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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Role in winemaking</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_winemaking-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Role in winemaking subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_winemaking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_compounds_in_wine_produced_by_yeast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_compounds_in_wine_produced_by_yeast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Other compounds in wine produced by yeast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_compounds_in_wine_produced_by_yeast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Lees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_fermentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_fermentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Secondary fermentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_fermentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_yeasts_used_in_winemaking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_yeasts_used_in_winemaking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types of yeasts used in winemaking</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_yeasts_used_in_winemaking-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Yeasts used for alcoholic fermentation of wine</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg/300px-Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg/450px-Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg/600px-Stefano_Lubiana_Pinot_Noir_ferment_vintage_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>The process of fermentation at work on Pinot noir. As yeast consume the sugar in the <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a> it releases alcohol and carbon dioxide (seen here as the foaming bubbles) as byproducts.</figcaption></figure> <p>The role of <b>yeast in winemaking</b> is the most important element that distinguishes <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> <a href="/wiki/Juice" title="Juice">juice</a>. In the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anaerobic" class="extiw" title="wikt:anaerobic">absence of oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> converts the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_in_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar in wine">sugars</a> of the fruit into <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> through the process of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (wine)">fermentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more <a href="/wiki/Ripeness_in_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ripeness in wine">sugars in the grapes</a>, the higher the potential alcohol level of the wine if the yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation to <a href="/wiki/Dryness_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dryness (wine)">dryness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes winemakers will stop fermentation early in order to leave some <a href="/wiki/Residual_sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Residual sugars">residual sugars</a> and sweetness in the wine such as with <a href="/wiki/Dessert_wine" title="Dessert wine">dessert wines</a>. This can be achieved by dropping fermentation temperatures to the point where the yeast are inactive, sterile <a href="/wiki/Filtering_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filtering (wine)">filtering</a> the wine to remove the yeast or <a href="/wiki/Fortification_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortification (wine)">fortification</a> with <a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">brandy</a> or neutral spirits to kill off the yeast cells. If fermentation is unintentionally stopped, such as when the yeasts become exhausted of available nutrients and the wine has not yet reached dryness, this is considered a <a href="/wiki/Stuck_fermentation" title="Stuck fermentation">stuck fermentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common yeast associated with <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a> is <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> which has been favored due to its predictable and vigorous fermentation capabilities, tolerance of relatively high levels of alcohol and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> as well as its ability to thrive in normal wine <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> between 2.8 and 4. Despite its widespread use which often includes deliberate <a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">inoculation</a> from cultured stock, <i>S. cerevisiae</i> is rarely the only yeast species involved in a fermentation. Grapes brought in from <a href="/wiki/Harvest_(wine)" title="Harvest (wine)">harvest</a> are usually teeming with a variety of "wild yeast" from the <i><a href="/wiki/Kloeckera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kloeckera">Kloeckera</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>. These yeasts often begin the fermentation process almost as soon as the grapes are picked when the weight of the clusters in the harvest bins begin to crush the grapes, releasing the sugar-rich <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While additions of sulfur dioxide (often added at the crusher) may limit some of the wild yeast activities, these yeasts will usually die out once the alcohol level reaches about 15% due to the <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> of alcohol on the yeast cells <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> while the more alcohol tolerant <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a></i> species take over. In addition to <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_bayanus" title="Saccharomyces bayanus">Saccharomyces bayanus</a></i> is a species of yeast that can tolerate alcohol levels of 17–20% and is often used in fortified wine production such as <a href="/wiki/Port_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Port (wine)">ports</a> and varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Zinfandel" title="Zinfandel">Zinfandel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrah" title="Syrah">Syrah</a> harvested at high <a href="/wiki/Brix" title="Brix">Brix</a> sugar levels. Another common yeast involved in wine production is <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces" title="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</a></i> whose presence in a wine may be viewed by different winemakers as either a <a href="/wiki/Wine_fault" title="Wine fault">wine fault</a> or in limited quantities as an added note of complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/220px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/330px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/440px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2082" data-file-height="2532" /></a><figcaption>French scientist Louis Pasteur discovered the connection between microscopic yeast and the process of fermentation.</figcaption></figure> <p>For most of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">history of wine</a>, winemakers did not know the mechanism that somehow converted sugary grape juice into alcoholic wine. They could observe the fermentation process which was often described as "boiling", "seething" or the wine being "troubled" due to release of carbon dioxide that gave the wine a frothy, bubbling appearance. This history is preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of the word "yeast" itself which essentially means "to boil".<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-19th century, the French scientist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> was tasked by the French government to study what made some wines spoil. His work, which would later lead to Pasteur being considered one of the "Fathers of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>", would uncover the connection between microscopic yeast cells and the process of the fermentation. It was Pasteur who discovered that yeast converted sugars in the must into alcohol and carbon dioxide, though the exact mechanisms of how the yeast would accomplish this task was not discovered till the 20th century with the <a href="/wiki/Embden%E2%80%93Meyerhof%E2%80%93Parnas_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway">Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_508_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_508-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The yeast species commonly known as <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> was first identified in late 19th century enology text as <i>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</i> due to the <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">elliptical</a> (as opposed to circular) shape of the cells. Throughout the 20th century, more than 700 different <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strains</a> of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> were identified. The differences between the vast majority of these strains are mostly minor, though individual winemakers will develop a preference for particular strains when making certain wines or working with particular <a href="/wiki/Grape_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Grape varieties">grape varieties</a>. Some of these differences include the "vigor" or speed of fermentation, temperature tolerance, the production of volatile <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> compounds (such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>) and other compounds that may influence the <a href="/wiki/Aroma_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aroma (wine)">aroma</a> of the wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern winemaking, winemakers have the option to select from a diverse range of yeast strains, each offering distinct characteristics that influence the wine's sensory profile. These strains are readily available for purchase from specialized suppliers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winemakers can now easily access yeast strains that accentuate desirable features in wine, such as aromatic compounds, mouthfeel, and fermentation kinetics. This commercial availability of yeast strains has revolutionized the art of winemaking by allowing for more precise control over the fermentation process and the resultant wine's character. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_winemaking">Role in winemaking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Role in winemaking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg/220px-Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg/330px-Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg/440px-Ethanol_to_acetaldehyde.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="148" /></a><figcaption>In the absence of oxygen, yeast cells will take the pyruvate produced by glycolysis and reduce it into acetaldehyde which is further reduced into ethanol "recharging" the NAD+ co-enzymes that is needed for various metabolic processes of the yeast.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">Fermentation (biochemistry)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (wine)">Fermentation (wine)</a></div> <p>The primary role of yeast is to convert the sugars present (namely <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>) in the grape must into alcohol. The yeast accomplishes this by utilizing glucose through a series of metabolic pathways that, in the presence of oxygen, produces not only large amounts of energy for the cell but also many different intermediates that the cell needs to function. In the absence of oxygen (<a href="/wiki/Crabtree_effect" title="Crabtree effect">and sometimes even in the presence of oxygen</a><sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), the cell will continue some metabolic functions (such as <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>) but will rely on other pathways such as reduction of <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> into ethanol (fermentation) to "recharge" the <a href="/wiki/Co-enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-enzymes">co-enzymes</a> needed to keep metabolism going. It is through this process of fermentation that ethanol is released by the yeast cells as a waste product. Eventually, if the yeast cells are healthy and fermentation is allowed to run to the completion, all fermentable sugars will be used up by the yeast with only the unfermentable <a href="/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">pentose</a> leaving behind a negligible amount of residual sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_compounds_in_wine_produced_by_yeast">Other compounds in wine produced by yeast</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other compounds in wine produced by yeast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chardonnay-UVa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Chardonnay-UVa.jpg/220px-Chardonnay-UVa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Chardonnay-UVa.jpg/330px-Chardonnay-UVa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Chardonnay-UVa.jpg/440px-Chardonnay-UVa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption>If a Chardonnay has too much "buttery" diacetyl notes, winemakers may add fresh yeast to the wine to consume the diacetyl and reduce it to the more neutral-smelling fusel oil 2,3-Butanediol.