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id="toc-Empiricism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Political philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Idealism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Existentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenomenology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenomenology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Phenomenology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenomenology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pragmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Pragmatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Analytic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Asian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Asian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern Asian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Asian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Modern philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%98%E1%88%98%E1%8A%93%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="ዘመናዊ ፍልስፍና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዘመናዊ ፍልስፍና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="فلسفة حديثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة حديثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCasir_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Müasir fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müasir fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="আধুনিক দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আধুনিক দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%A3%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Яңы дәүер фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Яңы дәүер фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Модерна философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Модерна философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_filozofija" title="Moderna filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Moderna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_moderna" title="Filosofia moderna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia moderna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novov%C4%9Bk%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Novověká filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Novověká filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_der_Neuzeit" title="Philosophie der Neuzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie der Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusaja_filosoofia" title="Uusaja filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uusaja filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Φιλοσοφία των Νεότερων Χρόνων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλοσοφία των Νεότερων Χρόνων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_moderna" title="Filosofía moderna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía moderna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_filozofio" title="Moderna filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Moderna filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_moderno" title="Filosofia moderno – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia moderno" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%AC%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="فلسفه جدید – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه جدید" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_moderne" title="Philosophie moderne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie moderne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_moderna" title="Filosofía moderna – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía moderna" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EB%8C%80%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="근대철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="근대철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նոր ժամանակների փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նոր ժամանակների փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="आधुनिक दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आधुनिक दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_filozofija" title="Moderna filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Moderna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_modern" title="Filsafat modern – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat modern" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_moderna" title="Filosofia moderna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia moderna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%83%D1%96%D1%80_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жаңа дәуір философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жаңа дәуір философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_recens" title="Philosophia recens – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia recens" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Модерна филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Модерна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne_filosofie" title="Moderne filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Moderne filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%B8%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="近世哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="近世哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne_filosofi" title="Moderne filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Moderne filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="معاصره فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="معاصره فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_nowo%C5%BCytna" title="Filozofia nowożytna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia nowożytna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_moderna" title="Filosofia moderna – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia moderna" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_modern%C4%83" title="Filosofie modernă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie modernă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Философия Нового времени – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия Нового времени" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novovek%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Novoveká filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Novoveká filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodobna_filozofija" title="Sodobna filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sodobna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Модерна филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Модерна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophy in recent times</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book by Roger Scruton, see <a href="/wiki/Modern_Philosophy:_An_Introduction_and_Survey" title="Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey">Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks philosophy-sidebar plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle sidebar-phi-pre">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle sidebar-phi-title"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sidebar-phi-img"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Modern philosophy</b> is <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> developed in the <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern era</a> and associated with <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>. It is not a specific doctrine or school (and thus should not be confused with <i><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></i>), although there are certain assumptions common to much of it, which helps to distinguish it from earlier philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 17th and early 20th centuries roughly mark the beginning and the end of modern philosophy. How much of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> should be included is a matter for dispute; likewise modernity may or may not have ended in the twentieth century and been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">postmodernity</a>. How one decides these questions will determine the scope of one's use of the term "modern philosophy." </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Western_philosophy">Modern Western philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Modern Western philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_modern_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern philosophy">Late modern philosophy</a></div> <p>How much of Renaissance intellectual history is part of modern philosophy is disputed:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/15th_century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="15th century philosophy">Early Renaissance</a> is often considered less modern and more medieval compared to the later <a href="/wiki/16th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="16th-century philosophy">High Renaissance</a>. Later, by the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> were roughly divided into two main groups. The "<a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalists</a>," mostly in France and Germany, argued all knowledge must begin from certain "<a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">innate ideas</a>" in the mind. Major rationalists were <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>. The "<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricists</a>," by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience. Major figures in this line of thought are <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (These are retrospective categories, for which Kant is largely responsible). Ethics and political philosophy are usually not subsumed under these categories, though all these philosophers worked in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in their own distinctive styles. Other important figures in <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> include <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. </p><p>In the late eighteenth century <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> set forth a groundbreaking philosophical system which claimed to bring unity to rationalism and empiricism. Whether or not he was right, he did not entirely succeed in ending philosophical dispute. Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>. The characteristic theme of idealism was that the world and the mind equally must be understood according to the same categories; it culminated in the work of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, who among many other things said in the Preface to his <i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> that "The real is rational; the rational is real." </p><p>Hegel's work was carried in many directions by his followers and critics. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> appropriated both Hegel's <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a> and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">science of society</a>. <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, in contrast, dismissed all <a href="/wiki/Systematic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic philosophy">systematic philosophy</a> as an inadequate guide to life and meaning. For Kierkegaard, life is meant to be lived, not a mystery to be solved. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">pessimism</a>. Schopenhauer's ideas were taken up and transformed by <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, who seized upon their various dismissals of the world to proclaim "<a href="/wiki/God_is_dead" title="God is dead">God is dead</a>" and to reject all systematic philosophy and all striving for a fixed truth transcending the individual. Nietzsche found in this not grounds for pessimism, but the possibility of a new kind of freedom. </p><p>19th-century British philosophy came increasingly to be dominated by strands of <a href="/wiki/British_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="British Idealism">British Idealism</a>, which incorporated neo-Hegelian and German Idealist thought. As a reaction against this, figures such as <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="George Edward Moore">George Edward Moore</a> began moving in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, which was essentially an updating of traditional empiricism to accommodate the new developments in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> of the German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Renaissance philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> emphasized the value of human beings (see <a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a>) and opposed <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. This new interest in human activities led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> of <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humanists differed from Medieval scholars also because they saw the natural world as mathematically ordered and pluralistic, instead of thinking of it in terms of purposes and goals. Renaissance philosophy is perhaps best explained by two propositions made by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> in his notebooks: </p> <ul><li>All of our knowledge has its origins in our perceptions</li> <li>There is no certainty where one can neither apply any of the mathematical sciences nor any of those which are based upon the mathematical sciences.</li></ul> <p>In a similar way, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> based his <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> on experiments but also <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">developed mathematical methods for application to problems in physics</a>. These two ways to conceive human knowledge formed the background for the principle of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of Renaissance philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pico_della_Mirandola" class="mw-redirect" title="Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_of_Cusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas of Cusa">Nicolas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rationalism">Rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></div> <p>Modern philosophy traditionally begins with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and his aphorism "<a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">I think, therefore I am</a>". In the early seventeenth century the bulk of philosophy was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, written by theologians and drawing upon <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and early Church writings. Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false. In short, he proposed to begin philosophy from scratch. In his most important work, <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>, he attempts just this, over six brief essays. He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for <i>certain</i>. He finds that he can doubt nearly everything: the reality of physical objects, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, his memories, history, science, even mathematics, but he cannot doubt that he is, in fact, doubting. He knows what he is thinking about, even if it is not true, and he knows that he is there thinking about it. From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again. He finds that some of the ideas he has could not have originated from him alone, but only from God; he proves that God exists. He then demonstrates that God would not allow him to be systematically deceived about everything; in essence, he vindicates ordinary methods of science and reasoning, as fallible but not false. </p><p>List of rationalist philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empiricism">Empiricism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Empiricism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></div> <p>Empiricism is a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of knowledge">theory of knowledge</a> which opposes other theories of knowledge, such as rationalism, <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>. Empiricism asserts that knowledge comes (only or primarily) via sensory <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> as opposed to rationalism, which asserts that knowledge comes (also) from pure thinking. Both empiricism and rationalism are individualist theories of knowledge, whereas historicism is a <a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">social epistemology</a>. While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made. Empiricism should not be mixed up with empirical research because different epistemologies should be considered competing views on how best to do studies, and there is near consensus among researchers that studies should be empirical. Today empiricism