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id="toc-Breakthrough_Prize" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakthrough_Prize"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Breakthrough Prize </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakthrough_Prize-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prizes_only_for_female_physicists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prizes_only_for_female_physicists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Prizes only for female physicists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prizes_only_for_female_physicists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topics_named_after_female_scientists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics_named_after_female_scientists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Topics named after female scientists </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics_named_after_female_scientists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80" title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞানে নারী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পদার্থবিজ্ঞানে নারী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frauen_in_der_Physik" title="Frauen in der Physik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frauen in der Physik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="زنان در فیزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنان در فیزیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulleres_en_F%C3%ADsica" title="Mulleres en Física – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mulleres en Física" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_fizik%C3%A7iler" title="Kadın fizikçiler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kadın fizikçiler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q63122808#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> 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style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/131px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/197px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/262px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1984" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.jpg/126px-Maria_Goeppert-Mayer.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="178" class="mw-file-element" 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style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:227px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG/161px-Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="161" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG/242px-Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG/322px-Anne_LHuiller_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="3952" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Female Nobel laureates in physics (left to right, top to bottom) <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> – <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a> – <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Donna Strickland</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Ghez" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea Ghez">Andrea Ghez</a> – <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">Anne L'Huillier</a></div></div></div></div> This article discusses women who have made an important contribution to the field of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_physics_awards">International physics awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: International physics awards">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobel_laureates">Nobel laureates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nobel laureates">edit</a>]</div> Five women have won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>, awarded annually since 1901 by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TeshWade2017-1">[1]</a> These are:<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <ul><li>1903 <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radiation phenomena</a> discovered by Professor <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>" <a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></li> <li>1963 <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a>: "for their discoveries concerning <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">nuclear shell structure</a>" <a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li> <li>2018 <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Donna Strickland</a>: "for their method <a href="/wiki/Chirped_pulse_amplification" title="Chirped pulse amplification">high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses</a>" <a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li> <li>2020 <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Ghez" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea Ghez">Andrea Ghez</a>: "for the discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_A*" title="Sagittarius A*">supermassive compact object</a> at the centre of our galaxy."<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li> <li>2023 <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">Anne L'Huillier</a> "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter."<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></li></ul> Marie Curie was the first woman to be nominated in 1902 and to receive the prize in 1903 and shared 1/2 of the prize with her husband <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> for their joint work on <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactivity</a>, discovered by Henri Becquerel who got the other half of the prize. Marie Curie was the first woman to also receive the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1911, making her the first person to win two Nobel prizes and, as of 2023, the only person to be awarded two Nobel prizes in two different scientific categories.<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize1911-8">[8]</a> Maria Goeppert Mayer became the second woman to win the prize in 1963, for the theoretical development of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">nuclear shell model</a>, a half of the prize shared with <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">J. Hans D. Jensen</a> (the other half given to <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>). Donna Strickland shared half of the prize in 2018 with <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Gérard Mourou</a>, for their work in <a href="/wiki/Chirped_pulse_amplification" title="Chirped pulse amplification">chirped pulse amplification</a> beginning in the 1980s (the other half given to <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Arthur Ashkin</a>). Andrea Ghez was the fourth female Nobel laureate in 2020, she shared one half of the prize with <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Reinhard Genzel</a> for the discovery of the supermassive compact object <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_A*" title="Sagittarius A*">Sagittarius A*</a> at the center of our galaxy (the other half given to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a>). In 2023, Anne L'Huillier shared the prize in equal parts with <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Pierre Agostini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Ferenc Krausz</a> for their experimental contribution and development of <a href="/wiki/Attosecond_physics" title="Attosecond physics">attosecond physics</a>. L'Huillier is the first female laureate to receive 1/3 of monetary award of the Nobel Prize in Physics (Curie, Goeppert–Mayer, Strickland and Ghez received 1/4). Physicists and physicochemists that won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry include Marie Curie,<a href="#cite_note-Nomination_Archive_–_Marie_Curie-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a>, daughter of Marie Curie, in 1935,<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org2-10">[10]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> in 1964.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-11">[11]</a> Nuclear physicist <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a> was the second female scientist to win the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1977 for the development of <a href="/wiki/Radioimmunoassay" title="Radioimmunoassay">radioimmunoassays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Human right activist and <a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2023 Nobel Peace Prize">2023 Nobel Peace Prize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narges_Mohammadi" title="Narges Mohammadi">Narges Mohammadi</a>, was trained in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nobel_nominees_and_nominators">Nobel nominees and nominators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nobel nominees and nominators">edit</a>]</div> According to the Nobel archives (updated up to 1970), other <a href="/wiki/List_of_female_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize" title="List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize">physicists that were nominated to the Nobel Prize in Physics</a> but did not receive it, include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, nominated 19 times;<a href="#cite_note-Nomination_Archive_–_Lise_Meitner-14">[14]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a>, nominated 5 times;<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marietta_Blau" title="Marietta Blau">Marietta Blau</a>, nominated 3 times;<a href="#cite_note-Nomination_Archive_–_Marietta_Blau-16">[16]</a></li> <li>and <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Wambacher" title="Hertha Wambacher">Hertha Wambacher</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burbidge" title="Margaret Burbidge">Margaret Burbidge</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Janine_Connes" title="Janine Connes">Janine Connes</a>, nominated once.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li></ul> As of 2024, Connes was still alive and eligible to the prize. Irène Joliot-Curie<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org2-10">[10]</a> and Dorothy Hodgkin<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-11">[11]</a> were also nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics, but received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 and 1964, respectively. Lise Meitner is the female physicist the most nominated, 16 times for Physics and 14 times for Chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-:4-20">[20]</a> About 1.7% of the Nobel nominations in Physics up to 1970 were women.