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the production of alcohol is the most noteworthy by-product of yeast metabolism from a winemaking perspective, there are a number of other products that yeast produce that can be also influence the resulting wine. This includes <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a> which is produced when an intermediate of the glycolysis cycle (<a href="/wiki/Dihydroxyacetone" title="Dihydroxyacetone">dihydroxyacetone</a>) is reduced to "recharge" the <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NADH enzyme</a> needed to continue other metabolic activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is usually produced early in the fermentation process before the mechanisms to reduce acetaldehyde into ethanol to recharge NADH becomes the cell's primary means of maintaining <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> balance. As glycerol contributes increased <a href="/wiki/Body_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Body (wine)">body</a> and a slightly sweet taste without increasing the alcohol level of the wine, some winemakers try to intentionally favor conditions that would promote glycerol production in wine. This includes selecting yeast strains that favor glycerol production (or allowing some wild yeast like <i>Kloeckera</i> and <i>Metschnikowia</i> to ferment), increased oxygen exposure and aeration as well as fermenting at higher temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glycerol production is also encouraged if most available acetaldehyde is made unavailable by binding with <a href="/wiki/Bisulfite" title="Bisulfite">bisulfite</a> molecules in the wine, but it would take a substantial amount of sulfur dioxide addition (far beyond <a href="/wiki/Wine_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine laws">legal limits</a>) to prolong glycerol production beyond just these very nascent stages of fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Yair_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yair-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other by-products of yeast include:<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yair_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yair-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">Methanol</a> – Caused by the <a href="/wiki/Demethylation" title="Demethylation">demethylation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pectins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectins">pectins</a> in the must by enzymes of the yeast. More commonly found in red wines than white but only in very small amounts between 20 and 200 mg/L.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusel_oils" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusel oils">Fusel oils</a> – Formed by the decomposition of amino acids by the yeast. This includes <a href="/wiki/2,3-Butanediol" title="2,3-Butanediol">2,3-Butanediol</a> which is formed by yeast that are consuming <a href="/wiki/Diacetyl" title="Diacetyl">diacetyl</a>, the compound that gives <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a> and other wines a "<a href="/wiki/Butter" title="Butter">buttery</a>" aroma, reducing it first to <a href="/wiki/Acetoin" title="Acetoin">acetoin</a> and then to the more neutral-smelling 2,3-Butanediol. Many beer and winemakers who have a wine with too much "butteriness" will often "pitch" fresh yeast cultures into the no longer fermenting tank so that the yeast will consume the diacetyl and reduce the aroma.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succinic_acid" title="Succinic acid">Succinic acid</a> – Like glycerol, this is often formed early in fermentation. Usually found in concentrations of 500–1200 mg/L, it is a minor acid in the overall <a href="/wiki/Acidity_of_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity of wine">acidity of wine</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">Acetic acid</a> – Considered a main component of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile acidity">volatile acidity</a> that can make a wine taste unbalanced and overly acidic. While acetic acid is the main volatile acid produced by yeast, trace amounts of <a href="/wiki/Butyric_acid" title="Butyric acid">butyric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propionic_acid" title="Propionic acid">propionic</a> acids can also be formed depending on the yeast strain. Most countries have wine laws setting the legal limit of volatile acidity, usually expressed as acetic acid, to 1200–2000 mg/L. Acetic acid can also lead to the development of the wine fault <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_acetate" title="Ethyl acetate">ethyl acetate</a> which is characterized by a "nail polish remover" smell. However, small amounts of acetic acid are actually beneficial for the yeast as they use them to synthesis lipids in the cell membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CatavinoEnMano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/CatavinoEnMano.jpg/220px-CatavinoEnMano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/CatavinoEnMano.jpg/330px-CatavinoEnMano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/CatavinoEnMano.jpg/440px-CatavinoEnMano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The distinctive "aldehydic" notes of <a href="/wiki/Sherry_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherry wine">Sherry wines</a> are caused by special yeast native to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerez_wine_region&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerez wine region (page does not exist)">Jerez wine region</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a> – While most of the acetaldehyde produce gets reduced to ethanol or is bound by sulfur dioxide, concentrations between 50 and 100 mg/L can remain in the wine. The <a href="/wiki/Flor" title="Flor">flor</a> yeast strains that produce the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_wine" title="Spanish wine">Spanish wine</a> <a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">Sherry</a> will produce higher amounts that contributes to the characterized "aldehydic" aromas of Sherries. In the presence of oxygen, yeast can convert some of the ethanol presence in the wine back into acetaldehyde creating <a href="/wiki/Oxidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized">oxidized</a> aromas.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a> – Often produced by yeast during fermentation because of a nitrogen deficiency in the must. This can be done by a reduction of <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sulfite" title="Sulfite">sulfites</a> available in the must or by the decomposition of dead yeast cells by other yeast that releases sulfur-containing amino acids that are further broken down by the yeast. The latter often happens with wines that sit in contact with their lees for long periods of time between <a href="/wiki/Racking" title="Racking">rackings</a>. In the presence of alcohol, hydrogen sulfide can react with ethanol to form <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_mercaptan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl mercaptan">ethyl mercaptans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disulfide" title="Disulfide">disulfides</a> that contribute to off aromas and wine faults. Some commercial yeast strains, such as <i>Montrachet 522</i> are known to produce higher levels of hydrogen sulfides than other strains, particularly if the must has some nutrient deficiencies.<sup id="cite_ref-cox_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyruvic_acid" title="Pyruvic acid">Pyruvic acid</a> – Along with acetaldehyde, this compound can react with <a href="/wiki/Anthocyanins" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocyanins">anthocyanins</a> extracted from <a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">contact with grape skins</a> to create a more stable color pigment (<a href="/wiki/Pyranoanthocyanin" title="Pyranoanthocyanin">pyranoanthocyanin</a>) that can enhance the color of some red wines.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Various <a href="/wiki/Esters" class="mw-redirect" title="Esters">esters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ketones" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketones">ketones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactones" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactones">lactones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenols_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenols (wine)">phenols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetals" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetals">acetals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lees">Lees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg/220px-Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg/330px-Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg/440px-Undegorgierter_Champagner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>The lees left over from the secondary fermentation of sparkling wine can be seen on the bottom side of this bottle being inspected. Eventually this wine will go through riddling to collect the lees in the neck, where it will be removed prior to corking.</figcaption></figure> <p>When yeast cells die, they sink to the bottom of the fermentation vessel where they combine with insoluble <a href="/wiki/Tartrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartrates">tartrates</a>, grape seeds, skin and pulp fragments to form the <a href="/wiki/Lees_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lees (wine)">lees</a>. During fermentation, the first significant racking which removes the bulk of dead yeast cells is often referred to as the <i>gross lees</i> as opposed to the less coarse <i>fine lees</i> that come as the wine continues to <a href="/wiki/Settle_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Settle (wine)">settle</a> and age. During the time that the wine spends in contact with the lees, a number of changes can impact the wine due to both the <a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Autolysis (wine)">autolysis</a> (or self-metabolize) of the dead yeast cells as well as the <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reductive</a> conditions that can develop if the lees are not aerated or stirred (a process that the French call <i>bâtonnage</i>). The length of time that a wine spends on its lees (called <i>sur lie</i>) will depend on the winemaking style and type of wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_398–399_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_398–399-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process of leaving the wine to spend some contact with the lees has a long history in winemaking, being known to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans (wine)">Ancient Romans</a> and described by <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a> in the 2nd century BC. Today the practice is widely associated with any red wines that are <a href="/wiki/Oak_(wine)" title="Oak (wine)">barrel fermented</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscadet" title="Muscadet">Muscadet</a>, sparkling wine <a href="/wiki/Champagne_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Champagne (wine)">Champagne</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a> produced in many wine regions across the globe. Typically when wines are left in contact with their lees, they are regularly stirred in order to release the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mannoproteins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mannoproteins (page does not exist)">mannoproteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysaccharides">polysaccharides</a> and other compounds that were present in the yeast cell walls and membranes. This stirring also helps avoid the development of reductive sulfur compounds like <a href="/wiki/Mercaptans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercaptans">mercaptans</a> and hydrogen sulfide that can appear if the lees layer is more than 10 cm (3.9 in) thick and undisturbed for more than a week.