보학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AB%D5%B6%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Կենսաինֆորմատիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաինֆորմատիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जैव सूचना विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैव सूचना विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatiko" title="Bioinformatiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bioinformatiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADfuppl%C3%BDsingafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Lífupplýsingafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lífupplýsingafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatica" title="Bioinformatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bioinformatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="ביואינפורמטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביואינפורמטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B2%AB%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಬಯೋಇನ್‌ಫರ್ಮ್ಯಾಟಿಕ್ಸ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬಯೋಇನ್‌ಫರ್ಮ್ಯಾಟಿಕ್ಸ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоинформатика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биоинформатика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatio_genetica" title="Informatio genetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Informatio genetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinform%C4%81tika" title="Bioinformātika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bioinformātika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatik" title="Bioinformatik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bioinformatik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatica" title="Bioinformatica – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Bioinformatica" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatica" title="Bioinformatica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Bioinformatica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоинформатика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биоинформатика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B_%E0%B4%87%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ബയോ ഇൻഫർമാറ്റിക്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബയോ ഇൻഫർമാറ്റിക്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბიოინფორმატიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიოინფორმატიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="معلوماتيه حيويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="معلوماتيه حيويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformasi" title="Bioinformasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bioinformasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Биоинформатик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Биоинформатик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-informatica" title="Bio-informatica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bio-informatica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जैविक सूचना विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जैविक सूचना विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%9E%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9" title="バイオインフォマティクス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バイオインフォマティクス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatikk" title="Bioinformatikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bioinformatikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatikk" title="Bioinformatikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bioinformatikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatike" title="Bioinformatike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Bioinformatike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatica" title="Bioinformatica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bioinformatica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%BC%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="بايوانفارميټيکس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بايوانفارميټيکس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatyka" title="Bioinformatyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bioinformatyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinform%C3%A1tica" title="Bioinformática – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bioinformática" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatic%C4%83" title="Bioinformatică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bioinformatică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоинформатика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биоинформатика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bioinformatics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زیندەزانیارییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زیندەزانیارییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Биоинформатика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биоинформатика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bioinformatika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatiikka" title="Bioinformatiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bioinformatiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatik" title="Bioinformatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bioinformatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoimpormatika" title="Biyoimpormatika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Biyoimpormatika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிர் தகவலியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிர் தகவலியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th 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data-title="Біоінформатика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حیاتی اطلاعیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیاتی اطلاعیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Tin sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tin sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoimpormatika" title="Biyoimpormatika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyoimpormatika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="生物信息学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生物信息学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="ביאאינפארמאטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביאאינפארמאטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li 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class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-spoken-icon" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:En-Bioinformatics.ogg" title="Listen to this article"><img alt="Listen to this article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Computational analysis of large, complex sets of biological data</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_(journal)" title="Bioinformatics (journal)">Bioinformatics (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Biological_computation" title="Biological computation">Biological computation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_algorithm" title="Genetic algorithm">Genetic algorithm</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPP_domain_alignment.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/WPP_domain_alignment.PNG/500px-WPP_domain_alignment.PNG" decoding="async" width="500" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/WPP_domain_alignment.PNG/750px-WPP_domain_alignment.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/WPP_domain_alignment.PNG 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>Early bioinformatics—computational alignment of experimentally determined sequences of a class of related proteins; see <a href="#Sequence_analysis">§ Sequence analysis</a> for further information.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/220px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/330px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png/440px-Genome_viewer_screenshot_small.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Map of the human X chromosome (from the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (NCBI) website)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Bioinformatics</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/76\/En-us-bioinformatics.ogg\/En-us-bioinformatics.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-bioinformatics.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/76/En-us-bioinformatics.ogg/En-us-bioinformatics.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-bioinformatics.ogg" title="File:En-us-bioinformatics.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>) is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> that develops methods and <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatics software">software tools</a> for understanding <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> data, especially when the data sets are large and complex. Bioinformatics uses <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">information engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> to analyze and interpret <a href="/wiki/Biological_data" title="Biological data">biological data</a>. The process of analyzing and interpreting data can sometimes be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational biology</a>, however this distinction between the two terms is often disputed. To some, the term <i>computational biology</i> refers to building and using models of biological systems. </p><p>Computational, statistical, and computer programming techniques have been used for <a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">computer simulation</a> analyses of biological queries. They include reused specific analysis "pipelines", particularly in the field of <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, such as by the identification of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and single <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> polymorphisms (<a href="/wiki/SNPs" class="mw-redirect" title="SNPs">SNPs</a>). These pipelines are used to better understand the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (especially in agricultural species), or differences between populations. Bioinformatics also includes <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>, which tries to understand the organizational principles within <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Image and <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> allow extraction of useful results from large amounts of raw data. In the field of genetics, it aids in sequencing and annotating genomes and their observed <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>. Bioinformatics includes <a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">text mining</a> of biological literature and the development of biological and gene <a href="/wiki/Ontologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontologies">ontologies</a> to organize and query biological data. It also plays a role in the analysis of gene and protein expression and regulation. Bioinformatics tools aid in comparing, analyzing and interpreting genetic and genomic data and more generally in the understanding of evolutionary aspects of molecular biology. At a more integrative level, it helps analyze and catalogue the biological pathways and networks that are an important part of <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">structural biology</a>, it aids in the simulation and modeling of DNA,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proteins<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as biomolecular interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first definition of the term <i>bioinformatics</i> was coined by <a href="/wiki/Paulien_Hogeweg" title="Paulien Hogeweg">Paulien Hogeweg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ben_Hesper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ben Hesper (page does not exist)">Ben Hesper</a> in 1970, to refer to the study of information processes in biotic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hogeweg2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogeweg2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition placed bioinformatics as a field parallel to <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> (the study of chemical processes in biological systems).<sup id="cite_ref-Hogeweg2011_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogeweg2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bioinformatics and computational biology involved the analysis of biological data, particularly DNA, RNA, and protein sequences. The field of bioinformatics experienced explosive growth starting in the mid-1990s, driven largely by the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> and by rapid advances in DNA sequencing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analyzing biological data to produce meaningful information involves writing and running software programs that use <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> from <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soft_computing" title="Soft computing">soft computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulation</a>. The algorithms in turn depend on theoretical foundations such as <a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">discrete mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/System_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="System theory">system theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequences">Sequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_DNA_sequence.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Example_DNA_sequence.png/220px-Example_DNA_sequence.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Example_DNA_sequence.png/330px-Example_DNA_sequence.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Example_DNA_sequence.png/440px-Example_DNA_sequence.png 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="153" /></a><figcaption>Sequences of genetic material are frequently used in bioinformatics and are easier to manage using computers than manually.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muscle_alignment_view.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Muscle_alignment_view.png/369px-Muscle_alignment_view.png" decoding="async" width="369" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Muscle_alignment_view.png/554px-Muscle_alignment_view.