<a href="#cite_note-:4-20">[20]</a> Aside from the named above, other physicists and <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physicochemists</a> that were nominated to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry but dit not receive it, include <a href="/wiki/Ida_Noddack" title="Ida Noddack">Ida Noddack</a>,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Perey" title="Marguerite Perey">Marguerite Perey</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alberte_Pullman" title="Alberte Pullman">Alberte Pullman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erika_Cremer" title="Erika Cremer">Erika Cremer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Up to 1970, eight female scientists have participated as nominators for the Nobel Prize in Physics. These are Marie Curie, <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie-Antoinette_Tonnelat" title="Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat">Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Barbara_Underhill" title="Anne Barbara Underhill">Anne Barbara Underhill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katharina_Boll-Dornberger" title="Katharina Boll-Dornberger">Katharina Boll-Dornberger</a>, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Dorothy Hodgkin, and Margaret Burbidge.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clarivate_Citation">Clarivate Citation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Clarivate Citation">edit</a>]</div> Several women have been selected as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Clarivate_Citation_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Clarivate Citation laureates in Physics">Clarivate Citation laureates in Physics</a>, which makes an annual list of possible candidates for the Nobel Prize in Physics based on citation statistics, these include: <ul><li>2008 <a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a> † "for her pioneering research indicating the existence of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>."<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/Lene_Hau" title="Lene Hau">Lene Hau</a> "for the experimental demonstration of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetically_induced_transparency" title="Electromagnetically induced transparency">electromagnetically induced transparency</a> '<a href="/wiki/Slow_light" title="Slow light">slow light</a>' (with <a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Harris" title="Stephen E. Harris">Stephen E. Harris</a>)."<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li> <li>2015 <a href="/wiki/Deborah_S._Jin" title="Deborah S. Jin">Deborah S. Jin</a> † "for pioneering research on atomic gases at ultra-cold temperatures and the creation of the first <a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">fermionic condensate</a>."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li> <li>2018 <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a> "for pioneering methods to determine the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">age, size and distance of galaxies</a> and for other contributions to <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li> <li>2023 <a href="/wiki/Sharon_Glotzer" title="Sharon Glotzer">Sharon Glotzer</a> "for demonstrating the role of entropy in the self-assembly of matter and for introducing strategies to control the assembly process to engineer new materials."<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li></ul> †: deceased, no longer eligible. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wolf_Prize">Wolf Prize</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wolf Prize">edit</a>]</div> Two women have been awarded the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a>, awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Foundation" title="Wolf Foundation">Wolf Foundation</a> in Israel since 1978. They are: <ul><li>1978 <a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a>, "for her explorations of the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>, helping establish the precise form and the <a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)#Parity_violation" title="Parity (physics)">non-conservation of parity for this natural force</a>."<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li>2022 Anne L'Huillier, "for pioneering contributions to ultrafast laser science and attosecond physics".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakthrough_Prize">Breakthrough Prize</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Breakthrough Prize">edit</a>]</div> Women who have been awarded the <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Prize_in_Fundamental_Physics" title="Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics">Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics</a> since 2012, include: <ul><li>2018 <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP Probe</a> team, 27 listed members, including <a href="/wiki/Hiranya_Peiris" title="Hiranya Peiris">Hiranya Peiris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Licia_Verde" title="Licia Verde">Licia Verde</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Janet_L._Weiland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Janet L. Weiland (page does not exist)">Janet L. Weiland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Dunkley" class="mw-redirect" title="Joanna Dunkley">Joanna Dunkley</a> for "For detailed maps of the early universe that greatly improved our knowledge of the evolution of the cosmos and the fluctuations that seeded the formation of galaxies."<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li> <li>2018 Special recognition to <a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a> for "For fundamental contributions to the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Pulsars" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsars">pulsars</a>, and a lifetime of inspiring leadership in the scientific community."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prizes_only_for_female_physicists">Prizes only for female physicists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prizes only for female physicists">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%27Or%C3%A9al-UNESCO_For_Women_in_Science_Awards" title="L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards">L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards</a>, awarded bi-annually to one laureate per continent for outstanding contributions to the physical sciences.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer_Award" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award">Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> awarded annually in recognition of an outstanding contribution to physics research.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards" title="Institute of Physics Awards">Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a> in UK, for contributions to physics by a very early career physicist.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_J._Cannon_Award_in_Astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Annie J. Cannon Award in Astronomy">Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy</a> awarded annually for outstanding contributions to astronomy within five years of earning a doctorate degree.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_named_after_female_scientists">Topics named after female scientists</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Topics named after female scientists">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noether.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Noether.jpg/220px-Noether.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Noether.jpg/330px-Noether.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Noether.jpg/440px-Noether.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a> who published the <a href="/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem" title="Noether's theorem">Noether's theorem</a> in 1918. The theorem relates symmetries to conserved quantities in physics.</figcaption></figure> Female scientist have sometimes not been recognized in the naming of topics they discovered due to <a href="/wiki/Matilda_effect" title="Matilda effect">Matilda effect</a>. Some physics phenomena that are named after female scientists include: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_phenomena,_theories,_laws_and_equations">Physical phenomena, theories, laws and equations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical phenomena, theories, laws and equations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birge%E2%80%93Sponer_method" title="Birge–Sponer method">Birge–Sponer method</a>, in molecular physics, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faber%E2%80%93Jackson_relation" title="Faber–Jackson relation">Faber–Jackson relation</a>, in astronomomy, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Pasta%E2%80%93Ulam%E2%80%93Tsingou_problem" title="Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem">Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Mary_Tsingou" title="Mary Tsingou">Mary Tsingou</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenkel%E2%80%93Kontorova_model" title="Frenkel–Kontorova model">Frenkel–Kontorova model</a>, in non-linear physics, partially named after <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tatiana_Kontorova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tatiana Kontorova (page does not exist)">Tatiana Kontorova</a> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0,_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Конторова, Татьяна Абрамовна">ru</a>].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goos%E2%80%93H%C3%A4nchen_effect" title="Goos–Hänchen effect">Goos–Hänchen effect</a> in optics, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Hilda_H%C3%A4nchen" title="Hilda Hänchen">Hilda Hänchen</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagrange,_Euler,_and_Kovalevskaya_tops" title="Lagrange, Euler, and Kovalevskaya tops">Kovalevskaya top</a> in rotational dynamics, named after <a href="/wiki/Sofya_Kovalevskaya" title="Sofya Kovalevskaya">Sofya Kovalevskaya</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Leavitt_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="The Leavitt Law">Leavitt's law</a> in astronomy, named after <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasterski%E2%80%93Strominger%E2%80%93Zhiboedov_triangle" title="Pasterski–Strominger–Zhiboedov triangle">Pasterski–Strominger–Zhiboedov triangle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>, is partially named after <a href="/wiki/Sabrina_Gonzalez_Pasterski" title="Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski">Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peccei%E2%80%93Quinn_theory" title="Peccei–Quinn theory">Peccei–Quinn theory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a>.