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_398–399_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_398–399-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the benefits associated with lees contact deals with the influence on the wine of the mannoproteins released during the autolysis of the yeast cells. Composed primarily of <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">mannose</a> and proteins, with some glucose, mannoproteins are often bound in the cell wall of yeast with <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> aroma compounds that become <a href="/wiki/Volatilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatilized">volatilized</a> as the cell wall breaks down. Not only does the release of mannoproteins impart sensory changes in the wine but they can contribute to <a href="/wiki/Cold_stabilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold stabilization">tartrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat_stabilization" title="Heat stabilization">protein stability</a>, help enhance the <a href="/wiki/Body_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Body (wine)">body</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mouthfeel_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouthfeel (wine)">mouthfeel</a> of the wine as well as decrease the perception of bitterness and <a href="/wiki/Astringency_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astringency (wine)">astringency</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tannin_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannin (wine)">tannins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_fermentation">Secondary fermentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Secondary fermentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine_production" title="Sparkling wine production">Sparkling wine production</a></div> <p>The production of <a href="/wiki/Champagne" title="Champagne">Champagne</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine" title="Sparkling wine">sparkling wines</a> requires a second fermentation to occur in the bottle in order to produce the <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a> necessary for the style. A small amount of sugared liquid is added to individual bottles, and the yeast is allowed to convert this to more alcohol and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. The lees are then ricked into the neck of the bottle, frozen, and expelled via pressure of the carbonated wine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_yeasts_used_in_winemaking">Types of yeasts used in winemaking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of yeasts used in winemaking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vin_jaune_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Vin_jaune_13.jpg/220px-Vin_jaune_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Vin_jaune_13.jpg/330px-Vin_jaune_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Vin_jaune_13.jpg/440px-Vin_jaune_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>Film yeast on the surface of wine in a barrel of <i><a href="/wiki/Vin_jaune" title="Vin jaune">Vin jaune</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Jura_wine" title="Jura wine">Jura wine</a> region of France</figcaption></figure> <p>Yeast <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> includes classification of yeast species depending on <a href="/wiki/Mating_of_yeast" title="Mating of yeast">the presence or absence of a sexual phase</a>. Therefore, some winemaking yeasts are classified by their asexual <a href="/wiki/Anamorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorph">anamorph</a> (or "imperfect" form) while others may be classified by their sexual <a href="/wiki/Teleomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleomorph">teleomorph</a> (or "perfect" form). A common example of this is <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces" title="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</a></i> (or "Brett") that is usually referenced in wine and <a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">viticulture</a> text under its asexual classification though some scientific and winemaking texts may describe specific species (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dekkera_bruxellensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dekkera bruxellensis">Dekkera bruxellensis</a></i>) under its <a href="/wiki/Sporulating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporulating">sporulating</a> sexual classification of <i><a href="/wiki/Dekkera" class="mw-redirect" title="Dekkera">Dekkera</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unless otherwise noted, this article will commonly refer to the asexual form of wine yeast. </p><p>The most common yeast generally associated with winemaking is <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> which is also used in <a href="/wiki/Bread_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread making">bread making</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">brewing</a>. Other genera of yeast that can be involved in winemaking (either beneficially or as the cause of potential <a href="/wiki/Wine_faults" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine faults">wine faults</a>) include:<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces" title="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</a></i> (Teleomorph <i>Dekkera</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a></i> (Teleomorphs for different species from several genera including <i><a href="/wiki/Pichia" title="Pichia">Pichia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metschnikowia" title="Metschnikowia">Metschnikowia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Issatchenkia" title="Issatchenkia">Issatchenkia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Torulaspora" title="Torulaspora">Torulaspora</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Kluyveromyces" title="Kluyveromyces">Kluyveromyces</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kloeckera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kloeckera">Kloeckera</a></i> (Teleomorph <i>Hanseniaspora</i>), usually the most common "wild yeast" found in the vineyard. Some species are known as "<a href="/wiki/Killer_yeast" title="Killer yeast">killer yeast</a>" that produce inhibitory levels of <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_acetate" title="Ethyl acetate">ethyl acetate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> that can kill off sensitive strains of <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycodes" title="Saccharomycodes">Saccharomycodes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces" title="Schizosaccharomyces">Schizosaccharomyces</a></i>, the only wine yeast that reproduced by <a href="/wiki/Fission_(biology)" title="Fission (biology)">fission</a> whereas most wine yeast reproduce by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zygosaccharomyces" title="Zygosaccharomyces">Zygosaccharomyces</a></i>, very alcohol-tolerant and can grow in wines up to 18% v/v. Additionally this yeast can survive in extremely high sugar levels (as much as 60% w/w or 60 <a href="/wiki/Brix" title="Brix">Brix</a>) and is very resistant to sulfur dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aureobasidium" title="Aureobasidium">Aureobasidium</a></i>, particularly the "black yeast" species of <i><a href="/wiki/Aureobasidium_pullulans" title="Aureobasidium pullulans">Aureobasidium pullulans</a></i> found in moist cellars that can contaminate <a href="/wiki/Aging_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging wine">aging wine</a> in barrels.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Saccharomyces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/220px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/330px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/440px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption><i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> as seen under a Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) microscope</figcaption></figure> <p>The yeast genus <i>Saccharomyces</i> (sugar mold) is favored for winemaking (for both grapes as well as other <a href="/wiki/Fruit_wines" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit wines">fruit wines</a> in addition to being used in brewing and breadmaking) because of the generally reliable and positive attributes it can bring to the wine. These yeasts will usually readily <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">ferment</a> <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raffinose" title="Raffinose">raffinose</a> and metabolize glucose, sucrose, raffinose, <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>. However, <i>Saccharomyces</i> cannot ferment or utilize <a href="/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">pentoses</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Arabinose" title="Arabinose">arabinose</a>) which is usually present in small amount in wines as residual sugars.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, other species within the genus <i>Saccharomyces</i> that are involved with winemaking include:<sup id="cite_ref-cox_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_bayanus" title="Saccharomyces bayanus">Saccharomyces bayanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_beticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharomyces beticus">Saccharomyces beticus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_fermentati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saccharomyces fermentati (page does not exist)">Saccharomyces fermentati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_paradoxus" title="Saccharomyces paradoxus">Saccharomyces paradoxus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_pastorianus" title="Saccharomyces pastorianus">Saccharomyces pastorianus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_uvarum" title="Saccharomyces uvarum">Saccharomyces uvarum</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences_of_different_strains_on_fermentation">Influences of different strains on fermentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Influences of different strains on fermentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smelling_the_wine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Smelling_the_wine.jpg/220px-Smelling_the_wine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Smelling_the_wine.jpg/330px-Smelling_the_wine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Smelling_the_wine.jpg/440px-Smelling_the_wine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1589" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>While some strains of yeast may influence the sensory characteristics and aromas of young wine, these differences seem to fade as the wine ages.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1996, <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> was the first single-celled, <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> organism to have its entire <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> <a href="/wiki/Sequenced" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequenced">sequenced</a>. This sequencing helped confirm the nearly century of work by <a href="/wiki/Mycologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycologist">mycologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Enologist">enologists</a> in identifying different <a href="/wiki/Strains_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strains (biology)">strains</a> of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> that are used in <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a>. Today there are several hundred different strains of <i>S. cerevisiae</i> identified.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all of the strains are suitable for winemaking and even among the strains that are, there is debate among winemakers and scientists about the actual magnitude of differences between the various strains and their potential impact on the wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even among strains that have demonstrated distinctive difference when compared among young wines, these differences seem to fade and become less distinctive as the <a href="/wiki/Wines_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Wines age">wines age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some distinct difference among various strains include the production of certain "off-flavor" and aromas that may be temporary (but producing a "stinky fermentation") or could stay with the wine and either have to be dealt with through other winemaking means (such as the presence of volatile sulfur compounds like <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>) or leave a faulty wine. Another difference includes the "vigor" or speed of fermentation (which can also be influenced by other factors beyond yeast selection) with some yeast strains having the tendency to do "fast ferments" while others may take longer to get going.