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Muscle_alignment_view.png/738px-Muscle_alignment_view.png 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>These are sequences being compared in a MUSCLE multiple sequence alignment (MSA). Each sequence name (leftmost column) is from various louse species, while the sequences themselves are in the second column.</figcaption></figure> <p>There has been a tremendous advance in speed and cost reduction since the completion of the Human Genome Project, with some labs able to <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequence</a> over 100,000 billion bases each year, and a full genome can be sequenced for $1,000 or less.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computers became essential in molecular biology when <a href="/wiki/Protein_sequences" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein sequences">protein sequences</a> became available after <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> determined the sequence of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> in the early 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanger1951_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger1951-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sanger1953_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger1953-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparing multiple sequences manually turned out to be impractical. <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Oakley_Dayhoff" title="Margaret Oakley Dayhoff">Margaret Oakley Dayhoff</a>, a pioneer in the field,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compiled one of the first protein sequence databases, initially published as books<sup id="cite_ref-Dayhoff1965_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayhoff1965-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as methods of sequence alignment and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17775169_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17775169-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another early contributor to bioinformatics was <a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a>, who pioneered biological sequence analysis in 1970 with his comprehensive volumes of antibody sequences released online with Tai Te Wu between 1980 and 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s, new techniques for sequencing DNA were applied to bacteriophage MS2 and øX174, and the extended nucleotide sequences were then parsed with informational and statistical algorithms. These studies illustrated that well known features, such as the coding segments and the triplet code, are revealed in straightforward statistical analyses and were the proof of the concept that bioinformatics would be insightful.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Goals">Goals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, raw biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup>, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data. This also includes nucleotide and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid sequence">amino acid sequences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_domain" title="Protein domain">protein domains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">protein structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important sub-disciplines within bioinformatics and <a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational biology</a> include: </p> <ul><li>Development and implementation of computer programs to efficiently access, manage, and use various types of information.</li> <li>Development of new mathematical algorithms and statistical measures to assess relationships among members of large data sets. For example, there are methods to locate a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> within a sequence, to predict protein structure and/or function, and to <a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">cluster</a> protein sequences into families of related sequences.</li></ul> <p>The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques to achieve this goal. Examples include: <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern recognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> algorithms, and <a href="/wiki/Biological_Data_Visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Data Visualization">visualization</a>. Major research efforts in the field include <a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">sequence alignment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene_finding" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene finding">gene finding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genome_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome assembly">genome assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_design" title="Drug design">drug design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">drug discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_structural_alignment" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein structural alignment">protein structure alignment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction" title="Protein structure prediction">protein structure prediction</a>, prediction of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction" title="Protein–protein interaction">protein–protein interactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome-wide association studies">genome-wide association studies</a>, the modeling of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_model" title="Cellular model">cell division/mitosis.</a> </p><p>Bioinformatics entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data. </p><p>Over the past few decades, rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in <a href="/wiki/Information_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technologies">information technologies</a> have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology. Bioinformatics is the name given to these mathematical and computing approaches used to glean understanding of biological processes. </p><p>Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and protein sequences, aligning DNA and protein sequences to compare them, and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sequence_analysis">Sequence analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sequence analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">Sequence alignment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequence_database" title="Sequence database">Sequence database</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alignment-free_sequence_analysis" title="Alignment-free sequence analysis">Alignment-free sequence analysis</a></div> <p>Since the bacteriophage <a href="/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">Phage Φ-X174</a> was <a href="/wiki/Sequenced" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequenced">sequenced</a> in 1977,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid870828_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid870828-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequences</a> of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences. A comparison of genes within a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_systematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular systematics">molecular systematics</a> to construct <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic trees</a>). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">Computer programs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/BLAST_(biotechnology)" title="BLAST (biotechnology)">BLAST</a> are used routinely to search sequences—as of 2008, from more than 260,000 organisms, containing over 190 billion <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18073190_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18073190-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_sequencing">DNA sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: DNA sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></div> <p>Before sequences can be analyzed, they are obtained from a data storage bank, such as GenBank. <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> is still a non-trivial problem as the raw data may be noisy or affected by weak signals. <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a> have been developed for <a href="/wiki/Base_calling" title="Base calling">base calling</a> for the various experimental approaches to DNA sequencing. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sequencing_analysis_steps.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image: 450 pixels Sequencing analysis steps"><img alt="Image: 450 pixels Sequencing analysis steps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sequencing_analysis_steps.png/600px-Sequencing_analysis_steps.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sequencing_analysis_steps.png/900px-Sequencing_analysis_steps.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sequencing_analysis_steps.png/1200px-Sequencing_analysis_steps.png 2x" data-file-width="1382" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Image: 450 pixels Sequencing analysis steps</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequence_assembly">Sequence assembly</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sequence assembly"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_assembly" title="Sequence assembly">Sequence assembly</a></div> <p>Most DNA sequencing techniques produce short fragments of sequence that need to be assembled to obtain complete gene or genome sequences. The <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">shotgun sequencing</a> technique (used by <a href="/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="The Institute for Genomic Research">The Institute for Genomic Research</a> (TIGR) to sequence the first bacterial genome, <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7542800_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7542800-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments (ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned properly by a genome assembly program, can be used to reconstruct the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. For a genome as large as the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>, it may take many days of CPU time on large-memory, multiprocessor computers to assemble the fragments, and the resulting assembly usually contains numerous gaps that must be filled in later. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced (rather than chain-termination or chemical degradation methods), and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_analysis" title="Sequence analysis">sequence analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequence_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequence mining">sequence mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequence_profiling_tool" title="Sequence profiling tool">sequence profiling tool</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sequence_motif" title="Sequence motif">sequence motif</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genome_annotation">Genome annotation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genome annotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gene_prediction" title="Gene prediction">Gene prediction</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genome_project#Genome_annotation" title="Genome project">annotation</a> refers to the process of marking the stop and start regions of genes and other biological features in a sequenced DNA sequence. Many genomes are too large to be annotated by hand. As the rate of <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing</a> exceeds the rate of genome annotation, genome annotation has become the new bottleneck in bioinformatics<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>Genome annotation can be classified into three levels: the <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a>, protein, and process levels. </p><p>Gene finding is a chief aspect of nucleotide-level annotation. For complex genomes, a combination of <a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">ab initio</a> gene prediction and sequence comparison with expressed sequence databases and other organisms can be successful. Nucleotide-level annotation also allows the integration of genome sequence with other genetic and physical maps of the genome. </p><p>The principal aim of protein-level annotation is to assign function to the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> products of the genome. Databases of protein sequences and functional domains and motifs are used for this type of annotation. About half of the predicted proteins in a new genome sequence tend to have no obvious function. </p><p>Understanding the function of genes and their products in the context of cellular and organismal physiology is the goal of process-level annotation. An obstacle of process-level annotation has been the inconsistency of terms used by different model systems. The Gene Ontology Consortium is helping to solve this problem.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first description of a comprehensive annotation system was published in 1995<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7542800_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7542800-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="The Institute for Genomic Research">The Institute for Genomic Research</a>, which performed the first complete sequencing and analysis of the genome of a free-living (non-<a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a>) organism, the bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7542800_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7542800-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system identifies the genes encoding all proteins, transfer RNAs, ribosomal RNAs, in order to make initial functional assignments. The <a href="/wiki/GeneMark" title="GeneMark">GeneMark</a> program trained to find protein-coding genes in <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i> is constantly changing and improving. </p><p>Following the goals that the Human Genome Project left to achieve after its closure in 2003, the <a href="/wiki/ENCODE" title="ENCODE">ENCODE</a> project was developed by the <a href="/wiki/National_Human_Genome_Research_Institute" title="National Human Genome Research Institute">National Human Genome Research Institute</a>. This project is a collaborative data collection of the functional elements of the human genome that uses next-generation DNA-sequencing technologies and genomic tiling arrays, technologies able to automatically generate large amounts of data at a dramatically reduced per-base cost but with the same accuracy (base call error) and fidelity (assembly error). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gene_function_prediction">Gene function prediction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gene function prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While genome annotation is primarily based on sequence similarity (and thus <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a>), other properties of sequences can be used to predict the function of genes. In fact, most <i>gene</i> function prediction methods focus on <i>protein</i> sequences as they are more informative and more feature-rich. For instance, the distribution of hydrophobic <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> predicts <a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_domain" title="Transmembrane domain">transmembrane segments</a> in proteins. However, protein function prediction can also use external information such as gene (or protein) <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> data, <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">protein structure</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Protein-protein_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-protein interactions">protein-protein interactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_evolutionary_biology">Computational evolutionary biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Computational evolutionary biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics" title="Computational phylogenetics">Computational phylogenetics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a> is the study of the origin and descent of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, as well as their change over time. <a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a> has assisted evolutionary biologists by enabling researchers to: </p> <ul><li>trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone,</li> <li>compare entire <a href="/wiki/Genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomes">genomes</a>, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>,</li> <li>build complex computational <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> models to predict the outcome of the system over time<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms</li></ul> <p>Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary tree">tree of life</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (June 2020)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_genomics">Comparative genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Comparative genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomics</a></div> <p>The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)#Orthology" title="Homology (biology)">orthology</a> analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. Intergenomic maps are made to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Entire genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a> that lead to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectrum of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, <a href="/wiki/Heuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics">heuristics</a>, fixed parameter and <a href="/wiki/Approximation_algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximation algorithms">approximation algorithms</a> for problems based on parsimony models to <a href="/wiki/Markov_chain_Monte_Carlo" title="Markov chain Monte Carlo">Markov chain Monte Carlo</a> algorithms for <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesian analysis">Bayesian analysis</a> of problems based on probabilistic models. </p><p>Many of these studies are based on the detection of <a href="/wiki/Sequence_homology" title="Sequence homology">sequence homology</a> to assign sequences to <a href="/wiki/Protein_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein families">protein families</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pan_genomics">Pan genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pan genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pan-genome" title="Pan-genome">Pan-genome</a></div> <p>Pan genomics is a concept introduced in 2005 by Tettelin and Medini. Pan genome is the complete gene repertoire of a particular <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> taxonomic group. Although initially applied to closely related strains of a species, it can be applied to a larger context like genus, phylum, etc. It is divided in two parts: the Core genome, a set of genes common to all the genomes under study (often housekeeping genes vital for survival), and the Dispensable/Flexible genome: a set of genes not present in all but one or some genomes under study. A bioinformatics tool BPGA can be used to characterize the Pan Genome of bacterial species.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics_of_disease">Genetics of disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetics of disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome-wide association studies">Genome-wide association studies</a></div> <p>As of 2013, the existence of efficient high-throughput next-generation sequencing technology allows for the identification of cause many different human disorders. Simple <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> has been observed for over 3,000 disorders that have been identified at the <a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man</a> database, but complex diseases are more difficult. Association studies have found many individual genetic regions that individually are weakly associated with complex diseases (such as <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Demerec1945_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demerec1945-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a><sup id="cite_ref-Véron2013_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Véron2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tosto2013_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tosto2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), rather than a single cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Londin2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Londin2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are currently many challenges to using genes for diagnosis and treatment, such as how we don't know which genes are important, or how stable the choices an algorithm provides.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genome-wide association studies have successfully identified thousands of common genetic variants for complex diseases and traits; however, these common variants only explain a small fraction of heritability.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rare_functional_variant" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare functional variant">Rare variants</a> may account for some of the <a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing heritability">missing heritability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large-scale <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a> studies have rapidly sequenced millions of whole genomes, and such studies have identified hundreds of millions of <a href="/wiki/Rare_functional_variant" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare functional variant">rare variants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/SNP_annotation" title="SNP annotation">Functional annotations</a> predict the effect or function of a genetic variant and help to prioritize rare functional variants, and incorporating these annotations can effectively boost the power of genetic association of rare variants analysis of whole genome sequencing studies.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some tools have been developed to provide all-in-one rare variant association analysis for whole-genome sequencing data, including integration of genotype data and their functional annotations, association analysis, result summary and visualization.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meta-analysis of whole genome sequencing studies provides an attractive solution to the problem of collecting large sample sizes for discovering rare variants associated with complex phenotypes.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer">Analysis of mutations in cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Analysis of mutations in cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or unpredictable ways. In addition to <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single-nucleotide polymorphism</a> arrays identifying <a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">point mutations</a> that cause cancer, <a href="/wiki/Oligonucleotide" title="Oligonucleotide">oligonucleotide</a> microarrays can be used to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called <a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomic_hybridization" title="Comparative genomic hybridization">comparative genomic hybridization</a>). These detection methods generate <a href="/wiki/Terabyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Terabyte">terabytes</a> of data per experiment. The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, and thus <a href="/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model" title="Hidden Markov model">Hidden Markov model</a> and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real <a href="/wiki/Copy_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Copy number">copy number</a> changes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Two important principles can be used to identify cancer by mutations in the <a href="/wiki/Exome" title="Exome">exome</a>. First, cancer is a disease of accumulated somatic mutations in genes. Second, cancer contains driver mutations which need to be distinguished from passengers.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further improvements in bioinformatics could allow for classifying types of cancer by analysis of cancer driven mutations in the genome. Furthermore, tracking of patients while the disease progresses may be possible in the future with the sequence of cancer samples. Another type of data that requires novel informatics development is the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesions</a> found to be recurrent among many tumors.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gene_and_protein_expression">Gene and protein expression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gene and protein expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_gene_expression">Analysis of gene expression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Analysis of gene expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> of many genes can be determined by measuring <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a> levels with multiple techniques including <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">microarrays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">expressed cDNA sequence tag</a> (EST) sequencing, <a href="/wiki/Serial_analysis_of_gene_expression" title="Serial analysis of gene expression">serial analysis of gene expression</a> (SAGE) tag sequencing, <a href="/wiki/Massively_parallel_signature_sequencing" title="Massively parallel signature sequencing">massively parallel signature sequencing</a> (MPSS), <a href="/wiki/RNA-Seq" title="RNA-Seq">RNA-Seq</a>, also known as "Whole Transcriptome Shotgun Sequencing" (WTSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal</a> from <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a> in high-throughput gene expression studies.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous <a href="/wiki/Epithelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial">epithelial</a> cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png/400px-MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png/600px-MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png/800px-MIcroarray_vs_RNA-Seq.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption>MIcroarray vs RNA-Seq</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_protein_expression">Analysis of protein expression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Analysis of protein expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protein_microarray" title="Protein microarray">Protein microarrays</a> and high throughput (HT) <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. The former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples when multiple incomplete peptides from each protein are detected. Cellular protein localization in a tissue context can be achieved through affinity <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> displayed as spatial data based on <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_microarray" title="Tissue microarray">tissue microarrays</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_regulation">Analysis of regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Analysis of regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">Gene regulation</a> is a complex process where a signal, such as an extracellular signal such as a <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a>, eventually leads to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. </p><p>For example, gene expression can be regulated by nearby elements in the genome. Promoter analysis involves the identification and study of <a href="/wiki/Sequence_motif" title="Sequence motif">sequence motifs</a> in the DNA surrounding the protein-coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. <a href="/wiki/Enhancer_(genetics)" title="Enhancer (genetics)">Enhancer</a> elements far away from the promoter can also regulate gene expression, through three-dimensional looping interactions. These interactions can be determined by bioinformatic analysis of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">chromosome conformation capture</a> experiments. </p><p>Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare <a href="/wiki/Microarray" title="Microarray">microarray</a> data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a>, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). <a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Clustering algorithms</a> can be then applied to expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory elements">regulatory elements</a>. Examples of clustering algorithms applied in gene clustering are <a href="/wiki/K-means_clustering" title="K-means clustering">k-means