</li> <li>Pockels point in surface physics, named after <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Pockels" title="Agnes Pockels">Agnes Pockels</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%B6schl%E2%80%93Teller_potential" title="Pöschl–Teller potential">Pöschl–Teller potential</a> in quantum mechanics, partially named after Herta Pöschl.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubin%E2%80%93Ford_effect" title="Rubin–Ford effect">Rubin–Ford effect</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_theorems">Physical theorems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physical theorems">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Van_Leeuwen_theorem" title="Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem">Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem</a> in thermodynamics, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Hendrika_Johanna_van_Leeuwen" title="Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen">Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem" title="Noether's theorem">Noether's theorem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">modern physics</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experiments_and_equipment">Experiments and equipment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Experiments and equipment">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir%E2%80%93Blodgett_film" title="Langmuir–Blodgett film">Langmuir–Blodgett film</a>, partially named after <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Burr_Blodgett" title="Katharine Burr Blodgett">Katharine Burr Blodgett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">Curie (unit)</a>, Ci, partially named after Marie Curie</li> <li>Goeppert Mayer (unit), GM, unit of <a href="/wiki/Absorption_cross_section" title="Absorption cross section">absorption cross section</a> named after Maria Goeppert Mayer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_experiment" title="Wu experiment">Wu experiment</a> named after Chien-Shiung Wu</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit">converting this article</a>, if appropriate. <a href="/wiki/Help:Editing" title="Help:Editing">Editing help</a> is available. (June 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 BCE: <a href="/wiki/Aglaonice" title="Aglaonice">Aglaonice</a> became the first female astronomer to be recorded in Ancient Greece.<a href="#cite_note-Ogilvie-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li>c. 355–415 CE: Greek astronomer, mathematician and philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> became renowned as a respected academic teacher, editor of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a> astronomical data, and head of her own science academy.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_century">16th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 16th century">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1572: astronomer <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Brahe" title="Sophia Brahe">Sophia Brahe</a> assists her older brother <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> finding a new bright object in the night sky, now known as called <a href="/wiki/SN_1572" title="SN 1572">SN 1572</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>).<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Sophia would help her brother in astronomy throughout his life.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="17th_century">17th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 17th century">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1668: After separating from her husband, French polymath <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_de_la_Sabli%C3%A8re" title="Marguerite de la Sablière">Marguerite de la Sablière</a> established a popular <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a> in Paris. Scientists and scholars from different countries visited the salon regularly to discuss ideas and share knowledge, and Sablière studied physics, astronomy and natural history with her guests.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>1680: French astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Dum%C3%A9e" title="Jeanne Dumée">Jeanne Dumée</a> published a summary of arguments supporting the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernican theory">Copernican theory of heliocentrism</a>. She wrote "between the brain of a woman and that of a man there is no difference".<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li> <li>1693–1698: German astronomer and illustrator <a href="/wiki/Maria_Clara_Eimmart" title="Maria Clara Eimmart">Maria Clara Eimmart</a> created more than 350 detailed drawings of the moon phases.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 18th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg/220px-Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg/330px-Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Portrait_Sophie_Germain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of young <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Germain" title="Sophie Germain">Sophie Germain</a> known for her contributions in math and the theory of <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1732: At the age of 20, Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Laura_Bassi" title="Laura Bassi">Laura Bassi</a> became the first female member of the <a href="/wiki/Bologna_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna Academy of Sciences">Bologna Academy of Sciences</a>. One month later, she publicly defended her academic theses and received a PhD. Bassi was awarded an honorary position as professor of physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>. She was the first female physics professor in the world.<a href="#cite_note-:3-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1738: French polymath <a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Émilie du Châtelet</a> became the first woman to have a paper published by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Academy">Paris Academy</a>, following a contest on the nature of fire.<a href="#cite_note-openmind-43">[43]</a></li> <li>1740: Du Châtelet publishes Institutions de Physique, or Foundations of Physics, providing a metaphysical basis for <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian Physics">Newtonian physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li>1751: 19-year-old Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Cristina_Roccati" title="Cristina Roccati">Cristina Roccati</a> received her PhD from the University of Bologna.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li>1755: Sculptor <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Caffieri" title="Jean-Jacques Caffieri">Jean-Jacques Caffieri</a> makes a medallion of physicist <a href="/wiki/Maria_Angela_Ardinghelli" title="Maria Angela Ardinghelli">Maria Angela Ardinghelli</a> to be hung in <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a>. The academy did not accept female members at the time. Ardinghelli worked as the main correspondent and translator between Paris and Naples in terms of physics discussions.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li> <li>1776: At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Laura_Bassi" title="Laura Bassi">Laura Bassi</a> became the first woman appointed as chair of physics at a university.<a href="#cite_note-:3-42">[42]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1816: French mathematician and physicist <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Germain" title="Sophie Germain">Sophie Germain</a> became the first women to win a prize from the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Academy of Sciences">Paris Academy of Sciences</a> for her work on <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> <li>1828: <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Herschel" title="Caroline Herschel">Caroline Herschel</a>, sister of <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a>, becomes the first woman to publish in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a> and is awarded the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society">Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li> <li>1835: Caroline Herschel and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Somerville" title="Mary Somerville">Mary Somerville</a> became the first female Honorary Members of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li>1856: Amateur scientist <a href="/wiki/Eunice_Newton_Foote" title="Eunice Newton Foote">Eunice Newton Foote</a> provides the first demonstration of the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (<a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li> <li>1891: <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Pockels" title="Agnes Pockels">Agnes Pockels</a>, gets help from <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a> to publish her first paper on nature of <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a>. There she first introduces the concept of the Pockels point and pioneers the field of surface science.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li> <li>1895: <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Eliza_Maltby" title="Margaret Eliza Maltby">Margaret Eliza Maltby</a> becomes the first woman to earn a doctorate in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>.