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another less measurable difference that are subject to more debate and questions of winemakers preference is the influence of strain selection on the <a href="/wiki/Varietal" title="Varietal">varietal</a> flavors of certainly grape varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Sauvignon_blanc" title="Sauvignon blanc">Sauvignon blanc</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9millon" title="Sémillon">Sémillon</a>. It is believed that these wines can be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Thiols" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiols">thiols</a> produced by the <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> of certain <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>-linked compounds by <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> that are more prevalent in particular strains. Other aromatic varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Gew%C3%BCrztraminer" title="Gewürztraminer">Gewürztraminer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riesling" title="Riesling">Riesling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscat_(grape)" title="Muscat (grape)">Muscat</a> may also be influenced by yeast strains containing high levels of <a href="/wiki/Glycosidases" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosidases">glycosidases</a> enzymes that can modify <a href="/wiki/Monoterpenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoterpenes">monoterpenes</a>. Similarly, though potentially to a much smaller extent, other varieties could be influenced by hydrolytic enzymes working on <a href="/wiki/Aliphatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliphatics">aliphatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norisoprenoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Norisoprenoids">norisoprenoids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> derivatives such as <a href="/wiki/Polyphenols_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphenols (wine)">polyphenols</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine_production" title="Sparkling wine production">sparkling wine production</a> some winemakers select strains (such as one known as <i>Épernay</i> named after the town in the <a href="/wiki/Champagne_wine_region" title="Champagne wine region">Champagne wine region</a> of <a href="/wiki/France_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="France (wine)">France</a> and <i>California Champagne</i>, also known as <a href="/wiki/UC-Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="UC-Davis">UC-Davis</a> strain 505) that are known to <a href="/wiki/Flocculate" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocculate">flocculate</a> well, allowing the dead yeast cells to be removed easily by <a href="/wiki/Riddling" class="mw-redirect" title="Riddling">riddling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disgorging" class="mw-redirect" title="Disgorging">disgorgement</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">Sherry</a> production, the surface film of yeast known as <a href="/wiki/Flor" title="Flor">flor</a> used to make the distinctive style of <a href="/wiki/Fino" title="Fino">fino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manzanilla_(wine)" title="Manzanilla (wine)">manzanilla</a> sherries comes from different strains of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the commercial flor yeast available for inoculation is often from different species of <i>Saccharomyces</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_beticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharomyces beticus">Saccharomyces beticus</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_fermentati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saccharomyces fermentati (page does not exist)">Saccharomyces fermentati</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_bayanus" title="Saccharomyces bayanus">Saccharomyces bayanus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bird_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wild_yeasts_and_natural_fermentation">Wild yeasts and natural fermentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wild yeasts and natural fermentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg/220px-Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg/330px-Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg/440px-Female_Mexican_fruit_fly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption>Fruit flies are a common vector that transports ambient or "wild" yeast strains within wineries.</figcaption></figure> <p>In winemaking, the term "wild yeast" has multiple meanings. In its most basic context, it refers to yeast that has not been introduced to the must by intentional inoculation of a cultured strain. Instead, these "wild yeasts" often come into contact with the must through their presence on harvest equipment, transport bins, the surface winemaking equipment and as part of the natural <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> of a winery. Very often these are strains of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> that have taken residence in these places over the years, sometimes being previously introduced by inoculation of prior vintages. In this context, these wild yeasts are often referred to as <b>ambient</b>, <b>indigenous</b> or <b>natural</b> yeast as opposed to <b>inoculated</b>, <b>selected</b> or <b>cultured yeast</b>. Wineries that often solely rely on these "in-house" strains will sometimes market their wines as being the product of wild or <i>natural fermentations</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The (c. 304) <i><a href="/wiki/Nanfang_Caomu_Zhuang" title="Nanfang Caomu Zhuang">Nanfang Caomu Zhuang</a></i> has the earliest description of winemaking using "<a href="/wiki/Nanfang_Caomu_Zhuang#Herb_ferment" title="Nanfang Caomu Zhuang">herb ferment</a>" (<i>cǎoqū</i> 草麴) wild yeast with rice and various herbs, including the poisonous <i><a href="/wiki/Gelsemium" title="Gelsemium">Gelsemium elegans</a></i> (<i>yěgé</i> 冶葛).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another use of the term "wild yeast" refers to the non-<i>Saccharomyces</i> genera of yeasts that are present in the vineyard, on the surface of <a href="/wiki/Grapevines" class="mw-redirect" title="Grapevines">grapevines</a> and of the grapes themselves. Anywhere from 160 to 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Colony_forming_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony forming units">colony forming units</a> of wild yeasts per berry could exist in a typical vineyard. These yeasts can be carried by air currents, birds and insects through the vineyard and even into the winery (such as by <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fruit_fly" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Fruit fly">fruit flies</a>). The most common wild yeasts found in the vineyard are from the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Kloeckera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kloeckera">Kloeckera</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)">Candida</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pichia" title="Pichia">Pichia</a></i> with the species <i><a href="/wiki/Kloeckera_apiculata" class="mw-redirect" title="Kloeckera apiculata">Kloeckera apiculata</a></i> being the most dominant species by far.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, itself, is actually quite rarely found in the vineyard or on the surface freshly harvested wine grapes unless the winery frequently reintroduced winery waste (such as <a href="/wiki/Lees_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lees (wine)">lees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">pomace</a>) into the vineyard.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the "ambient" <i>Saccharomyces</i> wild yeast, these genera of wild yeasts have very low tolerance to both alcohol and sulfur dioxide. They are capable of starting a fermentation and often begin this process as early as the harvest bin when clusters of grapes get slightly crushed under their own weight. Some winemakers will try to "knock out" these yeasts with doses of sulfur dioxide, most often at the crusher before the grapes are <a href="/wiki/Pressed_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressed (wine)">pressed</a> or allowed to <a href="/wiki/Macerate_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macerate (wine)">macerate</a> with skin contact. Other winemakers may allow the wild yeasts to continue fermenting until they succumb to the toxicity of the alcohol they produce which is often between 3–5% alcohol by volume and then letting either inoculated or "ambient" <i>Saccharomyces</i> strains finish the fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg/220px-Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg/330px-Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg/440px-Pomace_in_the_vineyard_after_pressing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Wineries that wish to cultivate an "in-house" ambient yeast strain will often recycle the leftover pomace of previous vintages as compost in the vineyard.</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of both "ambient" and non-<i>Saccharomyces</i> wild yeasts carries both potential benefits and risk. Some winemakers feel that the use of resident/indigenous yeast helps contribute to the unique expression of <i><a href="/wiki/Terroir" title="Terroir">terroir</a></i> in the wine. In wine regions such as <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bordeaux (wine)">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classified_Bordeaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Classified Bordeaux">classified</a> and highly regarded estates will often tout the quality of their resident "chateau" strains. To this extent, wineries will often take the leftover <a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">pomace</a> and lees from winemaking and return them to the vineyard to be used as <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a> in order to encourage the sustained presence of favorable strains. But compared to inoculated yeast, these ambient yeasts hold the risk of having a more unpredictable fermentation. Not only could this unpredictability include the presence of off-flavors/aromas and higher <a href="/wiki/Volatile_acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile acidity">volatile acidity</a> but also the potential for a stuck fermentation if the indigenous yeast strains are not vigorous enough to fully convert all the sugars.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is virtually inevitable that non-<i>Saccharomyces</i> wild yeast will have a role in beginning the fermentation of virtually every wine but for the wineries that choose to allow these yeasts to continue fermenting versus minimizing their influence do so with the intent of enhancing complexity through bio-diversity. While these non-<i>Saccharomyces</i> ferment glucose and fructose into alcohol, they also have the potential to create other intermediates that could influence the aroma and flavor profile of the wine. Some of these intermediates could be positive, such as <a href="/wiki/Phenethyl_alcohol" title="Phenethyl alcohol">phenylethanol</a>, which can impart a <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a>-like aroma.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as with ambient yeasts, the products of these yeasts can be very unpredictable – especially in terms of the types of flavors and aromas that these yeasts can produce.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inoculated_yeast">Inoculated yeast</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inoculated yeast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG/220px-Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG/330px-Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG/440px-Yeast_and_nutrients.JPG 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>Some winemakers favor the use of freeze-dried cultured yeast (left) and yeast nutrients (right) because of their relative predictability in beginning and completing a fermentation.</figcaption></figure> <p>When winemakers select a cultured yeast strain, it is largely done because the winemaker wants a predictable fermentation taken to completion by a strain that has a track record of dependability. Among the particular considerations that are often important to winemakers is a yeast's tendency to:<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Quickly begin fermentation, out-competing other "wild yeasts" for nutrients in the must</li> <li>Completely utilize all fermentable sugars with a predictable sugar-to-alcohol conversion rate</li> <li>Have an alcohol-tolerance up to 15% or even higher depending on the winemaking style</li> <li>Have a high sulfur dioxide tolerance but low production of sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide or <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfide" title="Dimethyl sulfide">dimethyl sulfide</a></li> <li>Produce a minimum amount of residual <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a></li> <li>Produce minimum foaming during fermentation which may create difficulties for cap management during <a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">maceration</a> or cause bungs to pop out during <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrel (wine)">barrel</a> fermentation.</li> <li>Have high levels of <a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">flocculation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lees_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lees (wine)">lees</a> compaction that makes <a href="/wiki/Racking" title="Racking">racking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fining_and_filtering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fining and filtering">fining and filtering</a> of the wine easier.