clustering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organizing_map" title="Self-organizing map">self-organizing maps</a> (SOMs), <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering" title="Hierarchical clustering">hierarchical clustering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consensus_clustering" title="Consensus clustering">consensus clustering</a> methods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis_of_cellular_organization">Analysis of cellular organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Analysis of cellular organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several approaches have been developed to analyze the location of organelles, genes, proteins, and other components within cells. A <a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">gene ontology</a> category, <i>cellular component</i>, has been devised to capture subcellular localization in many <a href="/wiki/Biological_database" title="Biological database">biological databases</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy_and_image_analysis">Microscopy and image analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Microscopy and image analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microscopic pictures allow for the location of <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> as well as molecules, which may be the source of abnormalities in diseases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protein_localization">Protein localization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Protein localization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Finding the location of proteins allows us to predict what they do. This is called <a href="/wiki/Protein_function_prediction" title="Protein function prediction">protein function prediction</a>. For instance, if a protein is found in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> it may be involved in <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">gene regulation</a> or <a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">splicing</a>. By contrast, if a protein is found in <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>, it may be involved in <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic processes</a>. There are well developed <a href="/wiki/Protein_subcellular_localization_prediction" title="Protein subcellular localization prediction">protein subcellular localization prediction</a> resources available, including protein subcellular location databases, and prediction tools.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_organization_of_chromatin">Nuclear organization of chromatin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Nuclear organization of chromatin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></div> <p>Data from high-throughput <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">chromosome conformation capture</a> experiments, such as <a href="/wiki/Hi-C_(experiment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hi-C (experiment)">Hi-C (experiment)</a> and <a href="/wiki/ChIA-PET" title="ChIA-PET">ChIA-PET</a>, can provide information on the three-dimensional structure and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">nuclear organization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a>. Bioinformatic challenges in this field include partitioning the genome into domains, such as <a href="/wiki/Topologically_Associating_Domain" class="mw-redirect" title="Topologically Associating Domain">Topologically Associating Domains</a> (TADs), that are organised together in three-dimensional space.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structural_bioinformatics">Structural bioinformatics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Structural bioinformatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Structural_bioinformatics" title="Structural bioinformatics">Structural bioinformatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction" title="Protein structure prediction">Protein structure prediction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Structural_motif" title="Structural motif">Structural motif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_domain" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural domain">Structural domain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1kqf_opm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/1kqf_opm.png/220px-1kqf_opm.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/1kqf_opm.png/330px-1kqf_opm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/1kqf_opm.png/440px-1kqf_opm.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>3-dimensional protein structures such as this one are common subjects in bioinformatic analyses.</figcaption></figure> <p>Finding the structure of proteins is an important application of bioinformatics. The Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) is an open competition where worldwide research groups submit protein models for evaluating unknown protein models.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amino_acid_sequence">Amino acid sequence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Amino acid sequence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The linear <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequence of a protein is called the <a href="/wiki/Primary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary structure">primary structure</a>. The primary structure can be easily determined from the sequence of <a href="/wiki/Codons" class="mw-redirect" title="Codons">codons</a> on the DNA gene that codes for it. In most proteins, the primary structure uniquely determines the 3-dimensional structure of a protein in its native environment. An exception is the <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">misfolded protein</a> involved in <a href="/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a>. This structure is linked to the function of the protein. Additional structural information includes the <i><a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">secondary</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary structure">tertiary</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary structure">quaternary</a></i> structure. A viable general solution to the prediction of the function of a protein remains an open problem. Most efforts have so far been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homology">Homology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Homology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene <i>A</i>, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene <i>B,</i> whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In structural bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. <a href="/wiki/Homology_modeling" title="Homology modeling">Homology modeling</a> is used to predict the structure of an unknown protein from existing homologous proteins. </p><p>One example of this is hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (<a href="/wiki/Leghemoglobin" title="Leghemoglobin">leghemoglobin</a>), which are distant relatives from the same <a href="/wiki/Protein_superfamily" title="Protein superfamily">protein superfamily</a>. Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Although both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes and shared ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and <i>de novo</i> (from scratch) physics-based modeling. </p><p>Another aspect of structural bioinformatics include the use of protein structures for <a href="/wiki/Virtual_screening" title="Virtual screening">Virtual Screening</a> models such as <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_Structure-Activity_Relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship">Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship</a> models and proteochemometric models (PCM). Furthermore, a protein's crystal structure can be used in simulation of for example ligand-binding studies and <i>in silico</i> mutagenesis studies. </p><p>A 2021 <a href="/wiki/Deep-learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-learning">deep-learning</a> algorithms-based software called <a href="/wiki/AlphaFold" title="AlphaFold">AlphaFold</a>, developed by Google's <a href="/wiki/DeepMind" class="mw-redirect" title="DeepMind">DeepMind</a>, greatly outperforms all other prediction software methods<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (June 2023)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup>, and has released predicted structures for hundreds of millions of proteins in the AlphaFold protein structure database.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_and_systems_biology">Network and systems biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Network and systems biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computational_systems_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational systems biology">Computational systems biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_network" title="Biological network">Biological network</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Interactome" title="Interactome">Interactome</a></div> <p><i>Network analysis</i> seeks to understand the relationships within <a href="/wiki/Biological_network" title="Biological network">biological networks</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_network" title="Metabolic network">metabolic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interactome" title="Interactome">protein–protein interaction networks</a>. Although biological networks can be constructed from a single type of molecule or entity (such as genes), network biology often attempts to integrate many different data types, such as proteins, small molecules, gene expression data, and others, which are all connected physically, functionally, or both. </p><p><i>Systems biology</i> involves the use of <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cellular</a> subsystems (such as the <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_network" title="Metabolic network">networks of metabolites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that comprise <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> pathways and <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network" title="Gene regulatory network">gene regulatory networks</a>) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">Artificial life</a> or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_interaction_networks">Molecular interaction networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Molecular interaction networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction_prediction" title="Protein–protein interaction prediction">Protein–protein interaction prediction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interactome" title="Interactome">interactome</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png/200px-The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png/300px-The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png/400px-The_protein_interaction_network_of_Treponema_pallidum.png 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>Interactions between proteins are frequently visualized and analyzed using networks. This network is made up of protein–protein interactions from <i><a href="/wiki/Treponema_pallidum" title="Treponema pallidum">Treponema pallidum</a></i>, the causative agent of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> and other diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Tens of thousands of three-dimensional protein structures have been determined by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (protein NMR) and a central question in structural bioinformatics is whether it is practical to predict possible protein–protein interactions only based on these 3D shapes, without performing <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction" title="Protein–protein interaction">protein–protein interaction</a> experiments. A variety of methods have been developed to tackle the <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_docking" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein–protein docking">protein–protein docking</a> problem, though it seems that there is still much work to be done in this field. </p><p>Other interactions encountered in the field include Protein–ligand (including drug) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protein%E2%80%93peptide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protein–peptide (page does not exist)">protein–peptide</a>. Molecular dynamic simulation of movement of atoms about rotatable bonds is the fundamental principle behind computational <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>, termed docking algorithms, for studying <a href="/wiki/Interactome" title="Interactome">molecular interactions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity_informatics">Biodiversity informatics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Biodiversity informatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_informatics" title="Biodiversity informatics">Biodiversity informatics</a></div> <p>Biodiversity informatics deals with the collection and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> data, such as <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_database" title="Taxonomic database">taxonomic databases</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiome</a> data. Examples of such analyses include <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niche_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche modelling">niche modelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a> mapping, <a href="/wiki/DNA_barcoding" title="DNA barcoding">DNA barcoding</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">species</a> identification tools. A growing area is also <a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">macro-ecology</a>, i.e. the study of how biodiversity is connected to <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and human impact, such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Others">Others</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_analysis">Literature analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Literature analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_text_mining" title="Biomedical text mining">Biomedical text mining</a></div> <p>The enormous number of published literature makes it virtually impossible for individuals to read every paper, resulting in disjointed sub-fields of research. Literature analysis aims to employ computational and statistical linguistics to mine