</li> <li>1896: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Stephansen" title="Elizabeth Stephansen">Elizabeth Stephansen</a> becomes the first woman to complete the physics program of <a href="/wiki/Zurich_Polytechnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurich Polytechnic">Zurich Polytechnic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></li> <li>1897: American physicist <a href="/wiki/Isabelle_Stone" title="Isabelle Stone">Isabelle Stone</a> became the first woman to receive a PhD in physics in the United States. She wrote her dissertation "On the Electrical Resistance of Thin Films" at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a></li> <li>1898: Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Kirstine_Meyer" title="Kirstine Meyer">Kirstine Meyer</a> was awarded the gold medal of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Letters" title="Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters">Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-56">[56]</a></li> <li>1888: The <a href="/wiki/Kovalevskaya_top" class="mw-redirect" title="Kovalevskaya top">Kovalevskaya top</a>, one of a brief list of known examples of integrable rigid body motion, was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Sofia_Kovalevskaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sofia Kovalevskaya">Sofia Kovalevskaya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></li> <li>1899: Irish physicist <a href="/wiki/Edith_Anne_Stoney" title="Edith Anne Stoney">Edith Anne Stoney</a> was appointed a physics lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Medicine_for_Women" title="London School of Medicine for Women">London School of Medicine for Women</a>, becoming the first woman <a href="/wiki/Medical_physicist" title="Medical physicist">medical physicist</a>. She later became a pioneering figure in the use of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray machines">x-ray machines</a> on the front lines of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li>1899: American physicists <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Keith" title="Marcia Keith">Marcia Keith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabelle_Stone" title="Isabelle Stone">Isabelle Stone</a> became charter members of the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1900s">1900s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1900s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lise_Meitner_(1878-1968),_lecturing_at_Catholic_University,_Washington,_D.C.,_1946.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg/220px-Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg/330px-Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg/440px-Lise_Meitner_%281878-1968%29%2C_lecturing_at_Catholic_University%2C_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_1946.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2030" /></a><figcaption>Lise Meitner known for the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1903: Marie Curie was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize; she received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> along with her husband, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> "for their joint researches on the <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel", and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>, "for his discovery of spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>".<a href="#cite_note-NobelFactswomen-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Physics1903-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-N1903-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></li> <li>1900: Physicists Marie Curie and Isabelle Stone attended the first International Congress of Physics in <a href="/wiki/Paris,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris, France">Paris, France</a>. They were the only two women out of 836 participants.<a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a></li> <li>1906: English physicist, mathematician and engineer <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Ayrton" title="Hertha Ayrton">Hertha Ayrton</a> became the first female recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Medal" title="Hughes Medal">Hughes Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a>. She received the award for her experimental research on <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arcs</a> and sand ripples.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The first woman to be nominated for the Royal Society and to give a lecture to the Society.<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[66]</a></li> <li>1907: Ayrton joins the <a href="/wiki/Suffragette" title="Suffragette">Suffragettes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Social_and_Political_Union" title="Women's Social and Political Union">Women's Social and Political Union</a> (WSPU).<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[66]</a></li> <li>1909: Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Kirstine_Meyer" title="Kirstine Meyer">Kristine Meyer</a> became the first Danish woman to receive a doctorate degree in natural sciences. She wrote her dissertation on the topic of "the development of the temperature concept" within the history of physics.<a href="#cite_note-:8-56">[56]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1910s">1910s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 1910s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1911: Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements <a href="/wiki/Radium#History" title="Radium">radium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polonium#History" title="Polonium">polonium</a>, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element".<a href="#cite_note-mit-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> This made her the only woman to win two Nobel Prizes.<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize1911-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li>1912: Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a> studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth.<a href="#cite_note-mit2-71">[71]</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Geertruida_de_Haas-Lorentz" title="Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz">Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz</a> is the first to study of thermal <a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a> in electric circuits, predating the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise">Johnson–Nyquist noise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li> <li>1918: Emmy Noether created Noether's theorem explaining the connection between <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetry in physics">symmetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_law_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation law (physics)">conservation laws</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Hendrika_Johanna_van_Leeuwen" title="Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen">Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen</a> proves the <a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Van_Leeuwen_theorem" title="Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem">Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem</a> in her thesis<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> explaining why <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> is an essentially quantum mechanical effect.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1920s">1920s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 1920s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/220px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/330px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg/440px-Astronomer_Edward_Charles_Pickering%27s_Harvard_computers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1502" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a> famous team of women paid to handle astronomical data. This group included <a href="/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a>, who introduced the modern procedure for <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">stellar classification</a>, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who introduced the <a href="/wiki/Period-luminosity_relation" title="Period-luminosity relation">period-luminosity relation</a> to calculate the distance of stars.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1922: the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a> adopts the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">stellar classification</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a>. She came up with the first serious attempt to organize and classify stars based on their temperatures and spectral types.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li>1925: Annie Jump Cannon became the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate of science from <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li>1925: Astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin" title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a> established that <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> is the most common element in stars, and thus the most abundant element in the universe.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Burr_Blodgett" title="Katharine Burr Blodgett">Katharine Burr Blodgett</a> was the first women to earn a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> in physics from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li> <li>1926: The first application of quantum mechanics to molecular systems was done by <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Mensing" title="Lucy Mensing">Lucy Mensing</a>. She studied the rotational spectrum of diatomic molecules using the methods of <a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1930s">1930s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 1930s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1933: Herta Pöschl (abbreviated G. Pöschl) working with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, find that the <a href="/wiki/P%C3%B6schl%E2%80%93Teller_potential" title="Pöschl–Teller potential">Pöschl–Teller potential</a> is analytically solvable in quantum mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li> <li>1934: Olga N. Trapeznikowa and his husband <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shubnikov" title="Lev Shubnikov">Lev Shubnikov</a> finish an experiment showing one of the first evidences for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">antiferromagnetism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li>1935: Katharine Burr Blodgett improves <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> experimental set up leading to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Langmuir%E2%80%93Blodgett_trough" title="Langmuir–Blodgett trough">Langmuir–Blodgett trough</a> and the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Langmuir%E2%80%93Blodgett_film" title="Langmuir–Blodgett film">Langmuir–Blodgett films</a>.