</li></ul> <p>Inoculated (or <i>pure cultured</i>) yeasts are strains of <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> that have been identified and plated from wineries across the world (including notable producers from well-known wine regions such as <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bordeaux (wine)">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundy (wine)">Burgundy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Napa_Valley_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Napa Valley (wine)">Napa Valley</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Barossa_Valley_(wine)" title="Barossa Valley (wine)">Barossa Valley</a>). These strains are tested in laboratories to determine a strain's vigor, sulfur dioxide and alcohol tolerance, production levels of acetic acid and sulfur compounds, ability to re-ferment (positive for sparkling wine but a negative attribute for sweet <a href="/wiki/Late-harvest_wines" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-harvest wines">late-harvest wines</a>), development of surface film on the wine (positive for <a href="/wiki/Flor" title="Flor">some Sherry styles</a> but a negative attribute for many other wines), enhancement of a wine's color or certain varietal characteristics by enzymes in the yeast cells and other metabolic products produced by the yeast, foaming and flocculation tendencies, yeasticidal properties (a trait known as "<a href="/wiki/Killer_yeast" title="Killer yeast">Killer yeast</a>") and tolerance for nutritional deficiencies in a must that may lead to a stuck fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Re-hydrating_freeze_dried_yeast_cultures">Re-hydrating freeze dried yeast cultures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Re-hydrating freeze dried yeast cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG/220px-Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG/330px-Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG/440px-Adding_Agria_wine_to_rehydrated_yeast_to_prepare_culture_inoculum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Preparing a yeast starter culture and gradually cooling the culture down to the must temperature by adding some wine</figcaption></figure> <p>Pure culture yeasts that are grown in a lab are often <a href="/wiki/Freeze_dried" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze dried">freeze dried</a> and packaged for commercial use. Prior to their addition into must, these yeasts need to be re-hydrated in "starter cultures" that must be carefully monitored (particularly in regards to temperature) to ensure that the yeast cells are not killed off by <a href="/wiki/Cold_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold shock">cold shock</a>. Ideally winemakers want to add enough inoculum to have a viable cell population density of 5 million cells per milliliter. The exact amount of freeze-dried culture varies by manufacturer and strain of yeast but it is often around 1 gram per gallon (or 25 grams per 100 liters). Wines that could have potentially problematic fermentation (such as high sugar level late harvest or botryized wines) may have more yeast added.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, re-hydration procedures will also vary depending on the manufacturer and winery. Yeast is often inoculated in a volume of water or grape must that is 5–10 times the weight of the dry yeast. This liquid is often brought to temperature of 40 °C (104 °F) prior to the introduction of the yeast (though some yeast strains may need temperatures below 38 °C (100 °F)<sup id="cite_ref-cox_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to allow the cells to disperse easily rather than clump and sink to the bottom of the container. The heat activation also allows the cells to quickly reestablish their membrane barrier before soluble <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic">cytoplasmic</a> components escape the cell. Re-hydration at lower temperatures can greatly reduce the viability of the yeast with up to 60% cell death if the yeast is re-hydrated at 15 °C (59 °F). The culture is then stirred and aerated to incorporate oxygen into the culture which the yeast uses in the synthesis of needed survival factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The temperature of the starter culture is then slowly reduced, often by the graduated addition of must to get within 5–10 °C (41–50 °F) of the must that the culture will be added to. This is done to avoid the sudden cold shock that the yeast cells may experience if the starter culture was added directly to the must itself which can kill up to 60% of the culture. Additionally, surviving cells exposed to cold shock tend to see an increase in hydrogen sulfide production.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutritional_needs_of_wine_yeast">Nutritional needs of wine yeast</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nutritional needs of wine yeast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diammonium_phosphate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diammonium_phosphate.png/220px-Diammonium_phosphate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diammonium_phosphate.png/330px-Diammonium_phosphate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diammonium_phosphate.png/440px-Diammonium_phosphate.png 2x" data-file-width="873" data-file-height="421" /></a><figcaption>Diammonium phosphate (or DAP) is a common additive that provides two necessary nutrients for yeast to have a healthy and sustained fermentation – nitrogen and phosphate.</figcaption></figure> <p>In order to successfully complete a fermentation with minimum to no negative attributes being added to the wine, yeast needs to have the full assortment of its nutritional needs met. These include not only an available energy source (carbon in the form of sugars such as glucose) and <a href="/wiki/Yeast_assimilable_nitrogen" title="Yeast assimilable nitrogen">yeast assimilable nitrogen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a> or YAN) but also <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Thiamin" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiamin">thiamin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">riboflavin</a>) that serve as important growth and survival factors. Among the other nutritional needs of wine yeast:<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">Phosphate</a> – used for the production of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">nucleic acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">phospholipids</a> (an important component of the cell membrane) and ATP (<a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">Adenosine triphosphate</a> which the cell uses for transferring energy for metabolism).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> – important for the uptake and utilization of phosphate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">Biotin</a> – involved in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a> and nucleic acids.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantothenic_acid" title="Pantothenic acid">Pantothenic acid</a> – involved in the metabolism of sugars and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. A deficiency of this vitamin could lead into increase hydrogen sulfide production with off-aromas in the resulting wine.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicotinic acid">Nicotinic acid</a> – involved in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide</a> (NAD+), a co-enzyme that is important in maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> balance of the cell as well as in the process of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">ethanol fermentation</a> itself.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inositol" title="Inositol">Inositol</a> – involved with the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_messenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary messenger">secondary messenger</a> molecules that facilitate <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>.</li> <li>Trace amounts of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> for healthy cell function.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg/220px-Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg/330px-Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg/440px-Red_wine_grape_pomace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>One traditional way of providing nutrients for the yeast is the <i>ripasso</i> method where the leftover grape skins and pomace <i>(pictured)</i> from a previous fermentation is added to a newly fermenting wine.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many of these nutrients are available in the must and skins of the grapes themselves but sometimes are supplemented by winemakers with additions such as <a href="/wiki/Diammonium_phosphate" title="Diammonium phosphate">diammonium phosphate</a> (DAP), freeze-dried micro-nutrients (such as <i>Go-Ferm</i> and <i>Ferm-K</i>) and even the remnant of dead or extracted yeast cells such that the fermenting yeast can break down to mine for available nitrogen and nutrients. One historical winemaking tradition that is still practiced in some <a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Italian wine</a> regions is the <i><a href="/wiki/Ripasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Ripasso">ripasso</a></i> method of adding the leftover <a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">pomace</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">pressing</a> of other wines into a newly fermenting batch of wine as an additional food source for the yeast.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> can assimilate nitrogen from both inorganic (ammonia and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a>) and organic forms (amino acids, particularly <a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a>). As yeast cells die, enzymes within the cells begin <a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">autolyzing</a> by breaking down the cell, including the amino acids. This autolysis of the cell provides an available nitrogen source for the still-fermenting and viable yeast cells. However, this autolysis can also release sulfur-link compounds (such as the breakdown of amino acid <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">cysteine</a>) which can combine with other molecules and react with alcohol to create volatile <a href="/wiki/Thiols" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiols">thiols</a> that can contribute to a "stinky fermentation" or later development into various wine faults.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_oxygen">The role of oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The role of oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yeasts are <a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative anaerobes">facultative anaerobes</a> meaning that they can exist in both the presence and absence of oxygen. While fermentation is traditionally thought of as an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anaerobic" class="extiw" title="wikt:anaerobic">anaerobic</a> process done in the absence of oxygen, early exposure of the yeast to oxygen can be a vital component in the successful completion of that fermentation. This is because oxygen is important in the synthesis of cell "survival factors" such as <a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">ergosterol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lanosterol" title="Lanosterol">lanosterol</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Sterols" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterols">sterols</a> are important in maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Selective_permeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective permeability">selective permeability</a> of the yeast cell membrane which becomes critical as the yeast becomes exposed to increasing <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> and levels of alcohol in the wine. As a waste product of its own metabolism, alcohol is actually very toxic to yeast cells. Yeast with weak survival factors and lacking sterols may succumb to these conditions before fermenting a wine to complete dryness, leaving a stuck fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cultured yeasts that are freeze-dried and available for inoculation of wine must are deliberately grown in commercial labs in high oxygen/low sugar conditions that favor the development of these survival factors. One of the reasons that some winemakers prefer using inoculated yeast is the predictability of fermentation due to the high level of survival factors that cultured yeast are assured of having without necessarily needing to expose the wine to additional levels of oxygen. Winemakers using "ambient" yeasts that are resident in their winery may not have this same assurance of survival factors and may need to compensate with other winemaking techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wild non-<i>Saccharomyces</i> yeasts often need a much greater exposure to oxygen in order to build up survival factors which is why many of these yeasts are often found living oxidatively as "film yeast" on the surface of wines in tanks or barrels.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wine_faults_related_to_yeast">Wine faults related to yeast</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Wine faults related to yeast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candida.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Candida.JPG/220px-Candida.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Candida.JPG/330px-Candida.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Candida.JPG/440px-Candida.