this growing library of text resources. For example: </p> <ul><li>Abbreviation recognition – identify the long-form and abbreviation of biological terms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Named-entity_recognition" title="Named-entity recognition">Named-entity recognition</a> – recognizing biological terms such as gene names</li> <li>Protein–protein interaction – identify which <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> interact with which proteins from text</li></ul> <p>The area of research draws from <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-throughput_image_analysis">High-throughput image analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: High-throughput image analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computational technologies are used to automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">biomedical imagery</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Image_analysis" title="Image analysis">image analysis</a> systems can improve an observer's <a href="/wiki/Accuracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuracy">accuracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a>, or speed. Image analysis is important for both <a href="/wiki/Diagnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostics">diagnostics</a> and research. Some examples are: </p> <ul><li>high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization (<a href="/wiki/High-content_screening" title="High-content screening">high-content screening</a>, cytohistopathology, <a href="/wiki/Bioimage_informatics" title="Bioimage informatics">Bioimage informatics</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphometrics" title="Morphometrics">morphometrics</a></li> <li>clinical image analysis and visualization</li> <li>determining the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living animals</li> <li>quantifying occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury</li> <li>making behavioral observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals</li> <li>infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination</li> <li>inferring clone overlaps in <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">DNA mapping</a>, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Sulston_score" title="Sulston score">Sulston score</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-throughput_single_cell_data_analysis">High-throughput single cell data analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: High-throughput single cell data analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry_bioinformatics" title="Flow cytometry bioinformatics">Flow cytometry bioinformatics</a></div> <p>Computational techniques are used to analyse high-throughput, low-measurement single cell data, such as that obtained from <a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">flow cytometry</a>. These methods typically involve finding populations of cells that are relevant to a particular disease state or experimental condition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontologies_and_data_integration">Ontologies and data integration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Ontologies and data integration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biological ontologies are <a href="/wiki/Directed_acyclic_graph" title="Directed acyclic graph">directed acyclic graphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Controlled_vocabularies" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled vocabularies">controlled vocabularies</a>. They create categories for biological concepts and descriptions so they can be easily analyzed with computers. When categorised in this way, it is possible to gain added value from holistic and integrated analysis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/OBO_Foundry" title="OBO Foundry">OBO Foundry</a> was an effort to standardise certain ontologies. One of the most widespread is the <a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene ontology</a> which describes gene function. There are also ontologies which describe phenotypes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Databases">Databases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Databases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_database" title="Biological database">Biological database</a></div> <p>Databases are essential for bioinformatics research and applications. Databases exist for many different information types, including DNA and protein sequences, molecular structures, phenotypes and biodiversity. Databases can contain both empirical data (obtained directly from experiments) and predicted data (obtained from analysis of existing data). They may be specific to a particular organism, pathway or molecule of interest. Alternatively, they can incorporate data compiled from multiple other databases. Databases can have different formats, access mechanisms, and be public or private. </p><p>Some of the most commonly used databases are listed below: </p> <ul><li>Used in biological sequence analysis: <a href="/wiki/Genbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Genbank">Genbank</a>, <a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></li> <li>Used in structure analysis: <a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">Protein Data Bank</a> (PDB)</li> <li>Used in finding Protein Families and <a href="/wiki/Sequence_motif" title="Sequence motif">Motif</a> Finding: <a href="/wiki/InterPro" title="InterPro">InterPro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pfam" title="Pfam">Pfam</a></li> <li>Used for Next Generation Sequencing: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_Read_Archive" title="Sequence Read Archive">Sequence Read Archive</a></li> <li>Used in Network Analysis: Metabolic Pathway Databases (<a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a>, <a href="/wiki/BioCyc" class="mw-redirect" title="BioCyc">BioCyc</a>), Interaction Analysis Databases, Functional Networks</li> <li>Used in design of synthetic genetic circuits: <a href="/wiki/GenoCAD" title="GenoCAD">GenoCAD</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software_and_tools">Software and tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Software and tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/List_of_bioinformatics_software" title="List of bioinformatics software">Software tools for bioinformatics</a> include simple command-line tools, more complex graphical programs, and standalone web-services. They are made by <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatics companies">bioinformatics companies</a> or by public institutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open-source_bioinformatics_software">Open-source bioinformatics software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Open-source bioinformatics software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_bioinformatics_software" title="List of open-source bioinformatics software">List of open-source bioinformatics software</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_bioinformatics_software" title="List of bioinformatics software">List of bioinformatics software</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source software</a> tools have existed and continued to grow since the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-obf-main_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obf-main-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The combination of a continued need for new <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> for the analysis of emerging types of biological readouts, the potential for innovative <i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i> experiments, and freely available <a href="/wiki/Open_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Open code">open code</a> bases have created opportunities for research groups to contribute to both bioinformatics regardless of <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">funding</a>. The open source tools often act as incubators of ideas, or community-supported <a href="/wiki/Plug-in_(computing)" title="Plug-in (computing)">plug-ins</a> in commercial applications. They may also provide <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> standards and shared object models for assisting with the challenge of bioinformation integration. </p><p>Open-source bioinformatics software includes <a href="/wiki/Bioconductor" title="Bioconductor">Bioconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/BioPerl" title="BioPerl">BioPerl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biopython" title="Biopython">Biopython</a>, <a href="/wiki/BioJava" title="BioJava">BioJava</a>, <a href="/wiki/BioJS" title="BioJS">BioJS</a>, <a href="/wiki/BioRuby" title="BioRuby">BioRuby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioclipse" title="Bioclipse">Bioclipse</a>, <a href="/wiki/EMBOSS" title="EMBOSS">EMBOSS</a>, .NET Bio, <a href="/wiki/Orange_(software)" title="Orange (software)">Orange</a> with its bioinformatics add-on, <a href="/wiki/Apache_Taverna" title="Apache Taverna">Apache Taverna</a>, <a href="/wiki/UGENE" title="UGENE">UGENE</a> and <a href="/wiki/GenoCAD" title="GenoCAD">GenoCAD</a>. </p><p>The non-profit <a href="/wiki/Open_Bioinformatics_Foundation" title="Open Bioinformatics Foundation">Open Bioinformatics Foundation</a><sup id="cite_ref-obf-main_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obf-main-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the annual <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_Open_Source_Conference" title="Bioinformatics Open Source Conference">Bioinformatics Open Source Conference</a> promote open-source bioinformatics software.<sup id="cite_ref-obf-bosc_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obf-bosc-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_services_in_bioinformatics">Web services in bioinformatics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Web services in bioinformatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/SOAP" title="SOAP">SOAP</a>- and <a href="/wiki/REST" title="REST">REST</a>-based interfaces have been developed to allow client computers to use algorithms, data and computing resources from servers in other parts of the world. The main advantage are that end users do not have to deal with software and database maintenance overheads. </p><p>Basic bioinformatics services are classified by the <a href="/wiki/European_Bioinformatics_Institute" title="European Bioinformatics Institute">EBI</a> into three categories: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequence alignment software">SSS</a> (Sequence Search Services), <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sequence_alignment" title="Multiple sequence alignment">MSA</a> (Multiple Sequence Alignment), and <a href="#Sequence_analysis">BSA</a> (Biological Sequence Analysis).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The availability of these <a href="/wiki/Service-orientation" title="Service-orientation">service-oriented</a> bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web-based bioinformatics solutions, and range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single web-based interface, to integrative, distributed and extensible <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatics workflow management systems">bioinformatics workflow management systems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems">Bioinformatics workflow management systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bioinformatics workflow management systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatics workflow management systems">Bioinformatics workflow management systems</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_system" title="Bioinformatics workflow management system">bioinformatics workflow management system</a> is a specialized form of a <a href="/wiki/Workflow_management_system" title="Workflow management system">workflow management system</a> designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, in a Bioinformatics application. Such systems are designed to </p> <ul><li>provide an easy-to-use environment for individual application scientists themselves to create their own workflows,</li> <li>provide interactive tools for the scientists enabling them to execute their workflows and view their results in real-time,</li> <li>simplify the process of sharing and reusing workflows between the scientists, and</li> <li>enable scientists to track the <a href="/wiki/Provenance" title="Provenance">provenance</a> of the workflow execution results and the workflow creation steps.</li></ul> <p>Some of the platforms giving this service: <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_(computational_biology)" title="Galaxy (computational biology)">Galaxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kepler_scientific_workflow_system" title="Kepler scientific workflow system">Kepler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apache_Taverna" title="Apache Taverna">Taverna</a>, <a href="/wiki/UGENE" title="UGENE">UGENE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anduril_(workflow_engine)" title="Anduril (workflow engine)">Anduril</a>, <a href="/wiki/High-performance_Integrated_Virtual_Environment" title="High-performance Integrated Virtual Environment">HIVE</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="BioCompute_and_BioCompute_Objects">BioCompute and BioCompute Objects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: BioCompute and BioCompute Objects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/US_Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="US Food and Drug Administration">US Food and Drug Administration</a> sponsored a conference held at the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> Bethesda Campus to discuss reproducibility in bioinformatics.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next three years, a consortium of stakeholders met regularly to discuss what would become BioCompute paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These stakeholders included representatives from government, industry, and academic entities. Session leaders represented numerous branches of the FDA and NIH Institutes and Centers, non-profit entities including the <a href="/wiki/Human_Variome_Project" title="Human Variome Project">Human Variome Project</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Federation_for_Medical_Informatics" title="European Federation for Medical Informatics">European Federation for Medical Informatics</a>, and research institutions including <a href="/wiki/Stanford" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford">Stanford</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Genome_Center" title="New York Genome Center">New York Genome Center</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. </p><p>It was decided that the BioCompute paradigm would be in the form of digital 'lab notebooks' which allow for the reproducibility, replication, review, and reuse, of bioinformatics protocols. This was proposed to enable greater continuity within a research group over the course of normal personnel flux while furthering the exchange of ideas between groups. The US FDA funded this work so that information on pipelines would be more transparent and accessible to their regulatory staff.