</li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Grete_Hermann" title="Grete Hermann">Grete Hermann</a> provides the earliest refutation to <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>'s attempt to prove that <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> is incompatible with <a href="/wiki/Hidden_variable_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden variable theory">hidden variables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Sponer" title="Hertha Sponer">Hertha Sponer</a> becomes the first female professor in the physics faculty in <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Marietta_Blau" title="Marietta Blau">Marietta Blau</a> and her student <a href="/wiki/Hertha_Wambacher" title="Hertha Wambacher">Hertha Wambacher</a>, both Austrian physicists, received the <a href="/wiki/Lieben_Prize" title="Lieben Prize">Lieben Prize</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Austrian Academy of Sciences">Austrian Academy of Sciences</a> for their work on cosmic ray observations using the technique of nuclear emulsions.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li> <li>1938: Tatiana Kontorova, in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Frenkel" title="Yakov Frenkel">Yakov Frenkel</a>, develops the <a href="/wiki/Frenkel-Kontorova_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Frenkel-Kontorova model">Frenkel-Kontorova model</a> to describe the structure and nonlinear dynamics of a crystal lattice in the vicinity of the dislocation core.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li> <li>1939 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> helped lead a small group of scientists who first discovered the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> of uranium when it absorbed an extra <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li> <li>Nuclear physicist <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Perey" title="Marguerite Perey">Marguerite Perey</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sameera_Moussa" title="Sameera Moussa">Sameera Moussa</a> became the first woman to earn a doctorate in atomic radiation and the first woman to hold a teaching post in <a href="/wiki/Cairo_University" title="Cairo University">Cairo University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1940s">1940s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1940s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chien-Shiung_Wu_(1912-1997)_in_1958.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg/220px-Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg/330px-Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg/440px-Chien-Shiung_Wu_%281912-1997%29_in_1958.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Chien-Shiung Wu known for the <a href="/wiki/Wu_experiment" title="Wu experiment">Wu experiment</a> that established the non conservation of <a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)" title="Parity (physics)">parity</a> symmetry in <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>c. 1940: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Alexander_(scientist)" title="Elizabeth Alexander (scientist)">Elizabeth Alexander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruby_Payne-Scott" title="Ruby Payne-Scott">Ruby Payne-Scott</a> become the first women to work in <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a>. Making important results on the study of radar signals coming from the sun.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li> <li>1941: <a href="/wiki/Ruby_Payne-Scott" title="Ruby Payne-Scott">Ruby Payne-Scott</a> joined the Radio Physics Laboratory of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">Australia Government</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_%26_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation">CSIRO</a>; she was the first woman <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li> <li>1942: <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> reaches <a href="/wiki/Criticality_(status)" title="Criticality (status)">criticality</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a> was the only woman in the team and she was instrumental in the construction and then use of geiger counters for analysis during experimentation.</li> <li>1943: the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan project</a> hires the <a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a>, a large group of young girls to monitor dials and watch meters for <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometers</a> adapted for <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">separation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium isotopes">uranium isotopes</a>, unaware of the purpose of the project.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Berta_Karlik" title="Berta Karlik">Berta Karlik</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">astatine</a> as a product of two naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> She was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Haitinger_Prize" title="Haitinger Prize">Haitinger Prize</a> of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for this discovery.<a href="#cite_note-1947_Karlik-98">[98]</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> (atomic number 96, symbol Cm) gets discovered a gets named after Marie and Pierre Curie, the "m" in Cm as a reference to Marie.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li>1945: American physicists and mathematicians <a href="/wiki/Frances_Spence" title="Frances Spence">Frances Spence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Teitelbaum" title="Ruth Teitelbaum">Ruth Teitelbaum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marlyn_Meltzer" title="Marlyn Meltzer">Marlyn Meltzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Betty_Holberton" title="Betty Holberton">Betty Holberton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bartik" title="Jean Bartik">Jean Bartik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Antonelli" title="Kathleen Antonelli">Kathleen Antonelli</a> programmed the electronic general-purpose computer <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, becoming some of the world's first computer programmers.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Hilda_H%C3%A4nchen" title="Hilda Hänchen">Hilda Hänchen</a>, in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Goos" title="Fritz Goos">Fritz Goos</a>, demonstrates a new optical phenomena, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Goos%E2%80%93H%C3%A4nchen_effect" title="Goos–Hänchen effect">Goos–Hänchen effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosemary_Brown_(later_Fowler)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rosemary Brown (later Fowler) (page does not exist)">Rosemary Brown (later Fowler)</a>, a student of <a href="/wiki/C.F._Powell" class="mw-redirect" title="C.F. Powell">C.F. Powell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bristol" title="University of Bristol">University of Bristol</a>, discovers the k-meson in what Heisenberg calls "most beautiful" pictures of cosmic ray tracks from the Jungfraujoch (the 'k' track in Brown, R. et al. Nature, 163, 47 (1949). This discovery and the prior finding of a very similar particle in 1947 led to the "τ–θ puzzle", the discovery of parity violation in weak interactions, and hence the Standard Model.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1950s">1950s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: 1950s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_DeWitt-Morette" title="Cécile DeWitt-Morette">Cécile DeWitt-Morette</a> founds the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_de_physique_des_Houches" class="mw-redirect" title="École de physique des Houches">École de physique des Houches</a>, one of the most prestigious scientific centers for international physics summer schools in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Photo_51" title="Photo 51">Photograph 51</a>, an <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> image of <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallized</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, was taken by <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Gosling" title="Raymond Gosling">Raymond Gosling</a> in May 1952, working as a PhD student under the supervision of British chemist and biophysicist <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>;<a href="#cite_note-nature12806-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kings-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-pbs51-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-gene-106">[106]</a> it was critical evidence<a href="#cite_note-pbs_flash-107">[107]</a> in identifying the structure of DNA.<a href="#cite_note-nature171-108">[108]</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Choquet-Bruhat" title="Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat">Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat</a> proves that <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein Equations">Einstein field equations</a> can be formulated as an initial value problem (local existence of solutions and uniqueness).<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li> <li>1953: Various authors, including <a href="/wiki/Arianna_W._Rosenbluth" title="Arianna W. Rosenbluth">Arianna W. Rosenbluth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augusta_H._Teller" title="Augusta H. Teller">Augusta H. Teller</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Metropolis" title="Nicholas Metropolis">Nicholas Metropolis</a>, write the paper titled "<a href="/wiki/Equation_of_State_Calculations_by_Fast_Computing_Machines" title="Equation of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines">Equation of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines</a>" that introduced the <a href="/wiki/Metropolis%E2%80%93Hastings_algorithm" title="Metropolis–Hastings algorithm">Metropolis–Hastings algorithm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Janine_Connes" title="Janine Connes">Janine Connes</a> pioneers the new field of <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform_infrared_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy">Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy</a> for astronomy.