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Film yeast like <i>Candida</i> (<i>pictured</i>) and <i>Pichia</i> can cover the surface of a wine with a film layer that not only consumed most of the free sulfur dioxide available to protect the wine but also produces high levels of acetic acid that will contribute to volatile acidity in a wine.</figcaption></figure> <p>Either directly or indirectly, wine yeast can be a culprit behind a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Wine_faults" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine faults">wine faults</a>. These can include the presence of "<a href="/wiki/Off-flavours" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-flavours">off flavors</a>" and aromas that can be the by-product of some "wild yeast" fermentation such as those by species within the genera of <i>Kloeckera</i> and <i>Candida</i>. Even the common wine yeast <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> can be behind some wine faults with some strains of the yeast known to produce higher than ideal levels of <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> and volatile sulfur compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Thiols" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiols">thiols</a>. Also any yeast can have a low tolerance to nutritional deficiencies, temperature fluctuation or extremes and excessive or low sugar levels that may lead to a <a href="/wiki/Stuck_fermentation" title="Stuck fermentation">stuck fermentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the presence of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> several species of <i>Candida</i> and <i>Pichia</i> can create a <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">film surface</a> on top of the wine in the tank of barrel. Allowed to go unchecked, these yeasts can rapidly deplete the available free sulfur compounds that keeps a wine protected from oxidation and other <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbial</a> attack. The presence of these yeasts is often identified by elevated levels of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile acidity">volatile acidity</a>, particularly acetic acid. Some strains of <i>Pichia</i> will metabolize acetic acid (as well as <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_acetate" title="Ethyl acetate">ethyl acetate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isoamyl_acetate" title="Isoamyl acetate">isoamyl acetate</a> that may also be produced) with the side-effect of substantially decreasing the <a href="/wiki/Titratable_acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Titratable acidity">titratable acidity</a> and shifting the pH of wine upwards to levels that make the wine prone to attack by other spoilage microbes. Commonly called "film yeast", these yeasts are distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Flor" title="Flor">flor</a> sherry yeast that are usually welcomed by winemakers in producing the delicate fino-style wines.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Growth of many unfavorable wild yeasts is generally slowed at lower cellar temperatures, so many winemakers who wish to inhibit the activities of these yeasts before the more favorable <i>Saccharomyces</i> yeast kick in, will often chill their must, such as the practice of "cold soaking" the must during a pre-fermentation <a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">maceration</a> at temperatures between 4–15 °C (39–59 °F). Though some species, such as <i>Brettanomyces</i>, will not be inhibited and may even thrive during an extended period of cold soaking.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brettanomyces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG/220px-Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG/330px-Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG/440px-Aspect_de_brettanomyces_bruxellensis_sur_g%C3%A9lose_YPD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>While some wine regions view the influence of <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces" title="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</a></i> on the wine, in limited amounts, as added complexity, many winemakers view the presence of <i>Brettanomyces</i> species such as <i>Brettanomyces bruxellensis</i> (<i>pictured</i>) in their wineries as a negative influence that needs to be controlled.</figcaption></figure> <p>The wine yeast <i>Brettanomyces</i> (or "Brett") produces very distinctive aroma compounds, <a href="/wiki/4-Ethylphenol" title="4-Ethylphenol">4-Ethylphenol</a> (4-EP) and <a href="/wiki/4-Ethylguaiacol" title="4-Ethylguaiacol">4-Ethylguaiacol</a> (4-EG), that can have a wine being described as smelling like a "barnyard", "wet saddle" or "band-aid". To some winemakers and with some wine styles (such as <a href="/wiki/Pinot_noir" title="Pinot noir">Pinot noir</a> from <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundy (wine)">Burgundy</a>), a limited amount of these compounds could be considered a positive attribute that adds to the complexity of wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To other winemakers and with other wine styles (such as <a href="/wiki/Riesling" title="Riesling">Riesling</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Mosel_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosel (wine)">Mosel</a>), the presence of any Brett will be considered a fault.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldy_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldy-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fruit_fly" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Fruit fly">Fruit flies</a> are common <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a> in the transfer of <i>Brettanomyces</i> between tanks and even nearby wineries.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a fermentation yeast, <i>Brettanomyces</i> can usually ferment a wine up to 10–11% alcohol levels before they die out. Sometimes <i>Brettanomyces</i> already present in a wine that has been inoculated with <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> will out compete the <i>Saccharomyces</i> strain for nutrients and even inhibit it due to the high levels of acetic acid, <a href="/wiki/Decanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Decanoic acid">decanoic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Octanoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Octanoic acid">octanoic acid</a> that many strains of <i>Brettanomyces</i> can produce.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once Brett is in a winery, it is very difficult to control even with strict hygiene and the discarding of barrels and equipment that has previously come into contact with "Bretty" wine. This is because many species of <i>Brettanomyces</i> can use a wide variety of carbon sources in wine and grape must, including <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, for metabolism. Additionally, Brett can produce a wide range of by-products that could influence the wine beyond just the 4-EP and 4-EG compounds previously discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these compounds, such as the "footprints" of the 4-EP and 4-EG, will still remain in the wine even after yeast cells die and are removed by racking and sterile filtration.<sup id="cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cox-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cox_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cox_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cox_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cox_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cox_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeff Cox <i>"From Vines to Wines: The Complete Guide to Growing Grapes and Making Your Own Wine"</i> pp. 133–36 Storey Publishing 1999 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1580171052" title="Special:BookSources/1580171052">1580171052</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bird-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bird_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bird_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Bird <i>"Understanding Wine Technology"</i> pp. 67–73 DBQA Publishing 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1891267914" title="Special:BookSources/1891267914">1891267914</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_778–780-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_778–780_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pp. 778–80 <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198609906" title="Special:BookSources/0198609906">0198609906</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Micro_pgs_3-28_4-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. Fugelsang, C. Edwards <i>Wine Microbiology</i> Second Edition pp. 3–28 Springer Science and Business Media, New York (2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0387333495" title="Special:BookSources/0387333495">0387333495</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_pgs_281-290_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Zoecklein, K. Fugelsang, B. Gump, F. Nury <i>Wine Analysis and Production</i> pp. 281–90 Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York (1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0834217015" title="Special:BookSources/0834217015">0834217015</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas Harper <i>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=yeast">Yeast</a>"</i> Online Etymology Dictionary Accessed: May 31st, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_508-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_508_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pgs 267 & 508 <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198609906" title="Special:BookSources/0198609906">0198609906</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shop.scottlab.com/yeast">"Wine Yeast"</a>. Scott Labs<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wine+Yeast&rft.pub=Scott+Labs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshop.scottlab.com%2Fyeast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast+in+winemaking" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zoecklein-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zoecklein_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Zoecklein, K. Fugelsang, B. Gump, F. Nury <i>Wine Analysis and Production</i> pp. 97–114 Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York (1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0834217015" title="Special:BookSources/0834217015">0834217015</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yair-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yair_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yair_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. Yair Margalit, <i>Winery Technology & Operations A Handbook for Small Wineries</i> pp. 67–74 The Wine Appreciation Guild (1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0932664660" title="Special:BookSources/0932664660">0932664660</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brewing Science <i>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://byo.com/stories/article/indices/18-brewing-science/550-diacetyl-homebrew-science">Diacetyl: Homebrew Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202165052/http://byo.com/stories/article/indices/18-brewing-science/550-diacetyl-homebrew-science">Archived</a> 2010-02-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"</i> <i>Brew Magazine</i> November, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_398–399-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_398–399_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_398–399_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pp. 398–99 <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198609906" title="Special:BookSources/0198609906">0198609906</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Needham and Huang Hsing-Tsung (2000), <i>Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 6 Biology and Biological Technology, Part 5: Fermentations and Food Science</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Li Hui-Lin (1979), <i>Nan-fang ts'ao-mu chuang: a fourth century flora of Southeast Asia</i>, The Chinese University Press, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baldy-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baldy_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Baldy <i>The University Wine Course</i> p. 80 The Wine Appreciation Guild Third Edition 2009 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0932664695" title="Special:BookSources/0932664695">0932664695</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_in_winemaking&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>P. Romano, C. Fiore, M. Paraggio, M. Caruso, A. Capece <i>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fermentingyeasts.org/public/File/Function%20of%20yeast%20species%20and%20strains%20in%20wine%20flavour.pdf">Function of yeast species and strains in wine flavour</a>"</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150606045515/http://www.fermentingyeasts.org/public/File/Function%20of%20yeast%20species%20and%20strains%20in%20wine%20flavour.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-06-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. International Journal of Food Microbiology 86 (2003). pp. 169–180.