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href="#Ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Ancient China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Ancient Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saint_Augustine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saint_Augustine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Saint Augustine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saint_Augustine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-St._Thomas_Aquinas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#St._Thomas_Aquinas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>St. Thomas Aquinas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-St._Thomas_Aquinas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_Political_Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Political_Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Islamic Political Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Political_Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mutazilite_vs._Asharite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutazilite_vs._Asharite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Mutazilite vs. Asharite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutazilite_vs._Asharite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ibn_Khaldun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Khaldun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Ibn Khaldun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Khaldun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>European Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Niccolò_Machiavelli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niccolò_Machiavelli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Niccolò Machiavelli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niccolò_Machiavelli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Hobbes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Thomas Hobbes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>European Enlightenment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Locke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Locke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>John Locke</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Locke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Hume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Hume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>David Hume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Hume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adam_Smith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adam_Smith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Adam Smith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adam_Smith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.4</span> <span>Immanuel Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Stuart_Mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.5</span> <span>John Stuart Mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Stuart_Mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Madison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Madison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.6</span> <span>James Madison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Madison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Paine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Paine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.7</span> <span>Thomas Paine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Paine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benjamin_Constant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benjamin_Constant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.8</span> <span>Benjamin Constant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benjamin_Constant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Romanticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean-Jacques_Rousseau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Jean-Jacques Rousseau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-G._W._F._Hegel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#G._W._F._Hegel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>G. W. F. Hegel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-G._W._F._Hegel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anarchism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anarchism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Anarchism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anarchism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austrian_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austrian_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span>Austrian School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austrian_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.3</span> <span>Christian democracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.4</span> <span>Communitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.5</span> <span>Conservatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intersectionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intersectionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.6</span> <span>Intersectionality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intersectionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.7</span> <span>Marxism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objectivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objectivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.8</span> <span>Objectivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objectivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republicanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republicanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.9</span> <span>Republicanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republicanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.10</span> <span>Social liberalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.11</span> <span>Traditionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Political philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politieke_filosofie" title="Politieke filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Politieke filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة سياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة سياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía política – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía política" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyasi_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Siyasi fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Siyasi fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="سیاسی فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سیاسی فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="রাজনৈতিক দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাজনৈতিক দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A8ng-t%C4%AB_tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Chèng-tī tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chèng-tī tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D0%B9%D3%99%D1%81%D0%B8_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Сәйәси фәлсәфә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәйәси фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Политическа философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Политическа философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Politička filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Politička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofia política – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia política" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politick%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Politická filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Politická filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth_wleidyddol" title="Athroniaeth wleidyddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth wleidyddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_filosofi" title="Politisk filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Politisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_Philosophie" title="Politische Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Politische Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliitiline_filosoofia" title="Poliitiline filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poliitiline filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πολιτική φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía política – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía política" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_filozofio" title="Politika filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Politika filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_politiko" title="Filosofia politiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia politiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="فلسفه سیاسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه سیاسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_politique" title="Philosophie politique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie politique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofía política – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía política" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%88%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%A8" title="રાજનૈતિક દર્શન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="રાજનૈતિક દર્શન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="정치철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정치철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քաղաքական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղաքական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="राजनीतिक दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="राजनीतिक दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Politička filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Politička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_politik" title="Filsafat politik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat politik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B3rnspeki" title="Stjórnspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjórnspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_politica" title="Filosofia politica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia politica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה פוליטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה פוליטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Саяси философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Саяси философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_politik" title="Filozofi politik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Filozofi politik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_politica" title="Philosophia politica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia politica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politikas_filozofija" title="Politikas filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Politikas filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politin%C4%97_filosofija" title="Politinė filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Politinė filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polletieke_filosofie" title="Polletieke filosofie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Polletieke filosofie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politikafiloz%C3%B3fia" title="Politikafilozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Politikafilozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Политичка филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Политичка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia_p%C3%B4litika" title="Filôzôfia pôlitika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôzôfia pôlitika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فلسفه سياسيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه سياسيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_politik" title="Falsafah politik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah politik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_politik" title="Filsafat politik – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Filsafat politik" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81_%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Улс төрийн гүн ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Улс төрийн гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politieke_filosofie" title="Politieke filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Politieke filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="政治哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_filosofi" title="Politisk filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Politisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_filosofi" title="Politisk filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Politisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_politica" title="Filosofia politica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Filosofia politica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਰਾਜਨੀਤਕ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਾਜਨੀਤਕ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="سياسي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سياسي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_polityczna" title="Filozofia polityczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia polityczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Filosofia política – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia política" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie_politic%C4%83" title="Filozofie politică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofie politică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Политическая философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Политическая философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poleetical_philosophy" title="Poleetical philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Poleetical philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa_pul%C3%ACtica" title="Filusufìa pulìtica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Filusufìa pulìtica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Political philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politick%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Politická filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Politická filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dna_filozofija" title="Politična filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Politična filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="فەلسەفەی سیاسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی سیاسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Политичка филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Политичка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Politička filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Politička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliittinen_filosofia" title="Poliittinen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophy of governance and politics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Political Theory" and "political treatise" redirect here. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)"><i>Political Theory</i> (journal)</a>. For the work by Baruch Spinoza, see <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus"><i>Tractatus Politicus</i></a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle sidebar-phi-pre">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle sidebar-phi-title"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sidebar-phi-img"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scientists" title="List of political scientists">political scientists</a>)</span></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">theory</a>)</span></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_science" title="Election science">Election science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">Political analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">Policy studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">doctrine</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_policy" title="Domestic policy">Domestic policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Government branches</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subseries</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Political philosophy</b>, or <b>political theory</b>, is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships between them. Its topics include <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>: what they are, if they are needed, what makes a <a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">government legitimate</a>, what <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_rights" title="Fundamental rights">rights and freedoms</a> it should protect, what form it should take, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever. </p><p>Political theory also engages questions of a broader scope, tackling the political nature of phenomena and categories such as <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of sexuality">sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_race_theory" title="Critical race theory">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_animal_studies" title="Critical animal studies">human-nonhuman relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">religion</a>, and more. </p><p>Political philosophy is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it has also played a major part in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, within which a strong focus has historically been placed on both the history of political thought and contemporary political theory (from <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative political theory</a> to various <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical approaches</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>Oxford Handbook of Political Theory</i> (2009), the field is described as: "[...] an interdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the humanities end of the happily still undisciplined discipline of political science ... For a long time, the challenge for the identity of political theory has been how to position itself productively in three sorts of location: in relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy; between the world of politics and the more abstract, ruminative register of theory; between canonical political theory and the newer resources (such as <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, film and <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture_studies" title="Popular culture studies">popular</a> and political culture, <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">mass media studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">environmental studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_sciences" title="Behavioural sciences">behavioral science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>) on which political theorists increasingly draw."