</li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Sulamith_Goldhaber" title="Sulamith Goldhaber">Sulamith Goldhaber</a>, along with her husband <a href="/wiki/Gerson_Goldhaber" title="Gerson Goldhaber">Gerson Goldhaber</a>, start a series of important experiments to measure the properties of the <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">K meson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li> <li>1955: the results of the <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Pasta%E2%80%93Ulam%E2%80%93Tsingou_problem" title="Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem">Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou simulation</a> is published in <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>. It was coded by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Tsingou" title="Mary Tsingou">Mary Tsingou</a> using the <a href="/wiki/MANIAC_I" title="MANIAC I">MANIAC I</a> computer working with <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Pasta" title="John Pasta">John Pasta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislaw Ulam">Stanislaw Ulam</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. It represents one of the first computational experiments in mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li>1956: Chinese-American physicist Chien-Shiung Wu conducted a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> experiment in collaboration with the Low Temperature Group of the US <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wu1957-113">[113]</a> The experiment, becoming known as the Wu experiment, showed that parity could be violated in weak interaction.<a href="#cite_note-Zeidler2011-114">[114]</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Burbidge" title="Margaret Burbidge">Margaret Burbidge</a> releases the landmark <a href="/wiki/B2FH_paper" title="B2FH paper">B2FH paper</a> as first author along with <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Burbidge" title="Geoffrey Burbidge">Geoffrey Burbidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a>. The paper reviewed <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> theory and identified nucleosynthesis processes that are responsible for producing the elements heavier than iron and explained their <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">relative abundances</a>.</li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Olga_Ladyzhenskaya" title="Olga Ladyzhenskaya">Olga Ladyzhenskaya</a> provides the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a <a href="/wiki/Finite_difference_method" title="Finite difference method">finite difference method</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">Navier–Stokes equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li> <li>1960: American medical physicist <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Yalow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosalyn Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> "for the development of <a href="/wiki/Radioimmunoassay" title="Radioimmunoassay">radioimmunoassays</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormones</a>" along with <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew V. Schally</a> who received it "for their discoveries concerning the <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormone</a> production of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>".<a href="#cite_note-nobel-1977-116">[116]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1960s">1960s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 1960s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Fetter" title="Ellen Fetter">Ellen Fetter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)" title="Margaret Hamilton (software engineer)">Margaret Hamilton</a> were collaborators with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a> in <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weather forecasting</a>, establishing together modern <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lorenz1961-118">[118]</a></li> <li>1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des Sciences">Académie des Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></li> <li>1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">J. Hans D. Jensen</a> "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure” and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Paul Wigner</a> "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental <a href="/wiki/Wigner%27s_theorem" title="Wigner's theorem">symmetry principles</a>".<a href="#cite_note-N63-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-google1-122">[122]</a></li> <li>1963: Experiments by <a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> provided the first data that confirmed the <a href="/wiki/Kondo_effect" title="Kondo effect">Kondo effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li> <li>1964: Chien-Shiung Wu spoke at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> about <a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">gender discrimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li> <li>1967: Astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell co-discovered the first radio <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-discoversPulsars1967-126">[126]</a>: minute 8:59 </li> <li>1970: Astronomer Vera Rubin published the first evidence for <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Madeleine_Veyssi%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madeleine Veyssié (page does not exist)">Madeleine Veyssié</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeleine_Veyssi%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="fr:Madeleine Veyssié">fr</a>], coins the term <a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">soft matter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1970s">1970s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 1970s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg/220px-Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg/330px-Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg/440px-Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2013" data-file-height="2940" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a> known for the discovery of radio <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>1971 <a href="/wiki/Mina_Rees" title="Mina Rees">Mina Rees</a> became the first woman president of <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)</a> founded in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Willie_Hobbs_Moore" title="Willie Hobbs Moore">Willie Hobbs Moore</a> became the first African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. in physics.</li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a> became the first woman to join the <a href="/wiki/Lick_Observatory" title="Lick Observatory">Lick Observatory</a> staff at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Cruz" title="University of California, Santa Cruz">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></li> <li>1973: American physicist <a href="/wiki/Anna_Coble" title="Anna Coble">Anna Coble</a> became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in biophysics, completing her dissertation at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Mary_K._Gaillard" title="Mary K. Gaillard">Mary K. Gaillard</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_W._Lee" title="Benjamin W. Lee">Benjamin W. Lee</a> and Jonathan L. Rosner, predicts the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">charm quark</a> before it was measured. She will later also predict the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">bottom quark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-132">[132]</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Teresa_Ruiz" title="María Teresa Ruiz">María Teresa Ruiz</a>, becomes the first woman to obtain a PhD in <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:52-133">[133]</a></li> <li>1976: Sandra Faber publishes her <a href="/wiki/Faber%E2%80%93Jackson_relation" title="Faber–Jackson relation">Faber–Jackson relation</a>, providing the first empirical power-law relation between the <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> and the central <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stellar</a> <a href="/wiki/Velocity_dispersion" title="Velocity dispersion">velocity dispersion</a>  of <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical galaxy</a>.</li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a> develops the <a href="/wiki/Peccei%E2%80%93Quinn_theory" title="Peccei–Quinn theory">Peccei–Quinn theory</a> as one of the first possible solutions to the <a href="/wiki/Strong_CP_problem" title="Strong CP problem">strong CP problem</a>, in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Peccei" title="Roberto Peccei">Roberto Peccei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li> <li>1978: Chien-Shiung Wu becomes the inaugural laureate of the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a> for her help with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>.</li> <li>1980: Nigerian geophysicist <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Ajakaiye" title="Deborah Ajakaiye">Deborah Ajakaiye</a> became the first woman in any West African country to be appointed a full professor of physics.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Over the course of her scientific career, she became the first female Fellow elected to the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Academy_of_Science" title="Nigerian Academy of Science">Nigerian Academy of Science</a>, and the first female dean of science in Nigeria.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Mary_K._Gaillard" title="Mary K. Gaillard">Mary K. Gaillard</a> produces a report at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> (European Organization for Nuclear Research) addressing the fact that just 3% of the staff were women. She called for the elimination of gender discrimination through equality in promotion, maternity leave and full-day child care.<a href="#cite_note-:0-132">[132]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1980s">1980s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 1980s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1981: Mary K. Gaillard becomes the first woman with a tenured position in the physics faculty at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-132">[132]</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> was appointed the first women <a href="/wiki/List_of_Institute_Professors_at_the_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Institute Professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Institute Professor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer Award">Maria Goeppert Mayer Award</a> was awarded for the first time to honor young female physicists at the beginning of their careers<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Jean_M._Bennett" title="Jean M. Bennett">Jean M. Bennett</a> became the first woman president of <a href="/wiki/The_Optical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Optical Society">The Optical Society</a> founded in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1990s">1990s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 1990s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Claudine_Hermann" title="Claudine Hermann">Claudine Hermann</a> first woman to be appointed professor at <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique" class="mw-redirect" title="École Polytechnique">École Polytechnique</a>.