should therefore be understood as one among competing ideals of getting knowledge or how to do studies. As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data "speak for themselves", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal. The term empiricism should thus not just be understood in relation to how this term has been used in the history of philosophy. It should also be constructed in a way which makes it possible to distinguish empiricism among other epistemological positions in contemporary science and scholarship. In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science. </p><p>Empiricism is one of several competing views that predominate in the study of human knowledge, known as epistemology. Empiricism emphasizes the role of <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Sensory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory perception">sensory perception</a>, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in contrast to, for example, rationalism which relies upon reason and can incorporate innate knowledge. </p><p>List of empiricist philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Political philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div> <p>Political philosophy is the study of such topics as <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and the enforcement of a <a href="/wiki/Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal code</a> by <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>: their nature and purpose; what (if anything) makes a <a href="/wiki/The_purpose_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="The purpose of government">government legitimate</a>; what rights and freedoms (if any) it should protect and how and why it should do so; what duties (if any) citizens owe to a legitimate government; and when (if ever) it may be legitimately overthrown. In a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> sense, the term "political philosophy" often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of political philosophers by country: </p> <ul><li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a></li></ul></li> <li>Germany <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idealism">Idealism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Idealism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></div> <p>Idealism refers to the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally a construct of the mind or otherwise immaterial. <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemologically</a>, idealism manifests as a <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Brittanica_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brittanica-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Idealism thus rejects <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">dualist</a> theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind. An extreme version of this idealism can exist in the philosophical notion of <a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</a>. </p><p>List of idealist philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Herbert_Bradley" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Herbert Bradley">Francis Herbert Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(philosopher)" title="John Foster (philosopher)">John Foster</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Existentialism">Existentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Existentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></div> <p><b>Existentialism</b> is generally considered to be the philosophical and cultural movement which holds that the starting point of philosophical thinking must be the individual and the experiences of the individual. Building on that, existentialists hold that <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral thinking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific thinking</a> together do not suffice to understand human existence, and, therefore, a further set of categories, governed by the norm of <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)#Existentialism" title="Authenticity (philosophy)"><i>authenticity</i></a>, is necessary to understand human existence.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crowell2010Stanford_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell2010Stanford-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of existentialist philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Solzhenitsyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Solzhenitsyn">Alexander Solzhenitsyn</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenomenology">Phenomenology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phenomenology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existential_phenomenology" title="Existential phenomenology">Existential phenomenology</a></div> <p>Phenomenology is the study of the structure of experience. It is a broad <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">philosophical movement</a> founded in the early years of the 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">Göttingen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Munich</a> in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. The philosophy then spread to <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work.<sup id="cite_ref-Husserlhistory_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Husserlhistory-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of phenomenologist: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pragmatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></div> <p><b>Pragmatism</b> is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called <i>intelligent practice</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Important positions characteristic of pragmatism include <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radical_empiricism" title="Radical empiricism">radical empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">conceptual relativity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is general consensus among pragmatists that philosophy should take the methods and insights of modern science into account.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> (and his <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a>) deserves most of the credit for pragmatism,<sup id="cite_ref-HaackLane2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HaackLane2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with later twentieth century contributors <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of pragmatist philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytic_philosophy">Analytic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Analytic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div> <p>Analytic philosophy came to dominate <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="English-speaking countries">English-speaking countries</a> in the 20th century. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, the overwhelming majority of university philosophy departments identify themselves as "analytic" departments.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle03P1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle03P1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term generally refers to a broad philosophical tradition<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterized by an emphasis on clarity and argument (often achieved via modern <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a> and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>) and a respect for the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeiterWeb_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeiterWeb-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>List of analytic philosophers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="George Edward Moore">George Edward Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Asian_philosophy">Modern Asian philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modern Asian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various philosophical movements in Asia arose in the modern period including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyoto school">Kyoto school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBairdWalter_Kaufmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1"><bdi>978-0-13-158591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-158591-1&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (ed.), <i>The Future for Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 44 n. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-Machiavelli">"Niccolo Machiavelli | Biography, Books, Philosophy, & Facts"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Niccolo+Machiavelli+%7C+Biography%2C+Books%2C+Philosophy%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FNiccolo-Machiavelli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy/Renaissance-philosophy">"Western philosophy - Renaissance philosophy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Western+philosophy+-+Renaissance+philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FWestern-philosophy%2FRenaissance-philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdWalter_Kaufmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1"><bdi>978-0-13-158591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-158591-1&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampton1997" class="citation book cs1">Hampton, Jean (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-sHkdq5qhFwC&pg=PR13"><i>Political philosophy</i></a>. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813308586" title="Special:BookSources/9780813308586"><bdi>9780813308586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+philosophy&rft.pages=xiii&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780813308586&rft.aulast=Hampton&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-sHkdq5qhFwC%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Blattberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Blattberg (page does not exist)">Charles Blattberg</a>, who defines politics as "responding to conflict with dialogue," suggests that political philosophies offer philosophical accounts of that dialogue. See his <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlattberg2009" class="citation journal cs1">Blattberg, Charles (2009). "Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1755117">1755117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Political+Philosophies+and+Political+Ideologies&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1755117%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Blattberg&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> in <i>Patriotic Elaborations: Essays in Practical Philosophy</i>, Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacionis2012" class="citation book cs1">Macionis, John J. (2012). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociologythediti00maci"><i>Sociology 14th Edition</i></a></span>. Boston: Pearson. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociologythediti00maci/page/n119">88</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-11671-3"><bdi>978-0-205-11671-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+14th+Edition&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-205-11671-3&rft.aulast=Macionis&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsociologythediti00maci&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brittanica-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brittanica_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Sommer Robinson, "Idealism", <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281802/idealism">https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281802/idealism</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Mullarkey, John, and Beth Lord (eds.). <i>The Continuum Companion to Continental Philosophy</i>. London, 2009, p. 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Stewart, Jon. <i>Kierkegaard and Existentialism</i>. Farnham, England, 2010, p. ix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crowell2010Stanford-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crowell2010Stanford_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowell2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Crowell" title="Steven Crowell">Crowell, Steven</a> (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/">"Existentialism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Existentialism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2010-10&rft.aulast=Crowell&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fexistentialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Husserlhistory-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Husserlhistory_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZahavi2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Zahavi" title="Dan Zahavi">Zahavi, Dan</a> (2003), <i>Husserl's Phenomenology</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Husserl%27s+Phenomenology&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Zahavi&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BiestaBurbules-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Biesta, G.J.J. & Burbules, N. (2003). <i>Pragmatism and educational research</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HaackLane2006-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HaackLane2006_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_HaackRobert_Edwin_Lane2006" class="citation book cs1">Susan Haack; Robert Edwin Lane (11 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-DWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Pragmatism, old & new: selected writings</i></a>. Prometheus Books. pp. 18–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3"><bdi>978-1-59102-359-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism%2C+old+%26+new%3A+selected+writings&rft.pages=18-67&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2006-04-11&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-359-3&rft.au=Susan+Haack&rft.au=Robert+Edwin+Lane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df-DWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle03P1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Searle03P1_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "Without exception, the best philosophy departments in the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy, and among the leading philosophers in the United States, all but a tiny handful would be classified as analytic philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that are not in the analytic tradition—such as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxism—feel it necessary to define their position in relation to analytic philosophy." <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> (2003) <i>Contemporary Philosophy in the United States</i> in N. Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed., (Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5: "[I]t is difficult to give a precise definition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to problems." Also, see ibid., p. 7: "I think Sluga is right in saying 'it may be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic philosophy.' Nearly every proposed definition has been challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a family resemblance concept."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Hans-Johann_Glock" title="Hans-Johann Glock">Hans-Johann Glock</a>, <i>What Is Analytic Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205: "The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy is a tradition held together <i>both</i> by ties of mutual influence <i>and</i> by family resemblances."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeiterWeb-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeiterWeb_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a> (2006) webpage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061115002425/http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/analytic.asp"><i>“Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy</i></a>. Quote on the definition: "'Analytic' philosophy today names a style of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the humanities."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Glock, "Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?", <i>Metaphilosophy</i>, 35:4 (2004), pp. 419–444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin McGinn, <i>The Making of a Philosopher: My Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy</i> (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.: "analytical philosophy [is] too narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly that might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor, argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life,' though parts of it are. 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(philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" 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