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Quotations#Specific_recommendations" title="Wikipedia:Quotations"><span title="too-lengthy quotation (October 2024)">excessive quote</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p> In a 1956 <i>American Political Science Review</i> report authored by <a href="/wiki/Harry_H._Eckstein" title="Harry H. Eckstein">Harry Eckstein</a>, political philosophy as a discipline had utility in two ways: </p><blockquote><p>the utility of political philosophy might be found either in the intrinsic ability of the best of past political thought to sharpen the wits of contemporary political thinkers, much as any difficult intellectual exercise sharpens the mind and deepens the imagination, or in the ability of political philosophy to serve as a thought-saving device by providing the political scientist with a rich source of concepts, models, insights, theories, and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In his 2001 book <i>A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy</i>, <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Harvey Mansfield</a> contrasts political philosophy with <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>. He argues that political science "apes" the natural sciences and is a rival to political philosophy, replacing normative words like "good", "just", and "noble" with words like "utility" or "preferences". According to Mansfield, political science rebelled from political philosophy in the seventeenth century and declared itself distinct and separate in the <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> movement of the late nineteenth century. He writes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Today political science is often said to be 'descriptive' or 'empirical,' concerned with facts; political philosophy is called 'normative' because it expresses values. But these terms merely repeat in more abstract form the difference between political science, which seeks agreement, and political philosophy, which seeks the best."</p></blockquote> <p>According to Mansfield, political science and political philosophy are two distinct kinds of political philosophy, one modern and the other ancient. He stresses that the only way to understand modern political science and its ancient alternative fully is to enter the history of political philosophy and to study the tradition handed down over the centuries. Although modern political science feels no obligation to look at its roots, and might even denigrate the subject as if it could not be of any real significance, he says, "our reasoning shows that the history of political philosophy is required for understanding its substance". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_traditions">Ancient traditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_India">Ancient India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Indian_political_philosophy" title="Indian political philosophy">Indian political philosophy</a> in ancient times demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, diplomacy, administration, defense, law and order. <i>Mantranga</i>, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a> was a 4th-century BC Indian political philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i> provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a <a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">code of law</a> in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_political_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chinese political systems">Ancient Chinese political systems</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konfuzius-1770.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/220px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/330px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/440px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1770</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese political philosophy dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. Confucius was the first thinker to relate ethics to the political order.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major philosophies during the period, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Agrarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocratic</a> government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> government. <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on <a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">frugality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>. The Agrarians advocated a peasant <a href="/wiki/Utopian_communalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian communalism">utopian communalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taoism advocated a proto-<a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>. Each had <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> or <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">mythic</a> aspects as well that played into how they viewed fairness in governance. </p><p>Prior to China's adoption of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/220px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/330px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/440px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (right), from a detail of <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> and Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.</figcaption></figure> <p>Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, where political philosophy dates back to at least <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization. Plato grouped forms of government into five categories of descending stability and morality: <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timocracy" title="Timocracy">timocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was followed by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)"><i>Politics</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle is notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman political philosophy was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> and the Roman statesman <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Europe">Medieval Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazilite <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> thinking in that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholics</a> thought subordinating <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some medieval political philosophers, such as Aquinas in his <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, developed the idea that a king who is a tyrant is no king at all and could be overthrown. Others, like <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Livre_de_Politiques" title="Livre de Politiques">Livre de Politiques</a></i>, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler. <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, viewed by many as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty, explicitly proposes the right to revolt against the ruler for justice's sake. Other documents similar to Magna Carta are found in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saint_Augustine">Saint Augustine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Saint Augustine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderation of the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and theory of <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying <a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">mercy</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Moral_example" title="Moral example">moral example</a>. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the <a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">City of God</a> (Civitas Dei) or the Earthly City (<a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">Civitas</a> Terrena). Augustine's <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)">City of God</a></i> is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="St._Thomas_Aquinas">St. Thomas Aquinas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: St. Thomas Aquinas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:367px;max-width:367px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:294px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/167px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/251px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Simone_Martini_003.jpg/334px-Simone_Martini_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2779" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:294px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/192px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/288px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg/384px-Polittico_del_1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="743" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> who helped reintroduce <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s works, which had only been transmitted to <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> Europe through <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> Spain, along with the commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">philosophy of law</a>. According to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law: </p> <ol><li>Eternal law ("the divine government of everything")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine positive law</a> (having been "posited" by God; external to human nature)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> (the right way of living discoverable by natural reason; what cannot-not be known; internal to human nature)</li> <li>Human law (what we commonly call "<a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>"—including <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a>; the law of the <i><a href="/wiki/Communitas_Perfecta" class="mw-redirect" title="Communitas Perfecta">Communitas Perfecta</a></i>)</li></ol> <p>Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon law (Catholic Church)">canon law</a>. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of canon law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an incredibly influential thinker in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural Law tradition</a>. </p><p>In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic (Aristotelian) teaching in his <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i>, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason—manifest in human law by way of the divine virtues—gives way to the assembly of righteous government.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Political_Evolution">Islamic Political Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Islamic Political Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mutazilite_vs._Asharite">Mutazilite vs. Asharite</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mutazilite vs. Asharite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:367px;max-width:367px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:186px;max-width:186px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:198px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/184px-Al-Farabi.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/276px-Al-Farabi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/368px-Al-Farabi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="699" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Al_Farabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Farabi">Al Farabi</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:198px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/175px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/263px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/350px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, based on both the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a> emphasized an inexorable link between <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and the process of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> to find <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>—in effect <i>all</i> philosophy was "<a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">political</a>" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" <a href="/wiki/Mutazilite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilite">Mutazilite</a> philosophers, who held a more <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenic</a> view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:367px;max-width:367px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:178px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg/161px-Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg/242px-Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg/322px-Statue_of_Averroes_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29_-_BAE09705.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="768" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:178px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg/198px-Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg/297px-Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg/396px-Ibn_khaldoun-kassus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="453" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic political philosophy</a>, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>—i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus), <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (Abunaser), <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">İbn Sina</a> (Avicenna), <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> (Avempace) and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a> (Averroes). The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., <a href="/wiki/Ibadah" title="Ibadah">ibadah</a> (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and <a href="/wiki/Ilah" title="Ilah">ilah</a> (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulama</a> posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> in the very early years of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Islamic history</a> on <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Khilafa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>, or that of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Imamah" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah">Imamah</a> are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Ehl-i Sunna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. Political thought was not purely rooted in theism, however. <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotleanism</a> flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">peripatetic</a> philosophers who implemented the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in the context of the Islamic world. Abunaser, Avicenna and Ibn Rushd where part of this philosophical school who claimed that human reason surpassed mere coincidence and revelation. They believed, for example, that natural phenomena occur because of certain rules (made by god), not because god interfered directly (unlike Al-Ghazali and his followers).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other notable political philosophers of the time include <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a>, a Persian scholar and <a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> of the Seljuq Empire who composed the <i><a href="/wiki/Siyasatnama" title="Siyasatnama">Siyasatnama</a></i>, or the "Book of Government" in English. In it, he details the role of the state in terms of political affairs (i.e. how to deal with political opponents without ruining the government's image), as well as its duty to protect the poor and reward the worthy. In his other work, he explains how the state should deal with other issues such as supplying jobs to immigrants like the <a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a> who were coming from the north (present day southern Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ibn_Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ibn Khaldun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a> considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, "...an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself," the best in the history of political theory. For Ibn Khaldun, government should be restrained to a minimum for as a necessary evil, it is the constraint of men by other men.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Renaissance">European Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: European Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages did see secular politics in practice under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, the academic field was wholly <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> and therefore Christian in nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Niccolò_Machiavelli"><span id="Niccol.C3.B2_Machiavelli"></span>Niccolò Machiavelli</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Niccolò Machiavelli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2783" data-file-height="3576" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i>, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Discorsi_sopra_la_prima_deca_di_Tito_Livio" class="mw-redirect" title="Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio">The Discourses</a></i>, a rigorous analysis of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a> rather than the <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> and somewhat <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, well known for his theory of the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a>. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thomas Hobbes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/220px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/330px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/440px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="3078" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece of <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The main practical conclusion of Hobbes' political theory is that state or society can not be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)"><i>Leviathan</i></a>, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war. </p><p>Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and their passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: European Enlightenment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> period, new theories emerged about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>). These new theories led to new questions and insights by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. </p><p>These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropologists</a> have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Natural_order_(philosophy)" title="Natural order (philosophy)">natural order</a> was not introduced, the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> could not evolve independently of <a href="/wiki/Theistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theistic">theistic</a> thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> was subordinated to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> churches subordinate to each <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. Free trade, as opposed to these religious theories, is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold liberal economic positions while economically left-wing and nationalist political parties generally support protectionism, the opposite of free trade. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Arouet_de_Voltaire" class="mw-redirect" title="François Marie Arouet de Voltaire">François Marie Arouet de Voltaire</a>, a representative figure of the enlightenment. </p><p>Historians have described Voltaire's description of the history of Christianity as "propagandistic". Voltaire is partially responsible for the misattribution of the expression <i><a href="/wiki/Credo_quia_absurdum" title="Credo quia absurdum">Credo quia absurdum</a></i> to the Church Fathers. In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767, he wrote about Christianity: La nôtre [religion] est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le monde. "Ours [i.e., the Christian religion] is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world. Your Majesty will do the human race an eternal service by extirpating this infamous superstition, I do not say among the rabble, who are not worthy of being enlightened and who are apt for every yoke; I say among honest people, among men who think, among those who wish to think. ... My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out." After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Locke">John Locke</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: John Locke"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/220px-John_Locke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/330px-John_Locke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/440px-John_Locke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i>. In it, Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>'s paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a> became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as <a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a>. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="David_Hume">David Hume</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: David Hume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a> was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a>, later picked up on and developed by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>. Hume also coined the <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">is–ought problem</a>, i.e. that just because something is does not mean that is how it ought to be, which was a very influential idea on normative politics.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adam_Smith">Adam Smith</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Adam Smith"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Known as the father of liberalism, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior (the <a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>) of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g., repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds which enhance economic activity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, but as a moral duty. He was the first modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. He also argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Stuart_Mill">John Stuart Mill</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: John Stuart Mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg/220px-Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg/330px-Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg/440px-Stuart_Mill_G_F_Watts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>'s work on political philosophy begins in <i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i>, the most influential statement of his liberal principles. He begins by distinguishing old and new threats to liberty. The old threat to liberty is found in traditional societies in which there is rule by one (a monarchy) or a few (an aristocracy). Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed. Mill's explicit theory of rights is introduced in Chapter V of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)"><i>Utilitarianism</i></a> in the context of his sanction theory of duty, which is an indirect form of utilitarianism that identifies wrong actions as actions that it is useful to sanction. Mill then introduces justice as a proper part of the duty. Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights. Justice implies something which it is not only right to do, and wrong not to do, but which some individual person can claim from us as a matter of right. These perfect duties will thus create liberty and collective freedom within a state. He uses, <i>On Liberty</i> to discuss gender equality in society. To Mill, Utilitarianism was the perfect tool to justify gender equality in The Subjection of Women, referring to the political, lawful and social subjection of women. When a woman was married, she entered legally binding coverture with her husband; once she married her legal existence as an individual was suspended under "marital unity". While it is easy to presume that a woman would not marry under these circumstances, being unmarried had social consequences. A woman could only advance in social stature and wealth if she had a rich husband to do the groundwork. Mill uses his Utilitarian ethics to assess how gender equality would be the best way to achieve "the greatest good for the greatest number" : "The principle that regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes … and is now one of the chief obstacles to human improvement…" </p><p>The 'chief obstacle' to Mill relates to women's intellectual capability. The Subjection of Women looks at this in the women of society and argues that diminishing their intellectual potential wastes the knowledge and skill of half of the population; such knowledge lost could formulate ideas that could maximize pleasure for society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="James_Madison">James Madison</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: James Madison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> was an American politician considered to be "Father of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>" and "Father of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>" of the United States. As a political theorist, he believed in <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> and proposed a comprehensive set of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers#Checks_and_balances" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a> that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the <a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Paine">Thomas Paine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Thomas Paine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a> defended <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(pamphlet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (pamphlet)">Common Sense</a></i> and The <i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benjamin_Constant">Benjamin Constant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Benjamin Constant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_(1767-1830),_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/220px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/330px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/440px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="3086" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a> looked to Britain rather than to ancient Rome for a practical model of freedom in a large, commercial society. He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns". The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly. In order to support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs. </p><p>The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a commercial society in which there are no slaves but almost everybody must earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement. </p><p>Moreover, Constant believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked Napoleon's martial appetite, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to be warlike, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would be at peace with all peaceful nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticism">Romanticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Romanticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau analyzed the social contract as an expression of the <a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>, and controversially argued in favor of absolute <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> where the people at large would act as <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> (1762) outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism, becoming one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in earlier work, the article <i>Discours sur l'oeconomie politique</i> (<i>Discourse on Political Economy</i>), featured in <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Diderot's Encyclopédie</a>. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they." </p><p>Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="G._W._F._Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: G. W. F. Hegel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a> emphasized the "cunning" of history, arguing that it followed a rational trajectory, even while embodying seemingly irrational forces. Hegel influenced Marx, <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anarchism">Anarchism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Anarchism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1222284573">.mw-parser-output .template-anarchism-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{font-size:145%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .template-anarchism-sidebar .sidebar-above{padding-bottom:0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-anarchism-sidebar .sidebar-list-title{background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .template-anarchism-sidebar .sidebar-below{text-align:center;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .template-anarchism-sidebar .sidebar-subgroup .sidebar-heading{border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist template-anarchism-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchism" title="Category:Anarchism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image skin-invert-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anarchy-symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Circle-A" anarchy symbol"><img alt=""Circle-A" anarchy symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Anarchy-symbol.svg/75px-Anarchy-symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Anarchy-symbol.svg/113px-Anarchy-symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Anarchy-symbol.svg/150px-Anarchy-symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_anarchism" title="Glossary of anarchism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Category:Anarchist schools of thought">Schools of thought</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Primitivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_liberation" title="Total liberation">Total liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-naturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-naturism">Naturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anarchism" title="Philosophical anarchism">Philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National-anarchism" title="National-anarchism">National-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_anarchism" title="Postcolonial anarchism">Postcolonial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="African anarchism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Black</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion" title="Anarchism and religion">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parecon" class="mw-redirect" title="Parecon">Parecon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Communist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magonism" title="Magonism">Magonism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_without_adjectives" title="Anarchism without adjectives">Without adjectives</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Methodology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-economics" title="Counter-economics">Counter-economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">Insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-pacifism" title="Anarcho-pacifism">Pacifist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platformism" title="Platformism">Platformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_anarchy" title="Relationship anarchy">Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Syndicalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthesis_anarchism" title="Synthesis anarchism">Synthesis</a></li></ul> </td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_theory" title="Category:Anarchist theory">Theory</a></li> <li>Practice</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_Black_Cross" title="Anarchist Black Cross">Anarchist Black Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anationalism">Anationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Anti-militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_social_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous social center">Autonomous social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_bloc" title="Black bloc">Black bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontalidad" title="Horizontalidad">Horizontalidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Participatory politics">Participatory politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_autonomous_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent autonomous zone">Permanent autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefigurative_politics" title="Prefigurative politics">Prefigurative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">Proletarian internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (anarchism)">Rewilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_culture" title="Security culture">Security culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocracy" title="Sociocracy">Sociocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatherapy">Somatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Autonomous_Zone" title="Temporary Autonomous Zone">Temporary autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' council</a></li> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchists" title="Category:Anarchists">People</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Armand" title="Émile Armand">Armand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba_Jin" title="Ba Jin">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Bonanno" title="Alfredo Bonanno">Bonanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_Bourdin" title="Martial Bourdin">Bourdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">Cleyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buenaventura_Durruti" title="Buenaventura Durruti">Durruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Faure" title="Sébastien Faure">Faure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fauset_MacDonald" title="Thomas Fauset MacDonald">Fauset MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferrer" title="Francisco Ferrer">Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severino_Di_Giovanni" title="Severino Di Giovanni">Giovanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Prada" title="Manuel González Prada">González Prada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Guillaume" title="James Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Zhen_(anarchist)" title="He Zhen (anarchist)">He-Yin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanno_Sugako" title="Kanno Sugako">Kanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sh%C5%ABsui" title="Kōtoku Shūsui">Kōtoku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Landauer" title="Gustav Landauer">Landauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shifu" title="Liu Shifu">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Flores_Mag%C3%B3n" title="Ricardo Flores Magón">Magón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Makhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigorii_Maksimov" title="Grigorii Maksimov">Maksimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Malatesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Mett" title="Ida Mett">Mett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Michel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Pi_i_Margall" title="Francesc Pi i Margall">Pi i Margall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Pouget" title="Émile Pouget">Pouget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiratsuka_Raich%C5%8D" title="Hiratsuka Raichō">Raichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus" title="Élisée Reclus">Reclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n" title="Diego Abad de Santillán">Santillán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volin" title="Volin">Volin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Ward" title="Colin Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efim_Yarchuk" title="Efim Yarchuk">Yarchuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Issues_in_anarchism" title="Category:Issues in anarchism">Issues</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_capitalism" title="Anarchism and capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_education" title="Anarchism and education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_issues_related_to_love_and_sex" title="Anarchism and issues related to love and sex">Love and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_nationalism" title="Anarchism and nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion" title="Anarchism and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_violence" title="Anarchism and violence">Violence</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Regional_Federation_of_the_IWA" title="Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA">Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Congress_(1872)" title="Hague Congress (1872)">Hague Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonal_rebellion" title="Cantonal rebellion">Cantonal rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_the_Thirty" title="Trial of the Thirty">Trial of the Thirty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrer_movement" title="Ferrer movement">Ferrer movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strandza_Commune" class="mw-redirect" title="Strandza Commune">Strandza Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anarchist_Congress_of_Amsterdam" title="International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam">Congress of Amsterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_Week_(Spain)" title="Tragic Week (Spain)">Tragic Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Treason_Incident" title="High Treason Incident">High Treason Incident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Sixteen" title="Manifesto of the Sixteen">Manifesto of the Sixteen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_United_States_anarchist_bombings" title="1919 United States anarchist bombings">1919 United States bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biennio_Rosso" title="Biennio Rosso">Biennio Rosso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amakasu_Incident" title="Amakasu Incident">Amakasu Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish Revolution of 1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_May_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcelona May Days">Barcelona May Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_inverted_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Red inverted triangle">Red inverted triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labadie_Collection" title="Labadie Collection">Labadie Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provo_(movement)" title="Provo (movement)">Provo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIP_(company)" title="LIP (company)">LIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Sharpley_Library" title="Kate Sharpley Library">Kate Sharpley Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Anarchist_Centenary_Celebrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Anarchist Centenary Celebrations">Australian Anarchist Centenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnival_Against_Capital" title="Carnival Against Capital">Carnival Against Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Really_Really_Free_Market" title="Really Really Free Market">Really Really Free Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_culture" title="Category:Anarchist culture">Culture</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_las_Barricadas" title="A las Barricadas">A las Barricadas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_bookfair" title="Anarchist bookfair">Anarchist bookfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-punk" title="Anarcho-punk">Anarcho-punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_the_arts" title="Anarchism and the arts">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">DIY ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escuela_Moderna" class="mw-redirect" title="Escuela Moderna">Escuela Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infoshop" title="Infoshop">Infoshop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Media_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Media Center">Independent Media Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle anarchism">Lifestylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/No_gods,_no_masters" class="mw-redirect" title="No gods, no masters">No gods, no masters</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_cheerleading" title="Radical cheerleading">Radical cheerleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-managed_social_center" title="Self-managed social center">Self-managed social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_symbolism" title="Anarchist symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_economics" title="Category:Anarchist economics">Economics</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price" title="Cost the limit of price">Cost the limit of price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Decentralized_planning" title="Planned economy">Decentralized planned economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_of_producers" title="Free association of producers">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Give-away_shop" title="Give-away shop">Give-away shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_voucher" title="Labour voucher">Labour voucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_bank" title="Mutual bank">Mutual bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_credit" title="Mutual credit">Mutual credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_movements_by_region" title="List of anarchist movements by region">By region</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Africa" title="Anarchism in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Albania" title="Anarchism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Algeria" title="Anarchism in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Andorra" title="Anarchism in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Argentina" title="Anarchism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Armenia" title="Anarchism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Austria" title="Anarchism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anarchism in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bangladesh" title="Anarchism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belarus" title="Anarchism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belgium" title="Anarchism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bolivia" title="Anarchism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Anarchism in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Brazil" title="Anarchism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bulgaria" title="Anarchism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Canada" title="Anarchism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Chile" title="Anarchism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Colombia" title="Anarchism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Anarchism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Croatia" title="Anarchism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cuba" title="Anarchism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cyprus" title="Anarchism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Denmark" title="Anarchism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_East_Timor" title="Anarchism in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ecuador" title="Anarchism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_El_Salvador" title="Anarchism in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Estonia" title="Anarchism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Finland" title="Anarchism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_French_Guiana" title="Anarchism in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Georgia" title="Anarchism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Germany" title="Anarchism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Greece" title="Anarchism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Guatemala" title="Anarchism in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Anarchism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hungary" title="Anarchism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iceland" title="Anarchism in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_India" title="Anarchism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Indonesia" title="Anarchism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iran" title="Anarchism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ireland" title="Anarchism in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Israel" title="Anarchism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Italy" title="Anarchism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Japan" title="Anarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Korea" title="Anarchism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Latvia" title="Anarchism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Malaysia" title="Anarchism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Mexico" title="Anarchism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Monaco" title="Anarchism in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Mongolia" title="Anarchism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Morocco" title="Anarchism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Anarchism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_New_Zealand" title="Anarchism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Nicaragua" title="Anarchism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Nigeria" title="Anarchism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Norway" title="Anarchism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Panama" title="Anarchism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Paraguay" title="Anarchism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Peru" title="Anarchism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Philippines" title="Anarchism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Poland" title="Anarchism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Portugal" title="Anarchism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Anarchism in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Romania" title="Anarchism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Serbia" title="Anarchism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Singapore" title="Anarchism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Spain" title="Anarchism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Sweden" title="Anarchism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Switzerland" title="Anarchism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Syria" title="Anarchism in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Taiwan" title="Anarchism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Tunisia" title="Anarchism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Turkey" title="Anarchism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ukraine" title="Anarchism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Anarchism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Uruguay" title="Anarchism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Venezuela" title="Anarchism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Vietnam" title="Anarchism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Lists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarcho-punk_bands" title="List of anarcho-punk bands">Anarcho-punk bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_anarchism" title="List of books about anarchism">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_anarchists" title="List of fictional anarchists">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_anarchists" title="List of Jewish anarchists">Jewish anarchists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_musicians" title="List of anarchist musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_periodicals" title="List of anarchist periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Related topics</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corporate_activism" title="Anti-corporate activism">Anti-corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">Anti-statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_anarchism_and_libertarianism" title="Definition of anarchism and libertarianism">Definition of anarchism and libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual Power">Dual Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labour movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism" title="Left communism">Left communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_Friedrich_Nietzsche_and_Max_Stirner" title="Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner">Relationship between Friedrich<br />Nietzsche and Max Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BlackFlagSymbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/15px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/23px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/30px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="456" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Anarchism" title="Portal:Anarchism">Anarchism portal</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/15px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/23px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/30px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anarchism_sidebar" title="Template:Anarchism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anarchism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Anarchism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> is commonly considered the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">mutualism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a> is another classic anarchist thinker, who was the most influential theorist of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">anarcho-communism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>'s specific version of anarchism is called <a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">collectivist anarchism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a> was the main representative of the anarchist current known as <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">individualist anarchism</a> and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">ethical egoism</a> which endorses anarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> was an influential anarchist thinker writing on topics such as <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> – notably with his written work <a href="/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)"><i>Civil Disobedience</i></a> – who influenced later important political activists such as <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> Hard-lining on the individual citizen's right to seek justice over the state's, he was also an outspoken advocate and apologist for <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> following his <a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">raid on Harper's Ferry</a> for the purpose of abolitionist efforts, writing <i><a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media. His ideas have proven highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements, and aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austrian_School">Austrian School</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Austrian School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Austrian_School" title="Category:Austrian School">a series on</a> the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian school">Austrian school</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding: 0.4em 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_school" title="Austrian school"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png/100px-An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png/150px-An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png/200px-An_Austrian_School_crest_-_Grey.png 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="595" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principal works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Capital_and_Interest" title="Capital and Interest">Capital and Interest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Action" title="Human Action">Human Action</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Individualism_and_Economic_Order" title="Individualism and Economic Order">Individualism and Economic Order</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man,_Economy,_and_State" title="Man, Economy, and State">Man, Economy, and State</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Economics_(Menger)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Economics (Menger)">Principles of Economics</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_liberal_school" title="French liberal school">French liberal school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Brentano" title="School of Brentano">School of Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theories and ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_business_cycle_theory" title="Austrian business cycle theory">Austrian business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catallactics" title="Catallactics">Catallactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">Creative destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_calculation_problem" title="Economic calculation problem">Economic calculation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_school#Inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian school">View of inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarianism in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malinvestment" title="Malinvestment">Malinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">Methodological individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxeology#Austrian_economics" title="Praxeology">Praxeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundaboutness" title="Roundaboutness">Roundaboutness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_theory_of_value" title="Subjective theory of value">Subjective theory of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_preference#Austrian_economics" title="Time preference">Theory of interest</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations, universities, and think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Economic_Education" title="Foundation for Economic Education">Foundation for Economic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="The Independent Institute">The Independent Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercatus_Center" title="Mercatus Center">Mercatus Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_and_Freedom_Society" title="Property and Freedom Society">Property and Freedom Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason_Foundation" title="Reason Foundation">Reason Foundation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian-school_economists" title="List of Austrian-school economists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Block" title="Walter Block">Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Boettke" title="Peter Boettke">Boettke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_DiLorenzo" title="Thomas DiLorenzo">DiLorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fetter" title="Frank Fetter">Fetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Garrison" title="Roger Garrison">Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Haberler" title="Gottfried Haberler">Haberler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hazlitt" title="Henry Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Heydel" title="Adam Heydel">Heydel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Higgs" title="Robert Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Horwitz" title="Steven Horwitz">Horwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Guido_H%C3%BClsmann" title="Jörg Guido Hülsmann">Hülsmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Huerta_de_Soto" title="Jesús Huerta de Soto">Huerta de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Kirzner" title="Israel Kirzner">Kirzner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Lachmann" title="Ludwig Lachmann">Lachmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Lavoie" title="Don Lavoie">Lavoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Leeson" title="Peter Leeson">Leeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Machlup" title="Fritz Machlup">Machlup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Morgenstern" title="Oskar Morgenstern">Morgenstern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Murphy" title="Robert P. Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Peterson" title="William H. Peterson">Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_T._Salerno" title="Joseph T. Salerno">Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Skousen" title="Mark Skousen">Skousen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Ritter_von_Strigl" title="Richard Ritter von Strigl">Strigl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">Wieser</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e6e6ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Variants and related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectives on capitalism">Perspectives on capitalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Austrian_School_sidebar" title="Template:Austrian School sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Austrian_School_sidebar" title="Template talk:Austrian School sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Austrian_School_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Austrian School sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> argued that central planning was inefficient because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers and workers with existing conditions. Hayek further argued that <a href="/wiki/Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">central economic planning</a>—a mainstay of socialism—would lead to a "total" state with dangerous power. He advocated <a href="/wiki/Free-market" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market">free-market</a> capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and let <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">spontaneous order</a> develop. </p><p>An economist of the Austrian School, <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a> was the central theorist of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">anarcho-capitalism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christian_democracy">Christian democracy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Christian democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #fa7406; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_democracy" title="Category:Christian democracy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orange_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/75px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/113px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/150px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_corporatism" title="Christian corporatism">Christian corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consistent_life_ethic" title="Consistent life ethic">Consistent life ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mandate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural mandate">Cultural mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignity of labor">Dignity of labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_dignity" class="mw-redirect" title="Human dignity">Human dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Calvinism" title="Neo-Calvinism">Neo-Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Thomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Thomism">Neo-Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person_Dignity_Theory" title="Person Dignity Theory">Person Dignity Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popolarismo" title="Popolarismo">Popularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious liberty">Religious liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Friendly_and_hostile_separation" title="Separation of church and state">Friendly separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Religious pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_sovereignty" title="Sphere sovereignty">Sphere sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity_(Catholicism)" title="Subsidiarity (Catholicism)">in Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">State</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Arizmendiarrieta" title="José María Arizmendiarrieta">Arizmendiarrieta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_von_Baader" title="Franz Xaver von Baader">Baader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eivind_Berggrav" title="Eivind Berggrav">Berggrav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Dooyeweerd" title="Herman Dooyeweerd">Dooyeweerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Gebhardt" title="Stanisław Gebhardt">Gebhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_G%C3%B6rres" title="Joseph Görres">Görres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Groen_van_Prinsterer" title="Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning" title="Oswald von Nell-Breuning">Nell-Breuning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Pesch" title="Heinrich Pesch">Pesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pius XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Tischner" title="Józef Tischner">Tischner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowan_Williams" title="Rowan Williams">Williams</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Beel" title="Louis Beel">Beel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Buzek" title="Jerzy Buzek">Buzek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Caldera" title="Rafael Caldera">Caldera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Erhard" title="Ludwig Erhard">Erhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Frei_Montalva" title="Eduardo Frei Montalva">Frei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Groen_van_Prinsterer" title="Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Joseph" title="Keith Joseph">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Kurz" title="Sebastian Kurz">Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuyper" title="Abraham Kuyper">Kuyper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Letta" title="Enrico Letta">Letta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Martens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Mazowiecki" title="Tadeusz Mazowiecki">Mazowiecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Metsola" title="Roberta Metsola">Metsola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Miko%C5%82ajczyk" title="Stanisław Mikołajczyk">Mikołajczyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros" title="Jânio Quadros">Quadros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Pastrana_Arango" title="Andrés Pastrana Arango">Pastrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewi_Pethrus" title="Lewi Pethrus">Pethrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Gert_P%C3%B6ttering" title="Hans-Gert Pöttering">Pöttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markus_S%C3%B6der" title="Markus Söder">Söder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tindemans" title="Leo Tindemans">Tindemans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen" title="Ursula von der Leyen">von der Leyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Weber" title="Manfred Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Windthorst" title="Ludwig Windthorst">Windthorst</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Solidarity_Party" title="American Solidarity Party">American Solidarity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party" title="Austrian People's Party">Austrian People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Appeal" title="Christian Democratic Appeal">Christian Democratic Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_and_Flemish" title="Christian Democratic and Flemish">Christian Democratic and Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian-Democratic_Rebirth_Party" title="Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party">Christian Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_(Hungary)" title="Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)">Christian Democratic People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party" title="Christian Social People's Party">Christian Social People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union in Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Platform" title="Civic Platform">Civic Platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union" title="Croatian Democratic Union">Croatian Democratic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Rally" title="Democratic Rally">Democratic Rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)" title="National Action Party (Mexico)">National Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Uruguay)" title="National Party (Uruguay)">National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Malta)" title="Nationalist Party (Malta)">Nationalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy_(Greece)" title="New Democracy (Greece)">New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Union_(Liechtenstein)" title="Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein)">Patriotic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Spain)" title="People's Party (Spain)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party" title="Polish People's Party">Polish People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Republican_Movement" title="Popular Republican Movement">Popular Republican Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMRO-DPMNE" title="VMRO-DPMNE">VMRO-DPMNE</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_democratic_parties" title="List of Christian democratic parties">More</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Action" title="Catholic Action">Catholic Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Democrat_International" title="Centrist Democrat International">Centrist Democrat International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democrat_Organization_of_America" title="Christian Democrat Organization of America">Christian Democrat Organization of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Christian_Political_Movement" title="European Christian Political Movement">European Christian Political Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Foundation" title="Konrad Adenauer Foundation">Konrad Adenauer Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Christian_Fellowship" title="Conservative Christian Fellowship">Conservative Christian Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens_Centre_for_European_Studies" title="Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies">Centre for European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Ideas_Network" title="European Ideas Network">European Ideas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman_Foundation_(European_People%27s_Party)" title="Robert Schuman Foundation (European People's Party)">Schuman Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Justice" title="Center for Public Justice">Center for Public Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paneuropean_Union" title="Paneuropean Union">Paneuropean Union</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Documents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Populorum_progressio" title="Populorum progressio">Populorum progressio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graves_de_communi_re" title="Graves de communi re">Graves de communi re</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quadragesimo_anno" title="Quadragesimo anno">Quadragesimo anno</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laborem_exercens" title="Laborem exercens">Laborem exercens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sollicitudo_rei_socialis" title="Sollicitudo rei socialis">Sollicitudo rei socialis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Centesimus_annus" title="Centesimus annus">Centesimus annus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" title="Catholic Church and politics">Catholic Church and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Christian left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_communism" title="Christian communism">Christian communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_libertarianism" title="Christian libertarianism">Christian libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoconservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoconservatism">Theoconservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clerical_philosophers" title="Clerical philosophers">Clerical philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_democracy" title="Religious democracy">Religious democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Mormon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #fa7406; border-bottom:1px solid #fa7406; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li></ul> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Template:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Christian democracy is a <a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">centre-right</a> ideology inspired by <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics#Politics" title="Christian ethics">Christian social teaching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It originated as a reaction against the industrialisation and urbanisation associated with <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i> capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Jacques Maritain</a> has been recognized as the leading Christian-democratic philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key ideas in Christian-democratic thought include <a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">personalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Popolarismo" title="Popolarismo">popularism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity_(Catholicism)" title="Subsidiarity (Catholicism)">subsidiarity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">stewardship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_and_Flemish" title="Christian Democratic and Flemish">Christian People's Party</a> in Belgium, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">CDU</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">CSU</a> in Germany, <a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a> in Ireland, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democracy</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as a moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Communitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #008080; background:var( --background-color-base, #008080); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">the Politics series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_particularism" title="Political particularism">Political particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive rights">Positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Barber" title="Benjamin Barber">Barber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gad_Barzilai" title="Gad Barzilai">Barzilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Bellah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyla_Benhabib" title="Seyla Benhabib">Seyla Benhabib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_Blond" title="Phillip Blond">Blond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amitai_Etzioni" title="Amitai Etzioni">Etzioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Galston" title="William Galston">Galston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hauerwas" title="Stanley Hauerwas">Hauerwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bethke_Elshtain" title="Jean Bethke Elshtain">Jean Bethke Elshtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Kuczewski" title="Mark Kuczewski">Kuczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Marglin" title="Stephen Marglin">Marglin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_P%C3%A9rez_Ad%C3%A1n" title="José Pérez Adán">Adán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costanzo_Preve" title="Costanzo Preve">Preve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Putnam" title="Robert D. Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align: center;"> <span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Template:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communitarianism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communitarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective. These and other communitarians (such as <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Bell" title="Daniel A. Bell">Daniel A. Bell</a>) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservatism">Conservatism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Conservatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism" title="Category:Conservatism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Blue" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/75px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/113px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/150px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_conservatism" title="Authoritarian conservatism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_corporatism" title="Conservative corporatism">Corporatist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalistic_conservatism" title="Paternalistic conservatism">Paternalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_conservatism" title="Pragmatic conservatism">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious conservatism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraconservatism" title="Ultraconservatism">Ultra</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Ancestral worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">Collective identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)#Cultural_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements" title="Anti-abortion movements">Pro-Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Ethical order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a state model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">Gender roles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternalism" title="Maternalism">Maternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism#Politics" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Norms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organised_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Organised religion">Organised religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Social institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_More" title="Hannah More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski" title="Adam Jerzy Czartoryski">Czartoryski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Ranke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Nordau" title="Max Nordau">Nordau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Iorga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Jabotinsky" title="Ze'ev Jabotinsky">Jabotinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ilyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Savarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilberto_Freyre" title="Gilberto Freyre">Freyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Lefebvre" title="Marcel Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Gómez Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Koselleck" title="Reinhart Koselleck">Koselleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukio_Mishima" title="Yukio Mishima">Mishima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">Pitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">De Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Dollfuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Pinochet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Reza Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq">Zia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee" title="Atal Bihari Vajpayee">Vajpayee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Fujimori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Jarosław Kaczyński">Kaczyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_conservatism" title="Jewish conservatism">Jewish conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultramontanism" title="Ultramontanism">Ultramontanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist School</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Personal variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayib_Bukele#Political_views" title="Nayib Bukele">Bukelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fanism" title="Erdoğanism">Erdoğanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoism">Francoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujimorism" title="Fujimorism">Fujimorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Janismo" title="Janismo">Janismo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme" title="Maurrassisme">Maurrassisme</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mellismo" title="Mellismo">Mellismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxism" title="Metaxism">Metaxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinochetism" title="Pinochetism">Pinochetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkozysm" title="Sarkozysm">Sarkozysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziaism" title="Ziaism">Ziaism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Austria" title="Conservatism">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Bangladesh" title="Conservatism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Belgium" title="Conservatism">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Belize" title="Conservatism in North America">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Brazil" title="Conservatism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Canada" title="Conservatism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Chile" title="Conservatism">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#China" title="Conservatism">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservatism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Colombia" title="Conservatism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Cuba" title="Conservatism in North America">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Denmark" title="Conservatism">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Finland" title="Conservatism">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Greece" title="Conservatism">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Guatemala" title="Conservatism in North America">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Hungary" title="Conservatism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iceland" title="Conservatism">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_India" title="Conservatism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iran" title="Conservatism">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Israel" title="Conservatism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Italy" title="Conservatism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Japan" title="Conservatism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Luxembourg" title="Conservatism">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Malaysia" title="Conservatism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Mexico" title="Conservatism in North America">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Netherlands" title="Conservatism">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_conservatism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic conservatism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Norway" title="Conservatism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Pakistan" title="Conservatism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Panama" title="Conservatism in North America">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Peru" title="Conservatism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Poland" title="Conservatism">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Serbia" title="Conservatism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Singapore" title="Conservatism">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Sweden" title="Conservatism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Switzerland" title="Conservatism">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_South_Korea" title="Conservatism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Turkey" title="Conservatism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Ukraine" title="Conservatism">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_fascism" title="Clerical fascism">Clerical fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-bottom:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="White Terror (disambiguation)">White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-immigration" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-immigration">Anti-immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Black conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_wave" title="Conservative wave">Conservative wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Hispanic conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">in United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism">LGBT conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para-fascism" title="Para-fascism">Para-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchalism" title="Patriarchalism">Patriarchalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Radical right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarianism" title="Right-wing authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-c_conservative" title="Small-c conservative">Small-c conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toryism" class="mw-redirect" title="Toryism">Toryism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #36c; border-bottom:1px solid #36c; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Template:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An Irish member of the British parliament, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, although he supported the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An exponent of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">liberal conservatism</a>, French sociologist <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> is known for his works <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Old_Regime_and_the_Revolution" title="The Old Regime and the Revolution">The Old Regime and the Revolution</a></i>. </p><p>A German political theorist of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolution" title="Conservative Revolution">Conservative Revolution</a> movement, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a> developed the concepts of the friend/enemy distinction, the <a href="/wiki/State_of_exception" title="State of exception">state of exception</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">political theology</a>. Though his most influential books were written in the 1920s, he continued to write prolifically until his death (in academic quasi-exile) in 1985. He heavily influenced 20th-century political philosophy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a> famously rejected modernity, mostly on the grounds of what he perceived to be modern political philosophy's excessive self-sufficiency of reason and flawed philosophical grounds for moral and political normativity. He argued instead that we should return to pre-modern thinkers for answers to contemporary issues. His philosophy was influential on the formation of <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">neoconservatism</a>, and a number of his students later were members of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">Bush administration</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Intersectionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> were important issues that arose during the 1950s and 1960s. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_social_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT social movements">LGBT social movements</a> and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial">postcolonial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multicultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicultural">multicultural</a> thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> by philosophers <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Charles W. Mills</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Racial_Contract" title="The Racial Contract">The Racial Contract</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Carole Pateman</a> in her book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sexual_Contract" title="The Sexual Contract">The Sexual Contract</a></i> that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> critiqued the modern conception of power on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Prison%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Prison–industrial complex">prison complex</a> and other prohibitive institutions, such as those that designate sexuality, madness and knowledge as the roots of their infrastructure—a critique that demonstrated that subjection is the power formation of subjects in any linguistic forum and that revolution cannot just be thought as the reversal of power between classes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marxism">Marxism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Marxism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Marxism" title="Category:Marxism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marx_Engels_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels"><img alt="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/75px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/113px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/150px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_bibliography" title="Marxist bibliography">Theoretical works</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophic_Manuscripts_of_1844" title="Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_German_Ideology" title="The German Ideology">The German Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eighteenth_Brumaire_of_Louis_Bonaparte" title="The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte">The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Programme" title="Critique of the Gotha Programme">Critique of the Gotha Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Nature" title="Dialectics of Nature">Dialectics of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F" title="What Is to Be Done?">What Is to Be Done?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Notebooks" title="Philosophical Notebooks">Philosophical Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism" title="Terrorism and Communism">Terrorism and Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_State_and_Revolution" title="The State and Revolution">The State and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essays_on_Marx%27s_Theory_of_Value" title="Essays on Marx's Theory of Value">Essays on Marx's Theory of Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Notebooks" title="Prison Notebooks">Prison Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins" title="The Black Jacobins">The Black Jacobins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theses_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Theses on the Philosophy of History">Theses on the Philosophy of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Long_Revolution" title="The Long Revolution">The Long Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_Warfare_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla Warfare (book)">Guerrilla Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_Capital" title="Reading Capital">Reading Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed" title="Pedagogy of the Oppressed">Pedagogy of the Oppressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_and_Ideological_State_Apparatuses" title="Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses">Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_Europe_Underdeveloped_Africa" title="How Europe Underdeveloped Africa">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Justice_and_the_City" title="Social Justice and the City">Social Justice and the City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women,_Race_and_Class" title="Women, Race and Class">Women, Race and Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_Oppression_of_Women" title="Marxism and the Oppression of Women">Marxism and the Oppression of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_Communities" title="Imagined Communities">Imagined Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_and_Socialist_Strategy" title="Hegemony and Socialist Strategy">Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sublime_Object_of_Ideology" title="The Sublime Object of Ideology">The Sublime Object of Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time,_Labor_and_Social_Domination" title="Time, Labor and Social Domination">Time, Labor and Social Domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Extremes" title="The Age of Extremes">The Age of Extremes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Capitalism" title="The Origin of Capitalism">The Origin of Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_(Hardt_and_Negri_book)" title="Empire (Hardt and Negri book)">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Victorian_Holocausts" title="Late Victorian Holocausts">Late Victorian Holocausts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_the_World_Without_Taking_Power" title="Change the World Without Taking Power">Change the World Without Taking Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliban_and_the_Witch" title="Caliban and the Witch">Caliban and the Witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Three_Volumes_of_Karl_Marx%27s_Capital" title="An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital">An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_Realism" title="Capitalist Realism">Capitalist Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_in_the_Anthropocene" title="Capital in the Anthropocene">Capital in the Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towards_Socialism_or_Capitalism%3F" title="Towards Socialism or Capitalism?">Towards Socialism or Capitalism?