</li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Reva_Williams" title="Reva Williams">Reva Williams</a> works out the <a href="/wiki/Penrose_process" title="Penrose process">Penrose process</a> for <a href="/wiki/Rotating_black_hole" title="Rotating black hole">rotating black holes</a>.</li> <li>1997: Chemical element with atomic number 278 is officially named <a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">meitnerium</a>, after Lise Meitner.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Randall" title="Lisa Randall">Lisa Randall</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Randall%E2%80%93Sundrum_model" title="Randall–Sundrum model">Randall–Sundrum model</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Raman_Sundrum" title="Raman Sundrum">Raman Sundrum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> became the director of the Office of Science at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>.</li> <li>2000: Helen Quinn becomes the first woman to receive the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_Medal_(ICTP)" title="Dirac Medal (ICTP)">Dirac Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Centre_for_Theoretical_Physics" title="International Centre for Theoretical Physics">International Centre for Theoretical Physics</a> (ICTP) "pioneering contributions to the quest for a unified theory of quarks and leptons and the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions."<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2000s">2000s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 2000s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Lene_Hau" title="Lene Hau">Lene Hau</a> stopped a beam of light completely<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>2003: <ul><li>Geophysicist <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Alexander" title="Claudia Alexander">Claudia Alexander</a> oversaw the final stages of <a href="/wiki/Project_Galileo" title="Project Galileo">Project Galileo</a>, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_S._Jin" title="Deborah S. Jin">Deborah S. Jin</a> and her team were the first to condense pairs of <a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">fermionic atoms</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>Physicists <a href="/wiki/Ay%C5%9Fe_Erzan" title="Ayşe Erzan">Ayşe Erzan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karimat_El-Sayed" title="Karimat El-Sayed">Karimat El-Sayed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li_Fanghua" title="Li Fanghua">Li Fanghua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Weissmann" title="Mariana Weissmann">Mariana Weissmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anneke_Levelt_Sengers" title="Anneke Levelt Sengers">Anneke Levelt Sengers</a> win the first <a href="/wiki/L%27Or%C3%A9al-UNESCO_For_Women_in_Science_Awards" title="L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards">L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards</a> in Physical Sciences.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li></ul></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> becomes the first woman to win the <a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Buckley_Condensed_Matter_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize">Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize</a> for her contributions to quantum spin dynamics and spin coherence in condensed matter systems, along with <a href="/wiki/David_Awschalom" title="David Awschalom">David Awschalom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Aeppli" title="Gabriel Aeppli">Gabriel Aeppli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[149]</a></li> <li>2007: Physicist <a href="/wiki/Ibtesam_Badhrees" title="Ibtesam Badhrees">Ibtesam Badhrees</a> was the first Saudi Arabian woman to become a member of the <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Reid_(scientist)" title="Margaret Reid (scientist)">Margaret Reid</a> becomes the first woman to win the Moyal Medal fromm <a href="/wiki/Macquarie_University" title="Macquarie University">Macquarie University</a>, for her In 2019, her work on how to demonstrate the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Podolsky%E2%80%93Rosen_paradox" title="Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox">Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox</a> using <a href="/wiki/Squeezed_states_of_light" title="Squeezed states of light">squeezing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_parametric_down-conversion" title="Spontaneous parametric down-conversion">parametric down conversion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2010s">2010s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 2010s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deborah_S._Jin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Deborah_S._Jin.jpg/220px-Deborah_S._Jin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Deborah_S._Jin.jpg/330px-Deborah_S._Jin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Deborah_S._Jin.jpg/440px-Deborah_S._Jin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Deborah S. Jin known for creating the first fermionic condensate</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>2011: Taiwanese-American astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Chung-Pei_Ma" class="mw-redirect" title="Chung-Pei Ma">Chung-Pei Ma</a> led a team of scientists in discovering two of the largest <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> ever observed.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></li> <li>2012: Mildred Dresselhaus becomes the first female laureate of the <a href="/wiki/Kavli_Prize" title="Kavli Prize">Kavli Prize</a> in Nanosciences "for her pioneering contributions to the study of <a href="/wiki/Phonons" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonons">phonons</a>, electron-phonon interactions, and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_transport_in_nanostructures" title="Thermal transport in nanostructures">thermal transport in nanostructures</a>".<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Nashwa_Eassa" title="Nashwa Eassa">Nashwa Eassa</a> founded the NGO <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sudanese_Women_in_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sudanese Women in Sciences (page does not exist)">Sudanese Women in Sciences</a>.</li> <li>2014: American theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Anne Jackson</a> was awarded the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a>. Jackson had been the first African-American woman to receive a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the early 1970s, and the first woman to chair the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission">U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Amanda_Barnard" title="Amanda Barnard">Amanda Barnard</a> becomes the first woman to win the <a href="/wiki/Feynman_Prize_in_Nanotechnology" title="Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology">Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology</a> for her computational simulations on diamond nanoparticles.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Sabrina_Gonzalez_Pasterski" title="Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski">Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Strominger" title="Andrew Strominger">Andrew Strominger</a> and Alexander Zhiboedov, develops the <a href="/wiki/Pasterski%E2%80%93Strominger%E2%80%93Zhiboedov_triangle" title="Pasterski–Strominger–Zhiboedov triangle">Pasterski–Strominger–Zhiboedov triangle</a> relating soft particle theorems of quantum field theory, symmetries of space-time and <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_memory_effect" title="Gravitational memory effect">memory effects</a> in gravitational waves.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Fabiola_Gianotti" title="Fabiola Gianotti">Fabiola Gianotti</a> became the first woman <a href="/wiki/List_of_Directors_General_of_CERN" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Directors General of CERN">Director-General</a> of CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research)<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li> <li>2018: <ul><li>Astrophysicists <a href="/wiki/Hiranya_Peiris" title="Hiranya Peiris">Hiranya Peiris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Dunkley" class="mw-redirect" title="Joanna Dunkley">Joanna Dunkley</a> and Italian cosmologist <a href="/wiki/Licia_Verde" title="Licia Verde">Licia Verde</a> were among 27 scientists awarded the <a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Prize_in_Fundamental_Physics" title="Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics">Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics</a> for their contributions to "detailed maps of the early universe that greatly improved our knowledge of the evolution of the cosmos and the fluctuations that seeded the formation of galaxies".<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></li> <li>Astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a> received the special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for her scientific achievements and “inspiring leadership”, worth $3 million. She donated the entirety of the prize money towards the creation of scholarships to assist women, underrepresented minorities and refugees who are pursuing the study of physics.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></li> <li>Physicist Donna Strickland received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of <a href="/wiki/Laser_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser physics">laser physics</a>"; she shared it with <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Arthur Ashkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Gérard Mourou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-N18-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></li> <li>For the first time in history, women received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the Nobel Prize in Physics in the same year.