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, the group reconvened at the NIH in Bethesda and discussed the potential for a <a href="/wiki/BioCompute_Object" title="BioCompute Object">BioCompute Object</a>, an instance of the BioCompute paradigm. This work was copied as both a "standard trial use" document and a preprint paper uploaded to bioRxiv. The BioCompute object allows for the JSON-ized record to be shared among employees, collaborators, and regulators.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_platforms">Education platforms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Education platforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bioinformatics is not only taught as in-person <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> at many universities. The computational nature of bioinformatics lends it to <a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">computer-aided and online learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software platforms designed to teach bioinformatics concepts and methods include <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_(education_platform)" title="Rosalind (education platform)">Rosalind</a> and online courses offered through the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Institute_of_Bioinformatics" title="Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics">Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics</a> Training Portal. The <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops" title="Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops">Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops</a> provides videos and slides from training workshops on their website under a <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> license. The 4273π project or 4273pi project<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also offers open source educational materials for free. The course runs on low cost <a href="/wiki/Raspberry_Pi" title="Raspberry Pi">Raspberry Pi</a> computers and has been used to teach adults and school pupils.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 4273 is actively developed by a consortium of academics and research staff who have run research level bioinformatics using Raspberry Pi computers and the 4273π operating system.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/MOOC" class="mw-redirect" title="MOOC">MOOC</a> platforms also provide online certifications in bioinformatics and related disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Coursera" title="Coursera">Coursera</a>'s Bioinformatics Specialization at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a>, Genomic Data Science Specialization at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>, and <a href="/wiki/EdX" title="EdX">EdX</a>'s Data Analysis for Life Sciences XSeries at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conferences">Conferences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Conferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several large conferences that are concerned with bioinformatics. Some of the most notable examples are <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Systems_for_Molecular_Biology" title="Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology">Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology</a> (ISMB), <a href="/wiki/European_Conference_on_Computational_Biology" title="European Conference on Computational Biology">European Conference on Computational Biology</a> (ECCB), and <a href="/wiki/Research_in_Computational_Molecular_Biology" title="Research in Computational Molecular Biology">Research in Computational Molecular Biology</a> (RECOMB). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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informatics">Biodiversity informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatics companies">Bioinformatics companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biomodeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational biomodeling">Computational biomodeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberbiosecurity" title="Cyberbiosecurity">Cyberbiosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Disease_Database" title="Gene Disease Database">Gene Disease Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology" title="International 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title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLesk2013" class="citation web cs1">Lesk AM (26 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/bioinformatics">"Bioinformatics"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&rft.atitle=Modeling+nucleic+acids&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E273-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4028509%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22538125&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2012.03.012&rft.aulast=Sim&rft.aufirst=AY&rft.au=Minary%2C+P&rft.au=Levitt%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4028509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawsonMaciejczykJankowskaBujnicki2016" class="citation journal cs1">Dawson WK, Maciejczyk M, Jankowska EJ, Bujnicki JM (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ymeth.2016.04.026">"Coarse-grained modeling of RNA 3D structure"</a>. <i>Methods</i>. <b>103</b>: <span class="nowrap">138–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ymeth.2016.04.026">10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.04.026</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27125734">27125734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Methods&rft.atitle=Coarse-grained+modeling+of+RNA+3D+structure&rft.volume=103&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ymeth.2016.04.026&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27125734&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=WK&rft.au=Maciejczyk%2C+M&rft.au=Jankowska%2C+EJ&rft.au=Bujnicki%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ymeth.2016.04.026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKmiecikGrontKolinskiWieteska2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kmiecik S, Gront D, Kolinski M, Wieteska L, Dawid AE, Kolinski A (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.chemrev.6b00163">"Coarse-Grained Protein Models and Their Applications"</a>. <i>Chemical Reviews</i>. <b>116</b> (14): <span class="nowrap">7898–</span>936. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.chemrev.6b00163">10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00163</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27333362">27333362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Reviews&rft.atitle=Coarse-Grained+Protein+Models+and+Their+Applications&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7898-%3C%2Fspan%3E936&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.chemrev.6b00163&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27333362&rft.aulast=Kmiecik&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Gront%2C+D&rft.au=Kolinski%2C+M&rft.au=Wieteska%2C+L&rft.au=Dawid%2C+AE&rft.au=Kolinski%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Facs.chemrev.6b00163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2016" class="citation book cs1">Wong KC (2016). <i>Computational Biology and Bioinformatics: Gene 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Sequencing+of+53%2C831+diverse+genomes+from+the+NHLBI+TOPMed+Program&rft.volume=590&rft.issue=7845&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E290-%3C%2Fspan%3E299&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7875770%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33568819&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03205-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.590..290T&rft.aulast=Taliun&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Harris%2C+Daniel+N.&rft.au=Kessler%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Carlson%2C+Jedidiah&rft.au=Szpiech%2C+Zachary+A.&rft.au=Torres%2C+Raul&rft.au=Taliun%2C+Sarah+A.+Gagliano&rft.au=Corvelo%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Gogarten%2C+Stephanie+M.&rft.au=Kang%2C+Hyun+Min&rft.au=Pitsillides%2C+Achilleas+N.&rft.au=LeFaive%2C+Jonathon&rft.au=Lee%2C+Seung-been&rft.au=Tian%2C+Xiaowen&rft.au=Browning%2C+Brian+L.&rft.au=Das%2C+Sayantan&rft.au=Emde%2C+Anne-Katrin&rft.au=Clarke%2C+Wayne+E.&rft.au=Loesch%2C+Douglas+P.&rft.au=Shetty%2C+Amol+C.&rft.au=Blackwell%2C+Thomas+W.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Albert+V.&rft.au=Wong%2C+Quenna&rft.au=Liu%2C+Xiaoming&rft.au=Conomos%2C+Matthew+P.&rft.au=Bobo%2C+Dean+M.&rft.au=Aguet%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Albert%2C+Christine&rft.au=Alonso%2C+Alvaro&rft.au=Ardlie%2C+Kristin+G.&rft.au=Arking%2C+Dan+E.&rft.au=Aslibekyan%2C+Stella&rft.au=Auer%2C+Paul+L.&rft.au=Barnard%2C+John&rft.au=Barr%2C+R.+Graham&rft.au=Barwick%2C+Lucas&rft.au=Becker%2C+Lewis+C.&rft.au=Beer%2C+Rebecca+L.&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+Emelia+J.&rft.au=Bielak%2C+Lawrence+F.&rft.au=Blangero%2C+John&rft.au=Boehnke%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bowden%2C+Donald+W.&rft.au=Brody%2C+Jennifer+A.&rft.au=Burchard%2C+Esteban+G.&rft.au=Cade%2C+Brian+E.&rft.au=Casella%2C+James+F.&rft.au=Chalazan%2C+Brandon&rft.au=Chasman%2C+Daniel+I.&rft.au=Chen%2C+Yii-Der+Ida&rft.au=Cho%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Choi%2C+Seung+Hoan&rft.au=Chung%2C+Mina+K.&rft.au=Clish%2C+Clary+B.&rft.au=Correa%2C+Adolfo&rft.au=Curran%2C+Joanne+E.&rft.au=Custer%2C+Brian&rft.au=Darbar%2C+Dawood&rft.au=Daya%2C+Michelle&rft.au=de+Andrade%2C+Mariza&rft.au=DeMeo%2C+Dawn+L.&rft.au=Dutcher%2C+Susan+K.&rft.au=Ellinor%2C+Patrick+T.&rft.au=Emery%2C+Leslie+S.&rft.au=Eng%2C+Celeste&rft.au=Fatkin%2C+Diane&rft.au=Fingerlin%2C+Tasha&rft.au=Forer%2C+Lukas&rft.au=Fornage%2C+Myriam&rft.au=Franceschini%2C+Nora&rft.au=Fuchsberger%2C+Christian&rft.au=Fullerton%2C+Stephanie+M.&rft.au=Germer%2C+Soren&rft.au=Gladwin%2C+Mark+T.&rft.au=Gottlieb%2C+Daniel+J.&rft.au=Guo%2C+Xiuqing&rft.au=Hall%2C+Michael+E.&rft.au=He%2C+Jiang&rft.au=Heard-Costa%2C+Nancy+L.&rft.au=Heckbert%2C+Susan+R.&rft.au=Irvin%2C+Marguerite+R.&rft.au=Johnsen%2C+Jill+M.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Andrew+D.&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Robert&rft.au=Kardia%2C+Sharon+L.+R.&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Tanika&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Shannon&rft.au=Kenny%2C+Eimear+E.&rft.au=Kiel%2C+Douglas+P.&rft.au=Klemmer%2C+Robert&rft.au=Konkle%2C+Barbara+A.&rft.au=Kooperberg%2C+Charles&rft.au=K%C3%B6ttgen%2C+Anna&rft.au=Lange%2C+Leslie+A.&rft.au=Lasky-Su%2C+Jessica&rft.au=Levy%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Lin%2C+Xihong&rft.au=Lin%2C+Keng-Han&rft.au=Liu%2C+Chunyu&rft.au=Loos%2C+Ruth+J.+F.&rft.au=Garman%2C+Lori&rft.au=Gerszten%2C+Robert&rft.au=Lubitz%2C+Steven+A.&rft.au=Lunetta%2C+Kathryn+L.&rft.au=Mak%2C+Angel+C.+Y.&rft.au=Manichaikul%2C+Ani&rft.au=Manning%2C+Alisa+K.&rft.au=Mathias%2C+Rasika+A.&rft.au=McManus%2C+David+D.&rft.au=McGarvey%2C+Stephen+T.&rft.au=Meigs%2C+James+B.&rft.au=Meyers%2C+Deborah+A.&rft.au=Mikulla%2C+Julie+L.&rft.au=Minear%2C+Mollie+A.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Braxton+D.&rft.au=Mohanty%2C+Sanghamitra&rft.au=Montasser%2C+May+E.&rft.au=Montgomery%2C+Courtney&rft.au=Morrison%2C+Alanna+C.&rft.au=Murabito%2C+Joanne+M.&rft.au=Natale%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Natarajan%2C+Pradeep&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Sarah+C.&rft.au=North%2C+Kari+E.&rft.au=O%27Connell%2C+Jeffrey+R.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Nicholette+D.&rft.au=Pankratz%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Peloso%2C+Gina+M.&rft.au=Peyser%2C+Patricia+A.&rft.au=Pleiness%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Post%2C+Wendy+S.&rft.au=Psaty%2C+Bruce+M.&rft.au=Rao%2C+D.+C.&rft.au=Redline%2C+Susan&rft.au=Reiner%2C+Alexander+P.&rft.au=Roden%2C+Dan&rft.au=Rotter%2C+Jerome+I.&rft.au=Ruczinski%2C+Ingo&rft.au=Sarnowski%2C+Chlo%C3%A9&rft.au=Schoenherr%2C+Sebastian&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Seo%2C+Jeong-Sun&rft.au=Seshadri%2C+Sudha&rft.au=Sheehan%2C+Vivien+A.&rft.au=Sheu%2C+Wayne+H.&rft.au=Shoemaker%2C+M.+Benjamin&rft.au=Smith%2C+Nicholas+L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Jennifer+A.&rft.au=Sotoodehnia%2C+Nona&rft.au=Stilp%2C+Adrienne+M.&rft.au=Tang%2C+Weihong&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Kent+D.&rft.au=Telen%2C+Marilyn&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Timothy+A.&rft.au=Tracy%2C+Russell+P.&rft.au=Van+Den+Berg%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Vasan%2C+Ramachandran+S.&rft.au=Viaud-Martinez%2C+Karine+A.&rft.au=Vrieze%2C+Scott&rft.au=Weeks%2C+Daniel+E.&rft.au=Weir%2C+Bruce+S.&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Scott+T.&rft.au=Weng%2C+Lu-Chen&rft.au=Willer%2C+Cristen+J.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Yingze&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Xutong&rft.au=Arnett%2C+Donna+K.&rft.au=Ashley-Koch%2C+Allison+E.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Kathleen+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class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: overridden setting (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_overridden_setting" title="Category:CS1 maint: overridden setting">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiLiZhouGaynor2020" class="citation journal cs1">Li X, Li Z, Zhou H, Gaynor SM, Liu Y, Chen H, et al. 