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_Betrayed" title="The Revolution Betrayed">The Revolution Betrayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_and_Revolution" title="Literature and Revolution">Literature and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Struggle_Against_Fascism_in_Germany" title="The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany">The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Their_Morals_and_Ours:_The_class_foundations_of_moral_practice" title="Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice">Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">Alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">Dialectical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology#Marxist_interpretation" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist philosophy of nature">Philosophy of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Philosophy in the Soviet Union">Philosophy in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Marxist ethics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(Marxism)" title="Capital (Marxism)">Capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">accumulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Concrete and abstract labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production#Marxism" title="Factors of production">Factors of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall" title="Tendency of the rate of profit to fall">Falling profit-rate tendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">Means of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">Mode of production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">Socialist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productive_forces" title="Productive forces">Productive forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">Surplus product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">Base and superstructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie#Marxist_theory" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_consciousness" title="Class consciousness">Class consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">Commodity fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">Communist society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism" title="Democracy in Marxism">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">Dictatorship of the proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_democracy" title="Radical democracy">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour#Marxist_theory" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">False consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_human_nature" title="Marx's theory of human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immiseration_thesis" title="Immiseration thesis">Immiseration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_imperialism#Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rift" title="Metabolic rift">Metabolic rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">Relations of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_the_state" title="Marx's theory of the state">State theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working class</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_historical_trajectory" title="Theory of historical trajectory">Theory of historical trajectory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Aspects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_archaeology" title="Marxist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_cultural_analysis" title="Marxist cultural analysis">Cultural analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_film_theory" title="Marxist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism" title="Marxist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_religion" title="Marxism and religion">Marxism and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Common variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Structural_Marxism" title="Structural Marxism">Structural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_school" title="Regulation school">Regulation school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism%E2%80%93Third_Worldism" title="Maoism–Third Worldism">Third-worldist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness#Summary" title="History and Class Consciousness">Hegelian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_humanism" title="Marxist humanism">Humanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Marx-Lekt%C3%BCre" title="Neue Marx-Lektüre">Neue Marx-Lektüre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Marxism" title="Open Marxism">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Marxism" title="Political Marxism">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxis_School" title="Praxis School">Praxis School</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Both</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Marxism" title="Classical Marxism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_schools_of_thought" title="Marxist schools of thought">Other variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austromarxism" title="Austromarxism">Austromarxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Marxism" title="Centrist Marxism">Centrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_Marxism" title="Instrumental Marxism">Instrumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Situationist">Situationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_Marxist_theory" title="List of contributors to Marxist theory">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaak_Illich_Rubin" title="Isaak Illich Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Kollontai" title="Alexandra Kollontai">Kollontai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Bogdanov</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Grossman" title="Henryk Grossman">Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Zinoviev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bloch" title="Ernst Bloch">Bloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Korsch" title="Karl Korsch">Korsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Bukharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Serge" title="Victor Serge">Serge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirsaid_Sultan-Galiev" title="Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev">Galiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Bordiga" title="Amadeo Bordiga">Bordiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyoti_Basu" title="Jyoti Basu">Basu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Carlos_Mari%C3%A1tegui" title="José Carlos Mariátegui">Mariátegui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._Palme_Dutt" title="R. Palme Dutt">Dutt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cox" title="Oliver Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Deutscher" title="Isaac Deutscher">Deutscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Hoxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghiri_Emmanuel" title="Arghiri Emmanuel">Emmanuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hill_(historian)" title="Christopher Hill (historian)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_Draper" title="Hal Draper">Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Jones" title="Claudia Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Hobsbawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">Hinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Mandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambalavaner_Sivanandan" title="Ambalavaner Sivanandan">Sivanandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Miliband" title="Ralph Miliband">Miliband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Kos%C3%ADk" title="Karel Kosík">Kosik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Liebman" title="Marcel Liebman">Liebman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Heller" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnes Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_(philosopher)" title="István Mészáros (philosopher)">Mészáros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Connor_(academic)" title="James O'Connor (academic)">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mies" title="Maria Mies">Mies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Tronti" title="Mario Tronti">Tronti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Nairn" title="Tom Nairn">Nairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abimael_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Abimael Guzmán">Gonzalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrique_Dussel" title="Enrique Dussel">Dussel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bahro" title="Rudolf Bahro">Bahro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicos_Poulantzas" title="Nicos Poulantzas">Poulantzas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianni_Vattimo" title="Gianni Vattimo">Vattimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marta_Harnecker" title="Marta Harnecker">Harnecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Altvater" title="Elmar Altvater">Altvater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Anderson" title="Perry Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B6wy" title="Michael Löwy">Löwy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Vogel" title="Lise Vogel">Vogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jose_Maria_Sison" title="Jose Maria Sison">Sison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Easthope" title="Antony Easthope">Easthope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Berman" title="Marshall Berman">Berman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Przeworski" title="Adam Przeworski">Przeworski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Therborn" title="Göran Therborn">Therborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Losurdo" title="Domenico Losurdo">Losurdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Ture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himani_Bannerji" title="Himani Bannerji">Bannerji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Spivak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Sakai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvia_Federici" title="Silvia Federici">Federici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Balibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kurz" title="Robert Kurz">Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Hartsock" title="Nancy Hartsock">Hartsock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheila_Rowbotham" title="Sheila Rowbotham">Rowbotham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Geras" title="Norman Geras">Geras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doreen_Massey_(geographer)" title="Doreen Massey (geographer)">Massey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Cleaver" title="Harry Cleaver">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bishop" title="Maurice Bishop">Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Haraway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Panitch" title="Leo Panitch">Panitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Clarke_(sociologist)" title="Simon Clarke (sociologist)">Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Jessop" title="Bob Jessop">Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Burawoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Holloway_(sociologist)" title="John Holloway (sociologist)">Holloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Rose" title="Gillian Rose">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Screpanti" title="Ernesto Screpanti">Screpanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_Mikl%C3%B3s_Tam%C3%A1s" title="Gáspár Miklós Tamás">Tamás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Cano" title="Alfonso Cano">Cano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Berardi" title="Franco Berardi">Berardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Hennessy" title="Rosemary Hennessy">Hennessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costas_Douzinas" title="Costas Douzinas">Douzinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Roediger" title="David Roediger">Roediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bellamy_Foster" title="John Bellamy Foster">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuradha_Ghandy" title="Anuradha Ghandy">Ghandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcomandante_Marcos" title="Subcomandante Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heinrich" title="Michael Heinrich">Heinrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijay_Prashad" title="Vijay Prashad">Prashad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Kelley" title="Robin Kelley">Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Lordon" title="Frédéric Lordon">Lordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Garc%C3%ADa_Linera" title="Álvaro García Linera">Linera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Minqi" title="Li Minqi">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glen_Coulthard" title="Glen Coulthard">Coulthard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Malm" title="Andreas Malm">Malm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Seymour_(21st-century_writer)" title="Richard Seymour (21st-century writer)">Seymour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Toscano" title="Alberto Toscano">Toscano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithi_Bhattacharya" title="Tithi Bhattacharya">Bhattacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Moufawad-Paul" title="J. 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title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s critique of capitalism—developed with <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>—was, alongside <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, one of the defining ideological movements of the twentieth century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> produced a parallel revolution in political thought. <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Socialism">socialist movement</a> began to form. In the mid-19th century, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> was developed, and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century, namely <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>. Though <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>'s philosophy of history is similar to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Unlike Marx who believed in <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, Hegel believed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>—and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries—brought <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, in particular the political theory of <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a> but also on a smaller level <a href="/wiki/Luxemburgism" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxemburgism">Luxemburgism</a>, on the world stage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> instigated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>, arguing that the state and the ruling class use <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> to gain the consent of the classes they rule over. </p><p>Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. One of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a> developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Class_consciousness" title="Class consciousness">class consciousness</a> and introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">reification</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i>. Out of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Called the father of the <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>, Marcuse introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Repressive_desublimation" title="Repressive desublimation">repressive desublimation</a>, in which social control can operate not only by direct control but also by manipulation of desire. Habermas pioneered such concepts as the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communicative_action" title="Communicative action">communicative action</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberative democracy</a>. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> and on a "return to <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lefort" title="Claude Lefort">Claude Lefort</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationists</a> were more influenced by Hegel; <a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a>, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of <a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">commodity fetishism</a> to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Objectivism">Objectivism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Objectivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> was the founder of Objectivism and a prime mover of the libertarian movement in mid-twentieth-century America. Advocating a complete, <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> capitalism, Rand held that the proper role of government was exclusively the protection of individual rights without economic interference. The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion. Any governmental action not directed at the defense of individual rights would constitute the initiation of force (or threat of force), and therefore a violation not only of rights but also of the legitimate function of government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Republicanism">Republicanism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Republicanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the <a href="/wiki/Capability_approach" title="Capability approach">capability approach</a>. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternative definition of liberty from <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>'s positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the American liberal movement which understands liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of any other person. To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Quentin Skinner</a>, jurist <a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a>, and political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Philip Pettit</a>. The capability approach, pioneered by economists <a href="/wiki/Mahbub_ul_Haq" title="Mahbub ul Haq">Mahbub ul Haq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> and further developed by legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_liberalism">Social liberalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Social liberalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></div> <p>In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>'s 1974 book <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i>, which won a <a href="/wiki/National_Book_Award" title="National Book Award">National Book Award</a>, criticized the social liberalism of Rawls from a <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> perspective, gaining much academic respectability.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traditionalism">Traditionalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Traditionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(perennialism)" title="Traditionalism (perennialism)">Traditionalism (perennialism)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a> called for a return to pre-Renaissance values of <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> while discussing possible ways to survive the inevitable collapse of the modern civilization and to bring forth a new order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Political ideologies">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_journalism" title="Political journalism">Political journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strauss, Leo (1959). An introduction to Political Philosophy. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDryzekHonigPhillips2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dryzek, John S.; Honig, Bonnie; Phillips, Anne, eds. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Chanakya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FKautilya%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoesche2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Boesche" title="Roger Boesche">Boesche, Roger</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K85NA7Rg67wC&pg=PP1"><i>The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0401-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0401-9"><bdi>978-0-7391-0401-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Great+Political+Realist%3A+Kautilya+and+His+Arthashastra&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-0401-9&rft.aulast=Boesche&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK85NA7Rg67wC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRangarajan2000" class="citation book cs1">Rangarajan, L N (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC&pg=PT22"><i>The Arthashastra</i></a>. Penguin UK. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788184750119" title="Special:BookSources/9788184750119"><bdi>9788184750119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arthashastra&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9788184750119&rft.aulast=Rangarajan&rft.aufirst=L+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3jbzZkoR36QC%26pg%3DPT22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1982" class="citation book cs1">Brown, D. Mackenzie (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JZzXv2JOZUMC&q=sukraniti&pg=PP1"><i>The White Umbrella: Indian Political Thought from Manu to Gandhi</i></a>. Greenwood Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313232107" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313232107"><bdi>978-0313232107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Umbrella%3A+Indian+Political+Thought+from+Manu+to+Gandhi&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0313232107&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=D.+Mackenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZzXv2JOZUMC%26q%3Dsukraniti%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSankhdherKaur2005" class="citation book cs1">Sankhdher, Madan Mohan; Kaur, Gurdeep (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=veYezcrVAlcC&q=sukra%20neeti&pg=PR4"><i>Politics in India: Ancient India, Politics of Change, Modern India</i></a>. Deep and Deep Publications. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788176296557" title="Special:BookSources/9788176296557"><bdi>9788176296557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+in+India%3A+Ancient+India%2C+Politics+of+Change%2C+Modern+India&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Deep+and+Deep+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9788176296557&rft.aulast=Sankhdher&rft.aufirst=Madan+Mohan&rft.au=Kaur%2C+Gurdeep&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DveYezcrVAlcC%26q%3Dsukra%2520neeti%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManu_((Lawgiver))Kullūkabhaṭṭa1796" class="citation book cs1">Manu ((Lawgiver)); Kullūkabhaṭṭa (1796). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4caNTgBa6oEC"><i>Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Menu, According to the Gloss of Cullúca</i></a>. Calcutta, Printed by order of the government, London reprinted, for J. Sewell and J. 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(ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mencius&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2019&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Van+Norden&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2019%2Fentries%2Fmencius%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutschBontekoei1999" class="citation book cs1">Deutsch, Eliot; Bontekoei, Ronald (1999). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoworld00deut_616"><i>A companion to world philosophies</i></a></span>. Wiley Blackwell. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoworld00deut_616/page/n205">183</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631213277" title="Special:BookSources/9780631213277"><bdi>9780631213277</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+world+philosophies&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780631213277&rft.aulast=Deutsch&rft.aufirst=Eliot&rft.au=Bontekoei%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompaniontoworld00deut_616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsü2005" class="citation book cs1">Hsü, Leonard Shihlien (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FWFtQIyun-8C"><i>The political philosophy of Confucianism</i></a>. Routledge. pp. xvii–xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36154-5"><bdi>978-0-415-36154-5</bdi></a>. <q>The importance of a scientific study of Confucian political philosophy could hardly be overstated.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+philosophy+of+Confucianism&rft.pages=xvii-xx&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-36154-5&rft.aulast=Hs%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Leonard+Shihlien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFWFtQIyun-8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sahakian_1993_59-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sahakian_1993_59_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahakian1993" class="citation book cs1">Sahakian, Mabel Lewis (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi7cQMw8SwYC&pg=PA59"><i>Ideas of the great philosophers</i></a>. Barnes & Noble Publishing. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-271-2"><bdi>978-1-56619-271-2</bdi></a>. <q>... Western philosophical tradition can be traced back as early as Plato (427–347 BC).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideas+of+the+great+philosophers&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble+Publishing&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-56619-271-2&rft.aulast=Sahakian&rft.aufirst=Mabel+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVi7cQMw8SwYC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraut2002" class="citation book cs1">Kraut, Richard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9BDmX3FBbS4C&pg=PA3"><i>Aristotle: political philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878200-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878200-1"><bdi>978-0-19-878200-1</bdi></a>. <q>To understand and assess Aristotle's contributions to political thought ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+political+philosophy&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-878200-1&rft.aulast=Kraut&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9BDmX3FBbS4C%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShields2020" class="citation cs2">Shields, Christopher (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/aristotle/">"Aristotle"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Shields&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2020%2Fentries%2Faristotle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadford2002" class="citation book cs1">Radford, Robert T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1cKLGcvuYxQC&pg=PA1"><i>Cicero: a study in the origins of republican philosophy</i></a>. Rodopi. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1467-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1467-1"><bdi>978-90-420-1467-1</bdi></a>. <q>His most lasting political contribution is in his work on political philosophy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+a+study+in+the+origins+of+republican+philosophy&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-420-1467-1&rft.aulast=Radford&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1cKLGcvuYxQC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoetsier2004" class="citation book cs1">Koetsier, L.S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7uLE3DynB0YC&pg=PA19"><i>Natural Law and Calvinist Political Theory</i></a>. Trafford Publishing. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-1440-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4122-1440-7"><bdi>978-1-4122-1440-7</bdi></a>. <q>...the Medieval Scholastics revived the concept of natural law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Law+and+Calvinist+Political+Theory&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4122-1440-7&rft.aulast=Koetsier&rft.aufirst=L.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7uLE3DynB0YC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopleston1999" class="citation book cs1">Copleston, Frederick (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y_382o-fpOsC&pg=PA346"><i>A history of philosophy</i></a>. Vol. 3. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86012-296-8"><bdi>978-0-86012-296-8</bdi></a>. <q>There was, however, at least one department of thought ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+philosophy&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-86012-296-8&rft.aulast=Copleston&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy_382o-fpOsC%26pg%3DPA346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValente2003" class="citation book cs1">Valente, Claire (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B8yRrtm0LicC&pg=PA14"><i>The theory and practice of revolt in medieval England</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0901-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0901-8"><bdi>978-0-7546-0901-8</bdi></a>. <q>The two starting points of most medieval discussions ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+theory+and+practice+of+revolt+in+medieval+England&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0901-8&rft.aulast=Valente&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB8yRrtm0LicC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchall1998" class="citation book cs1">Schall, James V. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yZK79kiFFtsC&pg=PA40"><i>At the Limits of Political Philosophy</i></a>. CUA Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0922-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0922-7"><bdi>978-0-8132-0922-7</bdi></a>. <q>In political philosophy, St. Augustine was a follower of Plato ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+the+Limits+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-0922-7&rft.aulast=Schall&rft.aufirst=James+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyZK79kiFFtsC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcInernyO'Callaghan2018" class="citation cs2">McInerny, Ralph; O'Callaghan, John (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/aquinas/">"Saint Thomas Aquinas"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saint+Thomas+Aquinas&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2018&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=McInerny&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft.au=O%27Callaghan%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2018%2Fentries%2Faquinas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAslan2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Reza_Aslan" title="Reza Aslan">Aslan, Reza</a> (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nogodbutgodorigi00asla"><i>No god but God</i></a></span>. Random House Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nogodbutgodorigi00asla/page/153">153</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-445-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-445-6"><bdi>978-1-58836-445-6</bdi></a>. <q>By the ninth and tenth centuries...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+god+but+God&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Random+House+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58836-445-6&rft.aulast=Aslan&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnogodbutgodorigi00asla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Farabi">"Al-Fārābī | Muslim philosopher"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-F%C4%81r%C4%81b%C4%AB+%7C+Muslim+philosopher&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2Fal-Farabi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H5">"Avicenna (Ibn Sina) | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&rft.atitle=Avicenna+%28Ibn+Sina%29+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Favicenna%2F%23H5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Ghazali">"Al-Ghazālī | Muslim jurist, theologian, and mystic"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB+%7C+Muslim+jurist%2C+theologian%2C+and+mystic&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2Fal-Ghazali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nizam-al-Mulk-Seljuq-vizier">"Niẓām al-Mulk | Seljuq vizier"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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St. Martin's Press. pp. 131–133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312164188" title="Special:BookSources/9780312164188"><bdi>9780312164188</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservative+Politics+in+Western+Europe&rft.pages=131-133&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780312164188&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconservativepoli0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanley1994" class="citation book cs1">Hanley, David, ed. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christiandemocra0000unse_p1x7/mode/2up"><i>Christian Democracy in Europe : A Comparative Perspective</i></a>. Pinter Publishers. pp. 56–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781855670860" title="Special:BookSources/9781855670860"><bdi>9781855670860</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Democracy+in+Europe+%3A+A+Comparative+Perspective&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Pinter+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781855670860&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristiandemocra0000unse_p1x7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://great.w3q2u1fy-liquidwebsites.com/burke/">"A Guide to Edmund Burke's Political Thought"</a>. <i>Edmund Burke</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Edmund+Burke&rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+Edmund+Burke%27s+Political+Thought&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgreat.w3q2u1fy-liquidwebsites.com%2Fburke%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKain1993" class="citation book cs1">Kain, Philip J. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvG8DVBeT9QC&pg=PA1"><i>Marx and modern political theory</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7866-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-7866-2"><bdi>978-0-8476-7866-2</bdi></a>. <q>Some of his texts, especially the <i>Communist Manifesto</i> made him seem like a sort of communist Descartes ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marx+and+modern+political+theory&rft.pages=1-4&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-7866-2&rft.aulast=Kain&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkvG8DVBeT9QC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernissHardy2020" class="citation cs2">Cherniss, Joshua; Hardy, Henry (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/berlin/">"Isaiah Berlin"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Isaiah+Berlin&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Cherniss&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft.au=Hardy%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2020%2Fentries%2Fberlin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Lewis Schaefer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nysun.com/sports/reconsiderations-robert-nozick-and-coast-utopia">Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Sun" title="The New York Sun">The New York Sun</a>, 30 April 2008.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Academic journals dedicated to political philosophy include: <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_Public_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy and Public Affairs">Philosophy and Public Affairs</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Political_Theory" title="Contemporary Political Theory">Contemporary Political Theory</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Constellations_(journal)" title="Constellations (journal)">Constellations</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Political_Philosophy" title="The Journal of Political Philosophy">The Journal of Political Philosophy</a></i> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolff2006" class="citation book cs1">Wolff, Jonathan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FVOcAQAAQBAJ"><i>An Introduction to Political Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199296095" title="Special:BookSources/9780199296095"><bdi>9780199296095</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Political+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780199296095&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFVOcAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2003" class="citation book cs1">Miller, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qziSqDr67MC"><i>Political Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192803955" title="Special:BookSources/9780192803955"><bdi>9780192803955</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Philosophy%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780192803955&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5qziSqDr67MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss2012" class="citation book cs1">Strauss, Leo (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E7mScxst9UoC"><i>History of Political Philosophy</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226924717" title="Special:BookSources/9780226924717"><bdi>9780226924717</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780226924717&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE7mScxst9UoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKymlicka2002" class="citation book cs1">Kymlicka, Will (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yYCcAQAAQBAJ"><i>Contemporary Political Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198782742" title="Special:BookSources/9780198782742"><bdi>9780198782742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Political+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780198782742&rft.aulast=Kymlicka&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyYCcAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawls2009" class="citation book cs1">Rawls, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yKclZky1oUkC"><i>Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674042568" title="Special:BookSources/9780674042568"><bdi>9780674042568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+History+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674042568&rft.aulast=Rawls&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyKclZky1oUkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" 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