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li> <li>Human right activist and physicist <a href="/wiki/Narges_Mohammadi" title="Narges Mohammadi">Narges Mohammadi</a> wins the <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a> prize by the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>, "for her leadership in campaigning for peace, justice, and the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Death-penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death-penalty">death penalty</a> and for her unwavering efforts to promote the human rights and freedoms of the Iranian people, despite persecution that has forced her to suspend her scientific pursuits and endure lengthy incarceration."<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ewine_van_Dishoeck" title="Ewine van Dishoeck">Ewine van Dishoeck</a> becomes the first female laureate of the <a href="/wiki/Kavli_Prize" title="Kavli Prize">Kavli Prize</a> in Astrophysics for "for her combined contributions to observational, theoretical, and laboratory <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">astrochemistry</a>, elucidating the life cycle of <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">interstellar clouds</a> and the formation of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Astro2018-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-166">[166]</a></li></ul></li> <li>2019: Mathematician <a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a> became the first woman to win the <a href="/wiki/Abel_Prize" title="Abel Prize">Abel Prize</a> for "her pioneering achievements in geometric <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial differential equations">partial differential equations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">gauge theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Integrable_system" title="Integrable system">integrable systems</a>, and for the fundamental impact of her work on <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>."<a href="#cite_note-citation-167">[167]</a></li> <li>2020: <ul><li>Andrea M. Ghez received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy." She shared half of the prize with <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Reinhard Genzel</a>, while the other half was awarded to <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></li> <li>Geoscientist <a href="/wiki/Ingeborg_Levin" title="Ingeborg Levin">Ingeborg Levin</a> was the first woman to receive the <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> medal from the <a href="/wiki/European_Geosciences_Union" title="European Geosciences Union">European Geosciences Union</a> "for fundamental contributions to our present knowledge and understanding of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, including the global carbon cycle."<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Combes" title="Françoise Combes">Françoise Combes</a> becomes the first female astrophysicist to win the <a href="/wiki/CNRS_Gold_Medal" title="CNRS Gold Medal">CNRS Gold Medal</a>, highest degree in research by the French government.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2020s">2020s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 2020s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>2022: Anne L’Huillier becomes the second female scientist to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics “for pioneering contributions to ultrafast laser science and attosecond physics”.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></li> <li>2022: Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ewine_van_Dishoeck" title="Ewine van Dishoeck">Ewine van Dishoeck</a> is awarded the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Niels_Bohr_Medal" title="UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal">UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></li> <li>2023: Professor <a href="/wiki/Polina_Bayvel" title="Polina Bayvel">Polina Bayvel</a> becomes the first woman to win the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Medal" title="Rumford Medal">Rumford Medal</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></li> <li>2023: Anne l'Huillier receives the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics for "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter" shared with <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Pierre Agostini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Ferenc Krausz</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" title="Timeline of women in science">Timeline of women in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women in science in the United States">Timeline of women in science in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_NASA" title="Women in NASA">Women in NASA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_physics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output 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.id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTeshWade2017" class="citation journal cs1">Tesh, Sarah; <a href="/wiki/Jess_Wade" title="Jess Wade">Wade, Jess</a> (2017). "Look happy dear, you've just made a discovery". Physics World. 30 (9): 31–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PhyW...30i..31T">2017PhyW...30i..31T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F2058-7058%2F30%2F9%2F35">10.1088/2058-7058/30/9/35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0953-8585">0953-8585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=Look+happy+dear%2C+you%27ve+just+made+a+discovery&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=31-33&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0953-8585&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F2058-7058%2F30%2F9%2F35&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PhyW...30i..31T&rft.aulast=Tesh&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Wade%2C+Jess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/nobel-prize-awarded-women">"Nobel Prize awarded women"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 391.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Herschel%2C+Caroline+Lucretia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=391&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuddleston2019" class="citation web cs1">Huddleston, Amara (July 17, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/features/happy-200th-birthday-eunice-foote-hidden-climate-science-pioneer">"Happy 200th birthday to Eunice Foote, hidden climate science pioneer"</a>. climate.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=climate.gov&rft.atitle=Happy+200th+birthday+to+Eunice+Foote%2C+hidden+climate+science+pioneer&rft.date=2019-07-17&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Amara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climate.gov%2Fnews-features%2Ffeatures%2Fhappy-200th-birthday-eunice-foote-hidden-climate-science-pioneer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerrick1982" class="citation journal cs1">Derrick, M. 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Taylor & Francis. p. 1241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415920407" title="Special:BookSources/9780415920407"><bdi>9780415920407</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Women+in+Science%3A+L-Z&rft.pages=1241&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780415920407&rft.aulast=Ogilvie&rft.aufirst=Marilyn+Bailey&rft.au=Harvey%2C+Joy+Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLTSYePZvSXYC%26q%3Disabelle%2Bstone%2Bphysics%26pg%3DPA1241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaley2008" class="citation book cs1">Staley, Richard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6J5_iXvkD6EC&q=isabelle+stone+physics&pg=PA168">Einstein's Generation: The Origins of the Relativity Revolution</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226770574" title="Special:BookSources/9780226770574"><bdi>9780226770574</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einstein%27s+Generation%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Relativity+Revolution&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780226770574&rft.aulast=Staley&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6J5_iXvkD6EC%26q%3Disabelle%2Bstone%2Bphysics%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaserud2013" class="citation book cs1">Aaserud, Finn, ed. 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Kovalevskaya, Sur Le Probleme De La Rotation D'Un Corps Solide Autour D'Un Point Fixe, Acta Mathematica 12 (1889) 177–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a>, A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies, Cambridge University Press (1952). </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuck2013" class="citation journal cs1">Duck, Francis (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328141849/https://www.ipem.ac.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/SCOPE/SCOPE_DEC2013_LR.pdf">"Edith Stoney MA, the first woman medical physicist"</a> (PDF). SCOPE. 22 (4): 49–54. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipem.ac.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/SCOPE/SCOPE_DEC2013_LR.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2019-03-28. Retrieved 2019-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SCOPE&rft.atitle=Edith+Stoney+MA%2C+the+first+woman+medical+physicist&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=49-54&rft.date=2013-12&rft.aulast=Duck&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipem.ac.uk%2FPortals%2F0%2FDocuments%2FPublications%2FSCOPE%2FSCOPE_DEC2013_LR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+physics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgilvie1986" class="citation book cs1">Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womeninscience00mari">Women in Science: Antiquity Through the Nineteenth Century : a Biographical Dictionary with Annotated Bibliography</a>. 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_physics" title="Template:History of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_physics" title="Template talk:History of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light" title="Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical 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