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Winemaking" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Winemaking" title="Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Winemaking" title="Template talk:Winemaking"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Winemaking" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvest_(wine)" title="Harvest (wine)">Harvest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_harvest_wine" title="Late harvest wine">Late harvest wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_rot" title="Noble rot">Noble rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage" title="Vintage">Vintage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">Pressing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acids_in_wine" title="Acids in wine">Deacidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destemming" class="mw-redirect" title="Destemming">Destemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaptalization" title="Chaptalization">Chaptalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">Wine press</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">Maceration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_maceration" title="Carbonic maceration">Carbonic maceration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_winemaking" title="Fermentation in winemaking">Fermentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malolactic_fermentation" title="Malolactic fermentation">Malolactic fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine_production" title="Sparkling wine production">Sparkling wine production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugars_in_wine" title="Sugars in wine">Sugars in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCssreserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Süssreserve">Süssreserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_method" title="Traditional method">Traditional method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_assimilable_nitrogen" title="Yeast assimilable nitrogen">Yeast assimilable nitrogen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_wine" title="Aging of wine">Aging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oak_(wine)" title="Oak (wine)">Oak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solera" title="Solera">Solera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cellar" title="Wine cellar">Wine cellar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other steps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarification_and_stabilization_of_wine" title="Clarification and stabilization of wine">Clarification and stabilization of wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winery" title="Winery">Winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bottle" title="Wine bottle">Wine bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_viticulture_terms" title="Glossary of viticulture terms">Glossary of viticulture terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_winemaking_terms" title="Glossary of winemaking terms">Glossary of winemaking terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting_descriptors" title="Wine tasting descriptors">Wine tasting descriptors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press" title="History of the wine press">History of the wine press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terroir" title="Terroir">Terroir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/8px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/13px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/17px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="948" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wine" title="Portal:Wine">Wine portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alcoholic_beverages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template talk:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alcoholic_beverages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_and_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History and production</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of alcohol</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcoholic beverages">History of alcoholic beverages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bordeaux_wine" title="History of Bordeaux wine">History of Bordeaux wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Champagne" title="History of Champagne">History of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chianti" title="History of Chianti">History of Chianti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rioja_wine" title="History of Rioja wine">History of Rioja wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sherry" title="History of Sherry">History of Sherry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol industry">Alcohol industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub_gin" title="Bathtub gin">Bathtub gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">Brewery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malting" title="Malting">Malting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautering" title="Lautering">Lautering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wort" title="Wort">Wort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drinking establishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Fermentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_syrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple syrup">Simple syrup</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fermented_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink#Fermented_drinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">Fermented drinks</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">Cider</a></li></ul></li> <li>Banana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_beer" title="Banana beer">Banana beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_wine" title="Banana wine">Banana wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bignay <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bignay_wine" title="Bignay wine">Bignay wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bokbunja <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bokbunja-ju" title="Bokbunja-ju">Bokbunja-ju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeira_wine" title="Madeira wine">Madeira wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_wine" title="Marsala wine">Marsala wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mistelle">Mistelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscatel_de_Set%C3%BAbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscatel de Setúbal">Moscatel de Setúbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_wine" title="Port wine">Port wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">Red wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ros%C3%A9_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosé wine">Rosé wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">Sherry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermouth" title="Vermouth">Vermouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">White wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Java plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duhat_wine" title="Duhat wine">Duhat wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longan_wine" title="Longan wine">Longan wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lychee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lychee_wine" title="Lychee wine">Lychee wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perry" title="Perry">Perry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pineapple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepache" title="Tepache">Tepache</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plum_jerkum" title="Plum jerkum">Plum jerkum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pomegranate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rimon_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rimon (wine)">Rimon</a></li></ul></li> <li>Prickly pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonche" title="Colonche">Colonche</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conditum" title="Conditum">Conditum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubonnet" title="Dubonnet">Dubonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocras" title="Hippocras">Hippocras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabol" title="Jabol">Jabol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulled_wine" title="Mulled wine">Mulled wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabidh" title="Nabidh">Nabidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruno" title="Pruno">Pruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangria" title="Sangria">Sangria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barley_wine" title="Barley wine">Barley wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Corn <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mageu" title="Mageu">Mageu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pozol" title="Pozol">Pozol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tejuino" title="Tejuino">Tejuino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesg%C3%BCino" title="Tesgüino">Tesgüino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Millet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oshikundu" title="Oshikundu">Oshikundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongba" title="Tongba">Tongba</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agkud" title="Agkud">Agkud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazake" title="Amazake">Amazake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_(drink)" title="Apo (drink)">Apo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beopju" title="Beopju">Beopju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brem" title="Brem">Brem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choujiu" title="Choujiu">Choujiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuak" title="Chuak">Chuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dansul" title="Dansul">Dansul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwaha-ju" title="Gwaha-ju">Gwaha-ju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hariya" title="Hariya">Hariya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makgeolli" title="Makgeolli">Makgeolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiu" title="Mijiu">Mijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirin" title="Mirin">Mirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangasi" title="Pangasi">Pangasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">Rice wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3u_c%E1%BA%A7n" title="Rượu cần">Rượu cần</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">Sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sato_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sato (beverage)">Sato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_wine" title="Shaoxing wine">Shaoxing wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonti_(rice_drink)" title="Sonti (rice drink)">Sonti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapai" title="Tapai">Tapai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapuy" title="Tapuy">Tapuy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kvass" title="Kvass">Kvass</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pendh%C4%81" title="Pendhā">Pendhā</a></li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">Ale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boza" title="Boza">Boza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">Huangjiu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Agave americana</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">Pulque</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahalina" title="Bahalina">Bahalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuak">Tuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuba_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuba (wine)">Tubâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuhak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuhak">Tuhak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunggang" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunggang">Tunggang</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">Kumis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ginger <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ginger_wine" title="Ginger wine">Ginger wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Galangal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bais_(wine)" title="Bais (wine)">Bais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabarawan" title="Kabarawan">Kabarawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">Mead</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilju" title="Kilju">Kilju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basi" title="Basi">Basi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intus" title="Intus">Intus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palek" title="Palek">Palek</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fermented_tea" title="Fermented tea">Fermented tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kombucha" title="Kombucha">Kombucha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cauim" title="Cauim">Cauim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">Chicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parakari" title="Parakari">Parakari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibwatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibwatu">Ibwatu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liquors_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">Liquors</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applejack_(drink)" title="Applejack (drink)">Applejack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvados" title="Calvados">Calvados</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cashew apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feni_(liquor)" title="Feni (liquor)">Feni</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirsch" title="Kirsch">Kirschwasser</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Araqi_(drink)" title="Araqi (drink)">Araqi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fig <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boukha" title="Boukha">Boukha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armagnac_(brandy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armagnac (brandy)">Armagnac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognac" title="Cognac">Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisco" title="Pisco">Pisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slivovitz" title="Slivovitz">Slivovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C8%9Auic%C4%83" title="Țuică">Țuică</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">Pomace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chacha_(brandy)" title="Chacha (brandy)">Chacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappa" title="Grappa">Grappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace_brandy" title="Pomace brandy">Marc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orujo" title="Orujo">Orujo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsikoudia" title="Tsikoudia">Tsikoudia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsipouro" title="Tsipouro">Tsipouro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eau_de_vie" title="Eau de vie">Eau de vie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geist_(liquor)" title="Geist (liquor)">Geist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himbeergeist" title="Himbeergeist">Himbeergeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marillenschnaps" title="Marillenschnaps">Marillenschnaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalewka" title="Nalewka">Nalewka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghi_(drink)" title="Oghi (drink)">Oghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1linka" title="Pálinka">Pálinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakia" title="Rakia">Rakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Schnaps">Schnaps</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_whiskey" title="Irish whiskey">Irish whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_whisky" title="Japanese whisky">Japanese whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Scotch whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierbrand" title="Bierbrand">Bierbrand</a></li></ul></li> <li>Buckwheat <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckwheat_whisky" title="Buckwheat whisky">Buckwheat whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maize <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_whiskey" title="Bourbon whiskey">Bourbon whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_whiskey" title="Corn whiskey">Corn whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_whiskey" title="Tennessee whiskey">Tennessee whiskey</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awamori" title="Awamori">Awamori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheongju_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheongju (wine)">Cheongju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholai" title="Cholai">Cholai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao-Lao" title="Lao-Lao">Lao-Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lihing" title="Lihing">Lihing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixiang_Baijiu" title="Mixiang Baijiu">Mixiang Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shochu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shochu">Shochu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soju" title="Soju">Soju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korn_(liquor)" title="Korn (liquor)">Korn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rye_whiskey" title="Rye whiskey">Rye whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starka" title="Starka">Starka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaoliang_liquor" title="Kaoliang liquor">Kaoliang liquor</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_whiskey" title="American whiskey">American whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_whisky" title="Canadian whisky">Canadian whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">Whisky</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">Agave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mezcal" title="Mezcal">Mezcal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequila" title="Tequila">Tequila</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrack" title="Arrack">Arrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laksoy" title="Laksoy">Laksoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambanog" title="Lambanog">Lambanog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotol" title="Sotol">Sotol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkhi" title="Arkhi">Arkhi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacha%C3%A7a" title="Cachaça">Cachaça</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairin" title="Clairin">Clairin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_daru" title="Desi daru">Desi daru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaro_(drink)" title="Guaro (drink)">Guaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">Rum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seco_Herrerano" title="Seco Herrerano">Seco Herrerano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sura_(alcoholic_drink)" title="Sura (alcoholic drink)">Sura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharra" title="Tharra">Tharra</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Akvavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_(drink)" title="Bangla (drink)">Bangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Horilka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poit%C3%ADn" title="Poitín">Poitín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">Vodka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liqueurs_and_infused_distilled_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liqueur" title="Liqueur">Liqueurs</a> and infused distilled drinks by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Almond <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amaretto" title="Amaretto">Amaretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_Noyaux" title="Crème de Noyaux">Crème de Noyaux</a></li></ul></li> <li>Anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absinthe" title="Absinthe">Absinthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisado" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado">Anisado</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisado_Mallorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado Mallorca">Anisado Mallorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisette" title="Anisette">Anisette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierbas" title="Hierbas">Hierbas</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbs_de_Majorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbs de Majorca">Herbs de Majorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastika" title="Mastika">Mastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouzo" title="Ouzo">Ouzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rak%C4%B1" title="Rakı">Rakı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca" title="Sambuca">Sambuca</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierlik%C3%B6r" title="Bierlikör">Bierlikör</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blackthorn shrub <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patxaran" title="Patxaran">Patxaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_Heering" title="Cherry Heering">Cherry Heering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraschino" title="Maraschino">Maraschino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chili peppers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Pertsivka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chocolate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate_liqueur" title="Chocolate liqueur">Chocolate liqueur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cinnamon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tentura" title="Tentura">Tentura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubus_chamaemorus" title="Rubus chamaemorus">Cloudberry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakka" title="Lakka">Lakka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malibu_Rum" class="mw-redirect" title="Malibu Rum">Malibu</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coffee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kahl%C3%BAa" title="Kahlúa">Kahlúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tia_Maria" title="Tia Maria">Tia Maria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cream <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cream_liqueur" title="Cream liqueur">Cream liqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cream" title="Irish cream">Irish cream</a></li></ul></li> <li>Egg <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocaat" title="Advocaat">Advocaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eggnog" title="Eggnog">Eggnog</a></li></ul></li> <li>Hazelnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frangelico" title="Frangelico">Frangelico</a></li></ul></li> <li>Herbs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Aquavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dictine" title="Bénédictine">Bénédictine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenniv%C3%ADn" title="Brennivín">Brennivín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_menthe" title="Crème de menthe">Crème de menthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxa" title="Metaxa">Metaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicum" title="Unicum">Unicum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A4renfang" title="Bärenfang">Bärenjäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drambuie" title="Drambuie">Drambuie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glayva" title="Glayva">Glayva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mist" title="Irish Mist">Irish Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krupnik" title="Krupnik">Krupnik</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borovi%C4%8Dka" title="Borovička">Borovička</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenever" title="Jenever">Jenever</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mammee apple flower <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eau_cr%C3%A9ole" class="mw-redirect" title="Eau créole">Eau créole</a></li></ul></li> <li>Orange <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cointreau" title="Cointreau">Cointreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_(liqueur)" title="Curaçao (liqueur)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Marnier" title="Grand Marnier">Grand Marnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_sec" title="Triple sec">Triple sec</a></li></ul></li> <li>Star anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastis" title="Pastis">Pastis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassolino" title="Sassolino">Sassolino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane/molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charanda" title="Charanda">Charanda</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vanilla <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Licor_43" title="Licor 43">Licor 43</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campari" title="Campari">Campari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedratine" title="Cedratine">Cedratine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_banane" title="Crème de banane">Crème de banane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_cassis" title="Crème de cassis">Crème de cassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limoncello" title="Limoncello">Limoncello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnapps" title="Schnapps">Schnapps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloe_gin" title="Sloe gin">Sloe gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Walnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nocino" title="Nocino">Nocino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="List of alcoholic drinks">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 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