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href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256396656">256396656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+STEM+Education&rft.atitle=University-level+practical+activities+in+bioinformatics+benefit+voluntary+groups+of+pupils+in+the+last+2+years+of+school&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=17&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10023%2F7704&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256396656%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40594-015-0030-z&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Alderson%2C+RG&rft.au=McDonagh%2C+JL&rft.au=Plaisier%2C+H&rft.au=Comrie%2C+MM&rft.au=Duncan%2C+L&rft.au=Muirhead%2C+GT&rft.au=Sweeney%2C+SD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs40594-015-0030-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonaghBarkerAlderson2016" class="citation journal cs1">McDonagh JL, Barker D, Alderson RG (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4775721">"Bringing computational science to the public"</a>. <i>SpringerPlus</i>. <b>5</b> (259): 259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40064-016-1856-7">10.1186/s40064-016-1856-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4775721">4775721</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27006868">27006868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpringerPlus&rft.atitle=Bringing+computational+science+to+the+public&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=259&rft.pages=259&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4775721%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27006868&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40064-016-1856-7&rft.aulast=McDonagh&rft.aufirst=JL&rft.au=Barker%2C+D&rft.au=Alderson%2C+RG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4775721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobsonBarker2015" class="citation journal cs1">Robson JF, Barker D (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4604092">"Comparison of the protein-coding gene content of Chlamydia trachomatis and Protochlamydia amoebophila using a Raspberry Pi computer"</a>. <i>BMC Research Notes</i>. <b>8</b> (561): 561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13104-015-1476-2">10.1186/s13104-015-1476-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4604092">4604092</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26462790">26462790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Research+Notes&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+the+protein-coding+gene+content+of+Chlamydia+trachomatis+and+Protochlamydia+amoebophila+using+a+Raspberry+Pi+computer&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=561&rft.pages=561&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4604092%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26462790&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13104-015-1476-2&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=JF&rft.au=Barker%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4604092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4606965">4606965</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26467441">26467441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Research+Notes&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+the+protein-coding+genomes+of+two+green+sulphur+bacteria%2C+Chlorobium+tepidum+TLS+and+Pelodictyon+phaeoclathratiforme+BU-1&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=565&rft.pages=565&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4606965%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26467441&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13104-015-1535-8&rft.aulast=Wreggelsworth&rft.aufirst=KM&rft.au=Barker%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4606965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Bioinformatics</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Bioinformatics">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Bioinformatics&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li>Sehgal et al. : Structural, phylogenetic and docking studies of D-amino acid oxidase activator(DAOA ), a candidate schizophrenia gene. Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 2013 10 :3.</li> <li>Achuthsankar S Nair <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://print.achuth.googlepages.com/BINFTutorialV5.0CSI07.pdf">Computational Biology & Bioinformatics – A gentle Overview</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216212125/http://print.achuth.googlepages.com/BINFTutorialV5.0CSI07.pdf">Archived</a> 16 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Communications of Computer Society of India, January 2007</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivas_Aluru" title="Srinivas Aluru">Aluru, Srinivas</a>, ed. <i>Handbook of Computational Molecular Biology</i>. Chapman & Hall/Crc, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58488-406-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-58488-406-1">1-58488-406-1</a> (Chapman & Hall/Crc Computer and Information Science Series)</li> <li>Baldi, P and Brunak, S, <i>Bioinformatics: The Machine Learning Approach</i>, 2nd edition. MIT Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-02506-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-02506-X">0-262-02506-X</a></li> <li>Barnes, M.R. and Gray, I.C., eds., <i>Bioinformatics for Geneticists</i>, first edition. Wiley, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-84394-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-84394-2">0-470-84394-2</a></li> <li>Baxevanis, A.D. and Ouellette, B.F.F., eds., <i>Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins</i>, third edition. Wiley, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-47878-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-47878-4">0-471-47878-4</a></li> <li>Baxevanis, A.D., Petsko, G.A., Stein, L.D., and Stormo, G.D., eds., <i><a href="/wiki/Current_Protocols" title="Current Protocols">Current Protocols</a> in Bioinformatics</i>. Wiley, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-25093-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-25093-7">0-471-25093-7</a></li> <li>Cristianini, N. and Hahn, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computational-genomics.net/"><i>Introduction to Computational Genomics</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090104042023/http://www.computational-genomics.net/">Archived</a> 4 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Cambridge University Press, 2006. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521671910" title="Special:BookSources/9780521671910">9780521671910</a> |<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-67191-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-67191-4">0-521-67191-4</a>)</li> <li>Durbin, R., S. Eddy, A. Krogh and G. Mitchison, <i>Biological sequence analysis</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-62971-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-62971-3">0-521-62971-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert D (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbib%2F5.3.300">"Bioinformatics software resources"</a>. <i>Briefings in Bioinformatics</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">300–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbib%2F5.3.300">10.1093/bib/5.3.300</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15383216">15383216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Briefings+in+Bioinformatics&rft.atitle=Bioinformatics+software+resources&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E300-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbib%2F5.3.300&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15383216&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbib%252F5.3.300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABioinformatics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Keedwell, E., <i>Intelligent Bioinformatics: The Application of Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Bioinformatics Problems</i>. Wiley, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-02175-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-02175-6">0-470-02175-6</a></li> <li>Kohane, et al. <i>Microarrays for an Integrative Genomics.</i> The MIT Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-11271-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-11271-X">0-262-11271-X</a></li> <li>Lund, O. et al. <i>Immunological Bioinformatics.</i> The MIT Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-12280-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-12280-4">0-262-12280-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lior_Pachter" title="Lior Pachter">Pachter, Lior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernd_Sturmfels" title="Bernd Sturmfels">Sturmfels, Bernd</a>. "Algebraic Statistics for Computational Biology" Cambridge University Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85700-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85700-7">0-521-85700-7</a></li> <li>Pevzner, Pavel A. <i>Computational Molecular Biology: An Algorithmic Approach</i> The MIT Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-16197-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-16197-4">0-262-16197-4</a></li> <li>Soinov, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jprr.org/index.php/jprr/article/view/8/5">Bioinformatics and Pattern Recognition Come Together</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510213503/http://jprr.org/index.php/jprr/article/view/8/5">Archived</a> 10 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Journal of Pattern Recognition Research (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jprr.org">JPRR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080908110041/http://www.jprr.org/">Archived</a> 8 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>), Vol 1 (1) 2006 p. 37–41</li> <li>Stevens, Hallam, <i>Life Out of Sequence: A Data-Driven History of Bioinformatics</i>, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226080208" title="Special:BookSources/9780226080208">9780226080208</a></li> <li>Tisdall, James. "Beginning Perl for Bioinformatics" O'Reilly, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-596-00080-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-596-00080-4">0-596-00080-4</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11480.html">Catalyzing Inquiry at the Interface of Computing and Biology (2005) CSTB report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070128222920/http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11480.html">Archived</a> 28 January 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/2121.html">Calculating the Secrets of Life: Contributions of the Mathematical Sciences and computing to Molecular Biology (1995)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080706035211/http://www.nap.edu/catalog/2121.html">Archived</a> 6 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071222091912/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Biology/7-91JSpring2004/LectureNotes/index.htm">Foundations of Computational and Systems Biology MIT Course</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://compbio.mit.edu/6.047/">Computational Biology: Genomes, Networks, Evolution Free MIT Course</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130408034631/http://compbio.mit.edu/6.047/">Archived</a> 8 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bioinformatics" title="Template talk:Bioinformatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bioinformatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bioinformatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bioinformatics348" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioinformatics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Databases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sequence databases: <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Nucleotide_Archive" title="European Nucleotide Archive">European Nucleotide Archive</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_National_GeneBank" title="China National GeneBank">China National GeneBank</a></li> <li>Secondary databases: <a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a>, database of protein sequences grouping together <a href="/wiki/UniProt#UniProtKB.2FSwiss-Prot" title="UniProt">Swiss-Prot</a>, <a href="/wiki/UniProt#UniProtKB.2FTrEMBL" title="UniProt">TrEMBL</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_Information_Resource" title="Protein Information Resource">Protein Information Resource</a></li> <li>Other databases: <a href="/wiki/BioNumbers" title="BioNumbers">BioNumbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">Protein Data Bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ensembl_genome_database_project" title="Ensembl genome database project">Ensembl</a>, <a href="/wiki/InterPro" title="InterPro">InterPro</a>, <a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene Ontology</a></li> <li>Specialised genomic databases: <a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_Genome_Database" title="Saccharomyces Genome Database">Saccharomyces Genome Database</a>, <a href="/wiki/FlyBase" title="FlyBase">FlyBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/VectorBase" title="VectorBase">VectorBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/WormBase" title="WormBase">WormBase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rat_Genome_Database" title="Rat Genome Database">Rat Genome Database</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHI-base" title="PHI-base">PHI-base</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">Arabidopsis Information Resource</a>, <a href="/wiki/GISAID" title="GISAID">GISAID</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish_Information_Network" title="Zebrafish Information Network">Zebrafish Information Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BLAST_(biotechnology)" title="BLAST (biotechnology)">BLAST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowtie_(sequence_analysis)" title="Bowtie (sequence analysis)">Bowtie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustal" title="Clustal">Clustal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMBOSS" title="EMBOSS">EMBOSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMMER" title="HMMER">HMMER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MUSCLE_(alignment_software)" title="MUSCLE (alignment software)">MUSCLE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_Assignment_of_Named_Global_Outbreak_Lineages" title="Phylogenetic Assignment of Named Global Outbreak Lineages">PANGOLIN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAMtools" title="SAMtools">SAMtools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_Oligonucleotide_Analysis_Package" title="Short Oligonucleotide Analysis Package">SOAP suite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TopHat_(bioinformatics)" title="TopHat (bioinformatics)">TopHat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Server: <a href="/wiki/ExPASy" class="mw-redirect" title="ExPASy">ExPASy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_(education_platform)" title="Rosalind (education platform)">Rosalind (education platform)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_Institute" title="Broad Institute">Broad Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_Biology_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational Biology Department">Computational Biology Department</a> (CBD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSBI" title="COSBI">Microsoft Research - University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology</a> (COSBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_Center_for_Life_Science" title="Database Center for Life Science">Database Center for Life Science</a> (DBCLS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (DDBJ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Bioinformatics_Institute" title="European Bioinformatics Institute">European Bioinformatics Institute</a> (EMBL-EBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EMBL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatiron_Institute" title="Flatiron Institute">Flatiron Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Craig_Venter_Institute" title="J. Craig Venter Institute">J. Craig Venter Institute</a> (JCVI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_of_Molecular_Cell_Biology_and_Genetics" title="Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics">Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics</a> (MPI-CBG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">US National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (NCBI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Genetics" title="National Institute of Genetics">Japanese Institute of Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Bioinformatics_Centre" title="Netherlands Bioinformatics Centre">Netherlands Bioinformatics Centre</a> (NBIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Genome_Center" title="Philippine Genome Center">Philippine Genome Center</a> (PGC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scripps_Research" title="Scripps Research">Scripps Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Institute_of_Bioinformatics" title="Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics">Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics</a> (SIB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitehead_Institute" title="Whitehead Institute">Whitehead Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Society_for_Bioinformatics_and_Computational_Biology" title="African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology">African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology</a> (ASBCB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Bioinformatics_Resource" title="Australia Bioinformatics Resource">Australia Bioinformatics Resource</a> (EMBL-AR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMBnet" title="EMBnet">European Molecular Biology network</a> (EMBnet)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Nucleotide_Sequence_Database_Collaboration" title="International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration">International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration</a> (INSDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Biocuration" title="International Society for Biocuration">International Society for Biocuration</a> (ISB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology" title="International Society for Computational Biology">International Society for Computational Biology</a> (ISCB) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Computational_Biology_Student_Council" title="International Society for Computational Biology Student Council">Student Council</a> (ISCB-SC)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Genomics_and_Integrative_Biology" title="Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology">Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology</a> (CSIR-IGIB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Society_for_Bioinformatics" title="Japanese Society for Bioinformatics">Japanese Society for Bioinformatics</a> (JSBi)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meetings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basel_Computational_Biology_Conference" title="Basel Computational Biology Conference">Basel Computational Biology Conference‎</a> ([BC<sup>2</sup>])</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conference_on_Computational_Biology" title="European Conference on Computational Biology">European Conference on Computational Biology</a> (ECCB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Systems_for_Molecular_Biology" title="Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology">Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology</a> (ISMB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Bioinformatics" title="International Conference on Bioinformatics">International Conference on Bioinformatics</a> (InCoB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computational_Intelligence_Methods_for_Bioinformatics_and_Biostatistics" title="International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics">International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics</a> (CIBB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISCB_Africa_ASBCB_Conference_on_Bioinformatics" title="ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference on Bioinformatics">ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference on Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Symposium_on_Biocomputing" title="Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing">Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing</a> (PSB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_Computational_Molecular_Biology" title="Research in Computational Molecular Biology">Research in Computational Molecular Biology</a> (RECOMB)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">File formats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CRAM_(file_format)" title="CRAM (file format)">CRAM format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FASTA_format" title="FASTA format">FASTA format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FASTQ_format" title="FASTQ format">FASTQ format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeXML_format" title="NeXML format">NeXML format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_file" title="Nexus file">Nexus format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pileup_format" title="Pileup format">Pileup format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAM_(file_format)" title="SAM (file format)">SAM format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_format" title="Stockholm format">Stockholm format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variant_Call_Format" title="Variant Call Format">VCF format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_feature_format" title="General feature format">GFF format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_transfer_format" title="Gene transfer format">GTF format</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biobanks" title="List of biobanks">List of biobanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">Sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_database" title="Sequence database">Sequence database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">Sequence alignment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" title="Category:Bioinformatics">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bioinformatics">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Information_processing141" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Informatics" title="Template:Informatics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Informatics" title="Template talk:Informatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Information_processing141" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processes by function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">operating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Information storage">storing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processing abstractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Event_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Event processing">event processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">sign processesing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">stream processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">agent processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_computing#Nature_as_information_processing" title="Natural computing">nature as information processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory#Humans_as_Information_Processing_Systems" title="Information processing theory">humans as information processing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_information_processing" title="Social information processing">society as information processing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_computing" title="Physical computing">physical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-inspired_computing" title="Bio-inspired computing">bio-inspired computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">artificial brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">mind uploading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual world</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processing <br />theories and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_informatics" title="Genome informatics">genetic informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular computing">cellular computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurocomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocomputing">neurocomputing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in cognitive psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">information processing theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive informatics">cognitive informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_informatics" title="Behavior informatics">behavior informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in computer science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neural_computation" title="Neural computation">neural computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">computation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_structure" title="Information structure">information structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">computational circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infosphere" title="Infosphere">infosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inforg" title="Inforg">inforg</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decoding_the_Universe" title="Decoding the Universe">Decoding the Universe</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genomics334" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genomics" title="Template talk:Genomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genomics334" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_genomics" title="Cognitive genomics">Cognitive genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangenomics">Pangenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociogenomics" title="Sociogenomics"><i>Socio</i>genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioinformatics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochip" title="Biochip">Biochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemogenomics" title="Chemogenomics">Chemogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Epigenome_Project" title="Human Epigenome Project">Human Epigenome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunomics" title="Immunomics">Immunomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidomics" title="Lipidomics">Lipidomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">Metabolomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrigenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrigenomics">Nutrigenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">Transcriptomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-map_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-map proteomics">Call-map proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure-based_drug_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure-based drug design">Structure-based drug design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expression_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression proteomics">Expression proteomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-D_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="2-D electrophoresis">2-D electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">Electrospray ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization-time_of_flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfluidic-based_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic-based tools">Microfluidic-based tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_affinity_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope affinity tags">Isotope affinity tags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">Chromosome conformation capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (JP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_omics_topics_in_biology" title="List of omics topics in biology">List</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Omics" title="Category:Omics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology858" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br /> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br />and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br /> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br /> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li>Bioinformatics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology59" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology59" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science1028" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computer_science1028" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_reality" title="Extended reality">Extended reality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing" title="Template:Differentiable computing">Differentiable computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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